564 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

13
Nozzles

13.1 INTRODUCTION
A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross sectional area in which the velocity of fluid increases and
pressure drops in the direction of flow. Thus in nozzle the fluid enters the variable cross section area
duct with small velocity and high pressure and leaves it with high velocity and small pressure. During
flow through nozzle the enthalpy drops and heat drop in expansion is spent in increasing the velocity of
fluid. Similar to nozzle a duct with variable cross-section area will be called diffuser if the fluid gets
decelerated, causing a rise in pressure along the direction of flow. Nozzles are generally used in turbines,
jet engines, rockets, injectors, ejectors etc.

Fig. 13.1 General arrangement in nozzle and diffuser

Here in this chapter the one-dimensional analysis of nozzle has been considered.
Different types of nozzles, thermodynamic analysis and different phenomenon in nozzles are
discussed ahead.
Momentum transfer across the control volume may be accounted for as,
[Time rate of momentum transfer across the control volume] = m¢C
Newton’s law states that resultant force F acting on the control volume equals the difference
between the rates of momentum leaving and entering the control volume accompanying mass flow.
Momentum equation says;
F = m¢2 C2 – m¢1 C1
Since at steady state, m¢2 = m¢1 i.e. continuity equation being satisfied
F = m¢ (C2 – C1)
The resultant force F includes forces due to pressure acting at inlet and exit, forces acting on the
portion of the boundary through which there is no mass flow, and force due to gravity.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 565
13.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN NOZZLES
Here one dimensional steady flow analysis in nozzle is carried out assuming the change in cross-
sectional area and axis to be gradual and thermodynamic properties being uniform across planes normal
to axis of duct. In general real flow through nozzle is not truly one-dimensional but this assumption
offers fairly correct analysis. Flow through nozzle occurs at comparatively high velocities in many
engineering applications and so exhibits changes in fluid density. Therefore, it is necessary to first look
at the compressible flow preliminaries.
Compressible flow preliminaries: Let as consider compressible flow and obtain momentum equa-
tion for one dimensional steady flow.

Fig. 13.2
The one dimensional steady flow through a duct is shown above. For control volume shown the
principle of conservation of mass, energy and Newton’s law of motion may be applied.
By Newton’s law of motion, F = m × a where F is the resultant force acting on system of mass
‘m’ and acceleration ‘a’.
Pressure waves and Sound waves: Let us consider a cylindrical duct having piston on one end for
generating the pressure wave. Figure 13.3 shows the arrangement for producing a pressure wave
moving to right with velocity ‘a’. Sound wave is also a small pressure disturbance that propagates
through a gas, liquid or solid with velocity ‘a’ that depends on the properties of medium.

Fig. 13.3 Propagation of pressure wave (sound wave)

Figure 13.3 shows how the generation of pressure wave causes displacement of fluid thereby
causing rise in pressure, density and temperature by Dp, Dr and DT in respect to the region on the right
of wave (undisturbed region). In the undisturbed region say pressure, density, temperature and fluid
velocity be p, r, T and C = 0 respectively. Due to piston movement fluid velocity increases by DC and
other properties also change by elemental values as shown. For analysing there are two approaches
available as shown in Figs. 13.3 (a) and (b). One approach considers observer to be stationary and gas
moving and second approach considers observer to be moving along with wave i.e. relative velocity of
observer with respect to wave is zero.
566 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Respective values of fluid velocity, wave propagation velocity, pressure, density and temperature
are labelled on figure. For an observer at rest relative to wave (observer moving with wave) it seems as
if the fluid is moving towards the stationary wave from right with velocity a, pressure p, density r and
temperature T and moves away on left with velocity ‘a – DC’, pressure ‘p + Dp’, density ‘r + Dr’ and
temperature ‘T + DT’.
From conservation of mass, applying continuity equation upon control volume we get
m¢1 = m¢2 = m¢
r ×A×a = (r + Dr)×A(a – DC)
where A is constant cross section area of duct.
r×A×a = (r×A×a) – (r×A×DC) + (Dr×A×a) – (Dr×A×DC)
Upon neglecting higher order terms and rearranging we get,
(a×Dr) – (r×DC) = 0
a×Dr
or, DC =
r
Applying momentum equation to the control volume;
(p×A) – ((p + Dp)×A) = (m¢ (a – DC)) – (m¢×a)
– Dp × A = m¢×(– DC)
for mass flow rate m¢ we can write, m¢ = r×A×a
so, Dp×A = r×A×a×DC
Dp
or, DC =
r×a
Equating two values obtained for ‘DC’ we get
a×Dr Dp
=
r r×a
Dp
a=
Dr
Thus, velocity of wave propagation comes out as the square root of the ratio of change in
pressure and change in density.
In case of sound waves the magnitude of changes in pressure, density and temperature are
infinitesimal and so these may also be called as infinitesimal pressure wave. It is also seen that thermo-
dynamic process occurring across an infinitesimal pressure wave may be considered nearly isentropic.
Therefore the velocity of sound can be given as square root of derivative of pressure with respect to
density across the wave under isentropic conditions.

∂ p
a=  
 ∂ ρ  s =constt.

− dv
in terms of specific volume values; dr =
v2

∂ p
so, a= − v2  
 ∂ v  s =constt
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 567
Let us consider fluid to be a perfect gas following isentropic process given by pvk = constt. Taking
log of both sides and then partially differentiating we get,
FG ¶ p IJ -k× p
H ¶v K s
=
v
Substituting in expression for sound velocity

a= k pv
For ideal gas,
a= k R T . In case of air, a = g RT
Using the velocity of sound and fluid velocity a non dimensional parameter called Mach number
can be defined. Mach number is given by the ratio of velocity of fluid (object) to the velocity of sound.
It is generally denoted by M.
C
M=
a
Based upon Mach no. value flow can be classified as given below.
For
M < 1 flow is called subsonic flow.
M = 1 flow is called sonic flow.
M > 1 flow is called supersonic flow.
Nozzle flow analysis: Let us consider one dimensional steady flow in nozzles. Let us take a varying
cross-section area duct such that velocity increases and pressure decreases from inlet to exit.

Fig. 13.4
From conservation of mass, upon applying continuity equation, it can be given that,
r×A×C = constant
Taking log of both the sides,
ln r + ln A + ln C = ln constant
Differentiating partially we get,

dr d A dC
+ + =0
r A C
Let us now apply steady flow energy equation assuming no change in potential energy, no heat
interaction and no work interaction during the flow across control volume.
S.F.E.E. yields, dq = dh + dw + d(KE) + d(PE)
Applying assumptions,
568 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
dh + d(KE) = 0
C2 RS UV
It can be rewritten for section 1 and 2 as, KE = 2
T W
C12 C2
or h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
ho1 = ho2
Stagnation enthalpy at section 1 = Stagnation enthalpy at section 2.
C2F I
From differential form, dh + d
2H K =0

C dC
dh + 2 =0
2
or, dh = – CdC
From first and second law combined we know,
dh = Tds + vdp
Using the adiabatic flow considerations, ds = 0, so
dp
dh = vdp =
r
Above shows that with increase or decrease in pressure along the direction of flow the specific
enthalpy also change in same way.
From thermodynamic property relations pressure can be given as function of density and entropy
i.e. p = p(r, s).

FG ¶ p IJ × dr + FG ¶ p IJ
or, dp =
H ¶r K s
H ¶s K r
× ds

For isentropic flow considerations

FG ¶ p IJ × dr
H ¶r K
dp =
s

We know from sound velocity a = G

F ¶ p IJ so,
H ¶r K s

dp = a2×dr
Combining two expressions for dh we get
dp
– C × dC = . This shows that as pressure increases in direction of flow then velocity must
r
decrease. Substituting from dp as obtained above, it yields,
a2 × d r
– C × dC =
r
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 569
or,

FH dC IK = a FH d r IK
2
F dr I = - C e dC j
2
-
C C 2
r
Þ
H rK a C 2

Substituting above in the equation available from continuity equation,

d r d A dC
+ + = 0
r A C
or,
dA dC d ρ
= − −
A C ρ
dC F I dC
C2
= -
C
+
H KC
a2
or
dA dC C2 RSF I - 1UV
A
=
C a2 TH K W
C
As Mach no. M= so,
a
dA dC
= {M 2 – 1}
A C
Using above relation the effect of area variation upon the flow can be seen in subsonic, sonic and
super sonic flow regimes.
Case 1
For subsonic flow i.e. M < 1
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. velocity increases along the direction of flow as in case
 dC  dA
of nozzle  is + ve  , it yields as – ve. Negative area gradient means cross section area decreases
 C  A
along the direction of flow.

Fig. 13.5

 dC 
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient  i.e., is − ve  the velocity decreases along the direc-
 C 
dA
tion of flow as in case of diffuser, it yields as + ve. Positive area gradient means duct has diverging
A
cross section area along the direction of flow.
570 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Case 2 For supersonic flow i.e. M > 1
dC dA
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. being + ve, it yields as + ve. It means that in
C A
supersonic flow the nozzle duct shall have diverging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.

Fig. 13.6
dC dA
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e. being – ve it yields as – ve. It means in
C A
supersonic flow the diffuser duct shall have converging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.
From above discussion it can be concluded that
(i) Nozzle must be of convergent duct type in subsonic flow region and such nozzles are called
subsonic nozzles or convergent nozzles.
(ii) Nozzle must be of divergent duct type in supersonic flow region and such nozzles are called
supersonic nozzles or divergent nozzles.
(iii) For acceleration of fluid flow from subsonic to supersonic velocity the nozzle must be first
of converging type till flow becomes sonic and subsequently nozzle should be of diverging
type in supersonic flow. The portion of duct at which flow becomes sonic (M = 1) and dA
is zero i.e. duct is constant cross-section area duct, is called throat. Thus in this type of
flow from subsonic to supersonic the duct is of converging type followed by throat and a
diverging duct. Such nozzles are also called convergent-divergent nozzles. Throat gives the
minimum cross-section area in convergent-divergent nozzles.
Let us consider the expansion through a nozzle between sections 1 and 2. In nozzle the velocity
of fluid is so high that there is no time available for heat exchange with the surroundings and the
expansion may be considered adiabatic. Also the change in potential energy may be negligible if the
elevation does not change from inlet to exit. Work done during flow is absent.
Application of steady flow energy equation yields,
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Velocity at exit from nozzle:

C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , m/s
For negligible velocity of fluid at inlet to nozzle, C1 » 0

C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 , m/s, where h1 and h2 are enthalpy in J/kg at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 571
Expansion of fluid on p-v diagram is shown below.

Fig. 13.7 P-V diagram for flow through nozzle

Expansion of gases on T-s diagram is as shown in Fig. 13.8.

Fig. 13.8 T-s diagram for flow through nozzle

Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram for superheated steam and wet steam is shown by
1–2 and 3–4 respectively under ideal conditions.

Fig. 13.9 T-s and h-s representation for steam flow through nozzle
In above representations the isentropic heat drop shown by 1–2 and 3–4 is also called ‘Rankine
heat drop’.
Mass flow through a nozzle can be obtained from continuity equation between sections 1 and 2.
A1C1 AC
m¢ = = 2 2
v1 v2
m¢ C2
Mass flow per unit area; =
A2 v2
From different from of S.F.E.E.
dq = dh + dw + d(K.E.) + d(P.E.)
or, dh + d(K.E.) = 0
572 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
du + pdv + vdp + d(K.E.) = 0
also as dq = du + pdv = 0, so d(K.E.) = – vdp

z
p2
C22 - C12
or = - vdp
2
p1

For the expansion through a nozzle being governed by process pvn = constt.,
FG n IJ p v FG1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
C22 – C12 = 2 1 1
1 1
or,

Velocity at exit from nozzle C2 = 2 e n n- 1 j p v FH1 - pp vv IK + C

1 1
2 2
1 1
2
1

For negligible inlet velocity, say C1 » 0

Velocity at exit from nozzle

FH n IK p v FG1 - p v IJ
H pv K
2 2
C2 = 2 1 1
n -1 1 1

If the working fluid is perfect gas then n = g and for air g = 1.4. However, if working fluid is steam
a good approximation for n can be obtained from some polytropic considerations. For steam being dry
saturated initially and process of expansion occurring in wet region the index n can be approximated as
1.135. For steam being initially superheated and expanded in superheated region the index n can be
approximated as 1.3.
Looking at mathematical expression for exit velocity it could be concluded that maximum exit
velocity is possible only when fluid is expanded upto zero pressure. The maximum velocity is,

FG n IJ p v
Cmax = 2
H n -1K 1 1

Mass flow rate,

A2 C2
m¢ =
v2
Mass flow rate per unit area,

 n   p2 v 2 
2  p1v1 1 − 
m¢  n − 1  p1v1 
=
A2 v2

From expansion’s governing equation, p1 v1n = p2 v2n

FG p IJ 1/ n

Hp K × v1
1
or, v2 =
2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 573
or,
FG n IJ p v FG 1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
2 1 1
m¢
FG p IJ × v
1 1
= 1/ n
A2
Hp K
1
1
2
or,

m¢
LM F I R|SF p I
p1
2/n
F p2
F ( n + 1) I U O1/ 2
I H n K |P V|P
MN H K |TH p K H K
n
= 2 2
-
A2 n -1 v1 1 p1
WQ
This expression for mass flow rate through nozzle depends upon inlet and exit pressures, initial
specific volume and index of expansion. It has been seen earlier that the mass flow per unit area is
maximum at throat and nozzle should be designed for maximum discharge per unit area. Thus there will
be some value of throat pressure (p2) which offers maximum discharge per unit area. Mathematically
this pressure value can be obtained by differentiating expression for mass flow per unit area and equat-
ing it to zero. This pressure at throat for maximum discharge per unit area is also called ‘critical
pressure’ and pressure ratio with inlet pressure is called ‘critical pressure ratio’.
p
Let pressure ratio 2 = r, then mass flow per unit area can be re-written as;
p1
RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV 1/ 2
m¢
A2
= 2
n
TH
n -1 Kv H
1

1
2/n
-r n
JK W
F m¢ I
d
HA K RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV1/ 2

dr
2
=
d
dr
2
n
n -1 TH Kv H
1

1
2/n
-r n
JK W
Here p1, v1 are inlet conditions and remain constant. Also n being index of expansion remains
constant so differentiating and putting equal to zero.

2
×r
(2 - n)
n - FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
=0
n n
or,
2
×r
(2 - n)
n =FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
n n

=F
H IK
1- n
n n +1
r
2
or, Critical pressure ratio,
n
 2  (n − 1)
r=  
 n + 1
Let critical pressure at throat be given by pc or pt then,
n n
pc  2  (n − 1) pt  2  (n − 1)
=   Þ =  
p1  n + 1 p1  n + 1
574 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here subscript ‘c’ and ‘t’ refer to critical and throat respectively.
While designing a nozzle the critical pressure ratio at throat is equal to the one obtained above.
Critical pressure ratio value depends only upon expansion index and so shall have constant value. Value
of adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio are tabulated ahead;
Table 13.1: Adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio for selected fluids

Fluid Adiabatic expansion index, n Critical pressure ratio

F 2 I
n
pc
H n + 1K
( n - 1)
=
p1
Wet steam 1.135 (n = 1.035 + 0.1x, where
x is dryness fraction of wet steam) 0.577
Superheated 1.3 0.545
steam
Air 1.4 0.528
The maximum discharge per unit area can be obtained by substituting critical pressure ratio in
expression for mass flow per unit area at throat section.

LM F n I p R|F 2 I U|OP
-F
2 I
2 ( n + 1)

MN2 H n - 1 K × v ST|H n + 1 K V|P

m¢ ( n - 1) ( n - 1)
H n + 1K
1
=
At 1
WQ
L 2n I p F 2 I R| 2 I U|O
= MF × SF
( n + 1) (1 - n ) 1/ 2

- 1V P
m¢ ( n - 1) ( n - 1)

MNH n - 1 K × v H n + 1 K |TH n + 1 K |WPQ

1
At 1

L 2n I p F 2 I OP
= MF
( n + 1) 1/ 2

MNH n - 1 K × v H n + 1 K
1 ( n - 1)
× {
n+1
-1 }P
1 2
Q
L p F 2 I OP ( n + 1) 1/ 2

= Mn ×
m¢ ( n - 1)

MN v H n + 1 K PQ
1
At 1

F 2 I
( n + 1)
p
H n +1K
( n - 1)
Maximum discharge per unit area = n× 1
v1
For this maximum discharge per unit area at throat the velocity at throat can be obtained for
critical pressure ratio. This velocity may also be termed as ‘critical velocity’.

 n 
C2 = 2  ( p1 v1 − p2 v2 )
 n − 1
At throat
 n   p1v1 
Ct = 2  pt vt  − 1
 n − 1  pt vt 
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 575

F n I × p v R|SF p I - 1U|V
(1 - n )

H n - 1 K |TH p K
t n

|W
C = 2
t t t
1

FpI
Substituting critical pressure ratio G J
HpK
t

C = 2G
F n IJ × p v {F n + 1 I - 1}
t
H n -1K H 2 K t t

Ct = n pt vt Hence, critical velocity = n × pt × vt

For perfect gas; Ct = n × RTt
For n = g, Ct = g R Tt = a = Velocity of sound.
Thus it can be concluded that for maximum discharge per unit area at throat the fluid velocity
(critical velocity) equals to the sonic velocity. At the throat section mach no. M = 1 for critical pressure
ratio.
For perfect gas:
All the above equations obtained for the flow through nozzle can also be obtained for perfect gas
by substituting n = g and pv = RT
Velocity at exit from nozzles

FG g IJ × a p v f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 1 - p2 v 2

or,

FG g IJ R aT - T f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 2

or,

C2 = a
2 c p T1 - T2 f as cp =
gR
g -1
or,
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Critical velocity at throat, Ct = g R Tt
Mass flow rate per unit area,
LM F g I p R|F p I 2/g
Fp I
( g + 1)
U|OP 1/ 2
m¢
=
MN2 H g - 1 K × v
1
S|H p K 2
-
HpK
2 g
V|P
A2 1
T 1 1
WQ
Maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions,

F 2 I
( g + 1)
m¢ p ( g - 1)

At
= g× 1
v1 H g + 1K
576 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Critical pressure ratio,

F 2 I
g
pc ( g - 1)

p1
=
H g +1K
13.3 CHOKED FLOW
Let us consider a converging nozzle as shown in Fig. 13.10 with arrangement for varying back pres-
sure. A valve is provided at exit of nozzle for regulating the back pressure at section 2-2. Let us denote
back pressure by pb. Expansion occurs in nozzle from pressure p1 to pb.
Initially when back pressure pb is equal to p1 there shall be no flow through the nozzle but as back
pressure pb is reduced the mass flow through nozzle increases. With the reduction in back pressure a
situation comes when pressure ratio equals to critical pressure ratio (back pressure attains critical
pressure value) then mass flow through nozzle is found maximum. Further reduction in back pressure
beyond critical pressure value does not affect the mass flow i.e. mass flow rate does not increase
beyond its’ limiting value at critical pressure ratio. Thus under these situations flow is said to be choked
flow or critical flow.

Fig. 13.10 Flow through a convergent nozzle

A nozzle operating with maximum mass flow rate condition is called choked flow nozzle. At the
critical pressure ratio the velocity at exit is equal to the velocity of sound. If the back pressure is reduced
below critical pressure then too the mass flow remains at maximum value and exit pressure remains as
critical pressure and the fluid leaving nozzle at critical pressure expands violently down to the reduced
back pressure value. Graphical representation of mass flow rate with pressure ratio and variation of
pressure along length of nozzle explain the above phenomenon. State a refers to the state having back
pressure more than critical pressure, state c refers to the state having back pressure equal to critical
pressure and state d refers to state having back pressure less than critical pressure.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 577
In case of convergent-divergent nozzle also the maximum mass flow through such nozzle shall be
obtained when pressure ratio at throat section equals critical pressure ratio and velocity at throat equals
sonic velocity. The cross-sectional area of throat decides the mass flow through nozzle for given inlet
conditions.

13.4 OFF DESIGN OPERATION OF NOZZLE

Design operation of nozzle refers to the nozzle operating with pressure ratio equal to critical pressure
ratio and maximum discharge rate per unit area then nozzle is said to be operating under design condi-
tions. If the nozzle does not operate under design conditions then it is called off design operation of
nozzle. Depending upon the back pressure value in reference to design value of pressure at exit of
nozzle, the nozzle can be classified as under-expanding, over-expanding nozzles.

Fig. 13.11 Off design operation of converging nozzle

Nozzle is called under-expanding if the back pressure of nozzle is below the designed value of
pressure at exit of nozzle. Nozzle is called over expanding if the back pressure of a nozzle is above
designed value of pressure at exit of nozzle. Detail discussion about the off design operation of nozzle is
given ahead for convergent and convergent-divergent nozzle.
Convergent nozzle: Let us look at convergent nozzle having arrangement for varying back pressure.
Fluid enters the nozzle at state 1, say pressure p1. Variation of back pressure using valve at exit of nozzle
shows the pressure and velocity variation as shown in Fig. 13.11. Following significant operating states
are shown here.
578 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(i) When back pressure pb = p1, there is no flow.
(ii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is more than critical pressure i.e. pc < pb < p1,
there is flow through nozzle. Here pc is critical pressure at exit. This operating state of nozzle
having back pressure higher than critical pressure is called over expanding nozzle. In this over
expanding nozzle the mass flow rate through nozzle is less than designed value.
(iii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is equal to critical pressure i.e. pb = pc. In
this situation the mass flow through nozzle is maximum and nozzle is said to be choked.
(iv) When back pressure is further lowered such that back pressure is less than critical pressure
i.e. pb < pc, the nozzle is said to be under expanding nozzle. In underexpanding nozzle there
is no change in specific volume, velocity and mass flow rate through exit as that at choked
flow state of nozzle. Since back pressure at exit is less than critical pressure while fluid
leaves nozzle at critical pressure so fluid expands violently and irreversibly upto back
pressure outside the nozzle.

Fig. 13.12 Off design operation of convergent-divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent nozzle: Converging-diverging nozzles are generally used for accelerating
flow up to supersonic velocity. Arrangement for varying back pressure is as shown in Fig. 13.12.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 579
Different operating regime of nozzle are obtained by varying back pressure using valve at exit. Let us
start with back pressure equal to inlet pressure. Following operating states are shown here;
(i) When back pressure pb is equal to inlet pressure p1 then there is no flow as shown by state e on
pressure-nozzle length plot.
(ii) When back pressure is reduced and is slightly below p1, then there is some flow through nozzle
shown by state f. The maximum velocity and minimum pressure occurs at throat section. With further
reduction in back pressure from e to h, the flow rate increases. Flow remains subsonic for back
pressure between e to h. In subsonic region the diverging portion of nozzle acts as diffuser, thereby
increasing pressure and decreasing velocity in the direction of flow. In this regime the convergent-
divergent nozzle is also used as venturimeter for flow rate measurement. Nozzle is said to be over
expanding nozzle.
(iii) With further reduction in back pressure the throat pressure decreases and the throat
velocity increases. Back pressure at which throat velocity becomes sonic and throat pressure equals
to critical pressure pc is shown by state h. Here maximum velocity occurs at throat so the diverging
portion of nozzle still acts as diffuser. Mass flow rate through nozzle has become maximum as the
sonic flow conditions are obtained at throat. Thus it can be seen that flow through converging duct
with subsonic velocity at inlet can never result in the velocity higher than sonic velocity and pressure
less than critical pressure. This is choked flow state of nozzle.
(iv) Further lowering of back pressure less than critical pressure causes no effect on the flow
in converging portion of nozzle and the pressure at throat remains equal to critical pressure and
velocity at throat remains sonic. Also the flow rate through nozzle does not change. However, the
nature of flow in diverging section of the duct changes as the breakage of flow occurs.
As pressure is reduced to i and j the fluid passing through the throat continues to expand and
accelerate in diverging portion of nozzle. Flow velocity beyond throat is supersonic in diverging
portion of nozzle. At the section downsteam of throat there occurs discontinuity in the flow due
to abrupt irreversible increase in pressure accompanied by deceleration from supersonic to subsonic
velocity. This discontinuity in flow is called shock and generally plane of discontinuity is normal to
direction of flow so it may also be called normal shock. Flow through shock is of irreversible and
steady adiabatic type. Beyond shock the fluid undergoes further isentropic deceleration as diverging
section acts as a subsonic diffuser.
With further reduction in back pressure pb the shock moves downstream till it approaches nozzle
exit plane and pb approaches the pressure given by state k. For the back pressure equal to pressure given
by point k i.e. pk the normal shock reaches at exit end of nozzle. Here flow within nozzle is isentropic,
subsonic in converging portion, sonic at throat and supersonic in diverging portion. Due to shock the
flow leaving nozzle becomes subsonic. These are all over expanding states of nozzle.
When back pressure is further lowered and back pressure becomes equal to exit plane pressure as
at state l i.e. pb = pl, the isentropic expansion occurs throughout nozzle and no shock is found during
flow. Fluid leaving nozzle is supersonic.
(v) Further lowering of back pressure below pl flow remains same as for pressure upto point j,
but the back pressure being less than design pressure causes breaking of flow at downstream of nozzle
exit. An abrupt expansion of irreversible type occurs at nozzle exit.
Irrespective of reduced back pressure the pressure at nozzle exit does not go below design pressure
pl and mass flow rate and exit velocity also do not change. This operating state of nozzle is also called
under expanding nozzle.
580 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
13.5 EFFECT OF FRICTION ON NOZZLE
Inspite of the inside surface of nozzle being smooth the frictional losses always prevail due to friction
between fluid and nozzle surface and friction within fluid itself. Due to friction prevailing during fluid
flow through nozzle the expansion process through nozzle becomes irreversible. Expansion process
since occurs at quite fast rate and time available is very less for heat transfer to take place so it can be
approximated as adiabatic.
Friction prevailing during flow through nozzle causes heat drop by about
10–15% and reduces the exit velocity. For the flowing fluid to be gas the T-S diagram representation is
as follows:

Fig. 13.13 T-s representation for expansion through nozzle

Non ideal operation of nozzle causes reduction in enthalpy drop. This inefficiency in nozzle can
be accounted for by nozzle efficiency. Nozzle efficiency is defined as ratio of actual heat drop to ideal
Actual heat drop
heat drop. Nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
Ideal heat drop
h1 - h2 ¢
hNozzle =
h1 - h2

aT - T f
aT - T f
2¢
hNozzle = 1

1 2

In case of working fluid being steam the friction causes heating of steam flowing through nozzle
thereby increasing dryness fraction. The volume of steam at exit also increases due to increase in
dryness fraction. T–s and h-s representation of steam expanding through nozzle is given in Fig. 13.14.

Fig. 13.14 T-s and h-s representation for steam expanding through nozzle
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 581
Due to friction the velocity at exit from nozzle gets modified by nozzle efficiency as given below.
Velocity at exit, C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , for no friction
In case of nozzle with friction the enthalpy drop, (h1 – h2¢) gives velocity at exit as,
C2¢ = a f
2 h1 - h2 ¢ + C12
C22 - C12
or, (h1 – h2) =
2
C22¢ - C12
and (h1 – h2¢) =
2
bC2
2¢ - C12 g
Substituting in nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
bC2
2 - C12 g
For negligible inlet velocity i.e. C1 » 0
C22¢
Nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
C22
Thus it could be seen that friction loss will be high with higher velocity of fluid. Generally frictional
losses are found to be more in the downstream after throat in convergent-divergent nozzle because of
simple fact that velocity in converging section upto throat is smaller as compared to after throat. Expansion
upto throat may be considered isentropic due to small frictional losses. Apart from velocity considerations
the significantly high frictional loss in diverging portion of nozzle compared to converging portion can
be attributed to the contact surface area. Length of converging section upto throat is quite small compared
to length of diverging portion after throat as it has subsonic acceleration which can be completed in
short length. Diverging section of nozzle is designed comparatively longer than converging section so as
to avoid flow separation due to adverse duct geometry (diverging type). Turbulence losses are also
significant in diverging portion compared to converging portion. Due to the different factors discussed
above the frictional losses are found to be more in diverging portion compared to converging portion.
Normally angle of divergence in divergent portion is kept between 10° and 25° so as to avoid flow
separation. But small divergence angle causes increase in length of diverging portion therefore increas-
ing frictional losses. Thus a compromise should be striked in selecting angle of divergence as very small
angle is desirable from flow separation point of view but undesirable due to long length and larger
frictional losses point of view. Length of diverging portion of nozzle can be empirically obtained as
below
L= 15 ⋅ At
where At is cross-sectional area at throat.
While designing the nozzle parameters due care should be taken for smoothness of nozzle profile,
surface finish for minimum friction and ease of manufacturing etc. Thus finally, it can be concluded that
nozzle efficiency depends upon nozzle material, size and shape of nozzle, angle of divergence, nature of
fluid flowing and its properties etc.
Coefficient of velocity: The ‘coefficient of velocity’ or the ‘velocity coefficient’ can be given by
the ratio of actual velocity at exit and the isentropic velocity at exit. Thus it measures the amount of
deviation from ideal flow conditions. Mathematically,
Cactual at exit
Coefficient of velocity =
Cisentropic at exit
582 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Coefficient of discharge: The ‘coefficient of discharge’ or ‘discharge coefficient’ is given by the
ratio of actual discharge and the discharge during isentropic flow through nozzle. Mathematically,
mactual
Cofficient of discharge =
misentropic
Here m refers to discharge rate.

13.6 SUPERSATURATION PHENOMENON IN STEAM NOZZLES

The phenomenon of supersaturation in steam nozzles is also called as supersaturated flow or metastable
flow in steam nozzle. When superheated steam flows through a nozzle and expands upto the back
pressure such that exit state of steam lies in wet region, then during expansion steam vapours expand
isentropically and slowly get condensed up to exit state. During such expansion steam also passes
across saturated steam line or saturation line having unity dryness fraction. Thus it is obvious that
expansion of steam is accompanied by simultaneous state change from superheated state to wet state.
At every point along expansion line there exists a mixture of vapour and liquid in equilibrium. An expansion
process starting at 1 goes up to state 2 in thermal equilibrium as shown on T-S and h-s diagram.

Fig. 13.15 Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram under equilibrium
Superheated steam undergoes continuous change in state and becomes dry saturated steam at
state 3 and subsequently wet steam leaving steam turbine at state 2. Some times expansion of steam
occurs in metastable equilibrium or in equilibrium in which change of steam state could not maintain its
pace with expanding steam. This phenomenon in which change of steam state could not occur simulta-
neously with expanding steam in nozzle is called phenomenon of supersaturation and flow is called
supersaturated flow or metastable flow.

Fig. 13.16 Metastable flow through steam nozzle

In supersaturated flow the condensation of steam lags behind the expansion and so steam does
not condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. It may be understood as the
shift in state 2 from 2 to 2¢ i.e. condensation gets extended up to 2¢. The dry saturated steam state which
should be attained at state 3 cannot be realized at 3, but below 3 on vertical expansion line 1–2¢. This
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 583
delayed phase transformation of steam causing supersaturation phenomenon may be attributed to the
following.
(i) Steam flow through nozzle may be so fast that sufficient time is not available for heat
transfer to take place and so the phase change lags behind the expansion. Generally time
available may be of the order of 10–2 second for steam to flow through nozzle along with
its condensation.
(ii) Also the condensation of steam may have inherent requirement of nuclei of condensation
which act as initiators for condensation. These nuclei of condensation may be provided by
foreign particles, solid boundary etc. In the absence of nuclei of condensation the phase
change of steam may get delayed and lags behind.
These could be the factors responsible for supersaturation. Phenomenon of supersaturation or
metastable equilibrium continues up to generally 94–95% dryness fraction. Beyond this the condensa-
tion of steam occurs suddenly at very fast rate irreversibly and the expansion process attains stable
equilibrium. The locci of points up to which metastable equilibrium is observed is called Wilson line.
Law of expansion for supersaturated flow is considered as pv1.3 = constant.
Phenomenon of supersaturation causes increase in discharge by 2–5% because of increase in
density at throat and also the heat drop gets slightly reduced thereby causing reduced velocity at exit.
Supersaturation causes slight increase in dryness fraction and entropy.
Figure 13.17 shows the supersaturated flow and Wilson line.

Fig. 13.17 Supersaturated flow on T-s and h-s diagram.

Region between saturation line and Wilson line is called supersaturated field. Here 1–2¢ line
shows isentropic process. In the absence of supersaturated flow expansion occurs as 1–2 while with
metastable flow it gets extended up to 1–2¢ as shown on T–s diagram. Meta stable equilibrium gets
settled and stable equilibrium is attained as shown by 2¢–2² and then normal expansion in stable equilibrium
continues from 2² to 3.
Thus it is obvious that in supersaturated flow the expansion occurs as if there is no saturated
steam line and state 2¢ lies on the extended constant pressure line.
The temperature at 2¢ is less than saturation pressure corresponding to p2 due to excess kinetic
energy of steam at the cost of sensible heat.
Metastable flow is characterized by a parameter called “degree of supersaturation” and “degree
of undercooling”. ‘Degree of supersaturation’ refers to the ratio of saturation pressures corresponding
to temperatures of states in stable equilibrium and metastable equilibrium (i.e. saturation pressures
corresponding to 2 and 2¢ states). Degree of super saturation has value more than unity. ‘Degree of
584 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
undercooling’ refers to the difference of two temperatures i.e. saturation temperature at state in stable
equilibrium and temperature of the state in unstable equilibrium.

13.7 STEAM INJECTOR

Steam injector refers to the device for injecting water into boiler using steam which may be available
from boiler or exhaust steam from engine.

Fig. 13.18 Steam injector

Schematic for steam injector is shown in Fig. 13.18. Here high pressure steam enters a converg-
ing steam nozzle and leaves with high velocity and low pressure. Water gets entrained from feed tank
and is carried by steam through combining nozzle. In due course steam gets condensed and the resulting
mixture enters the divergent feed water nozzle where kinetic energy of water gets transformed into
pressure head. Pressure head available in feed water nozzle is sufficiently above boiler pressure so that
water can be fed to the boiler. Surplus water, if any gets discharged from over flow. The steam injector
works on its own. It may be noted that the potential energy removed from live steam is many times
more than the potential energy returned.
Potential energy removed from live steam = Boiler steam pressure ´ Volume of steam.
Potential energy returned = Boiler pressure ´ Volume of condensate and boiler feed
Difference in the two potential energy exists due to large decrease in volume as steam condenses
and this difference is only used for pumping water.

EXAMPLES
1. Dry steam at 10 bar and 100 m/s enters a nozzle and leaves it with velocity of 300 m/s at 5 bar.
For 16 kg/s of steam mass flow rate determine heat drop in nozzle and final state of steam leaving nozzle
assuming heat loss to surroundings as 10 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Given,C1 = 100 m/s, C2 = 300 m/s
p1 = 10 bar = 1 MPa, p2 = 0.5 MPa
By steady flow energy equation between sections 1 and 2.
C12 C2
h1 + + q = h2 + 2 + w
2 2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 585

Fig. 13.19 Nozzle

Here there is no work so w = 0 and heat loss, q = – 10 kJ/kg
FG C 2
- C12 IJ
H K
2
q = (h2 – h1) +
2
From steam table, h1 = hg at 1 MPa = 2778.1 kJ/kg
FG C2
- C22 IJ
H K
1
(h2 – h1) = q +
2
FG C - C IJ
2 2

H 2 K
1 2
(h2 – h1) = – 104 +

+ S
R (100) - (300) UV
2 2
= – 104
T 2 W
h2 – h1 = – 30,000
Heat drop in nozzle = 30 kJ/kg Total heat drop = 480 kJ/s Ans.
or, h2 = 2748.1 kJ/kg
At 5 bar, pressure,
hf = 640.23 kJ/kg, hfg = 2108.5 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction at exit be x2,
2748.1 = 640.23 + x2 × 2108.5
x2 = 0.99

Dryness fraction at exit = 0.99 Ans.

2. Determine the mass flow rate of steam through a nozzle having isentropic flow through it. Steam
enters nozzle at 10 bar, 500°C and leaves at 6 bar. Cross-section area at exit of nozzle is 20 cm2. Velocity
of steam entering nozzle may be considered negligible. Show the process on h-s diagram also.
Solution:
At inlet section (1),
h1 = 3478.5 kJ/kg,
s1 = 7.7622 kJ/kg . K
Due to isentropic expansion, s1 = s2
At exit section (2), s2 = 7.7622 kJ/kg . K
Enthalpy at rate (2) can be directly looked from mollier diagram by drawing vertical line from state
(1) till it intersects 6 bar line. Else from steam table it can be obtained as under, looking at steam table for
6 bar it indicates that the state (2) shall be superheated state because s2 > sg at 6 bar.
586 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Fig. 13.20 Flow through nozzle on h-s diagram

Degree of superheat can be determined by interpolation.
Entropy 7.7622 kJ/kg × K, s2 lies between temperature of 400°C (s400°C, 6 bar = 7.7079 kJ/kg × K)
and 500°C (s500°C, 6 bar = 8.0021 kJ/kg × K).
(8.0021 - 7.7079)
7.7622 = 7.7079 + ´ (T2 – 400)
(500 - 400 )
T2 = 418.45°C
Hence enthalpy at (2), h2 = h418.45°C, 6 bar

h2 = h400°C, 6 bar +
ch 500 °C,6 bar - h400 °C , 6 bar h (418.45 – 400)
(500 - 400)
(3482.8 - 3270.3)
= 3270.3 + ´ 18.45
100
h2 = 3309.51 kJ/kg×K
Neglecting inlet velocity, C1 » 0, assuming no heat loss,
a
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 581.36 m/s
A2 ´ C2
Mass flow rate, =
v2
Specific volume at exit (2)

v2 = v400°C, 6 bar +
cv
500 °C , 6 bar - v 400 °C , 6 bar h ´ (418.45 – 400)
( 500 - 400 )

= 0.5137 + FH 0.5920 - 0.5137 IK ´ 18.45

100
v2 = 0.5281 kJ/kg×K
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 587

20 ´ 10 -4 ´ 581.36
Mass flow rate = = 2.2017
0.5281
Mass flow rate = 2.202 kg/s Ans.
3. In a nozzle steam expands from 12 bar and 300°C to 6 bar with flow rate of 5 kg/s. Determine
throat and exit area if exit velocity is 500 m/s and velocity at inlet to nozzle is negligible. Also find
coefficient of velocity at exit. Coefficient of velocity is the ratio of actual velocity of fluid at nozzle exit
to the velocity at exit considering isentropic flow through nozzle.
Solution:

Fig. 13.21 Nozzle and T-s representation of process

Here velocity at exit is 500 m/s which is more than sonic velocity thus nozzle shall be converg-
ing-diverging nozzle as shown.
At inlet to nozzle, h1 = 3045.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.0317 kJ/kg × K
Due to isentropic flow through nozzle, s1 = s2 = s3 = 7.0317 kJ/kg × K Pressure at throat section
i.e. (2) can be estimated using critical pressure ratio, which is given as

FG p IJ = F 2 I n
( n - 1)

H p K H n + 1K
2

1
For superheated steam, n = 1.3

FH p IK = FG 2 IJ 1. 3 / 0 .3

H 1 + 1.3 K
2
= 0.545
12
Throat pressure, p2 = 6.54 bar
From steam table;
At 6.54 bar, h2 = 2900.05 kJ/kg
T 2 = 224.48°C, v2 = 0.3466 m3/kg
Velocity at throat C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
= 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2900.05)
C2 = 539.9 m/s
From continuity equation, m1 = m2 = 5 kg/s
A2 C2
m2 =
v2
588 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A2 ´ 539.9
5=
0.3466
A2 = 3.209 ´ 10–3 m2

Cross-sectional area at throat = 3.209 ´ 10–3 m2 Ans.

a
Velocity at exit of nozzle, C3 = 2 h1 - h3 f
From steam tables, Temperature at exit of nozzle, T3 = 215.15°C
Enthalpy at exit of nozzle, h3 = 2882.55 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit of nozzle, v3 = 0.3647 m3/kg
Ideal velocity at exit, C3 = 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2882.55)
C3 = 571.40 m/s
Actual velocity at exit, C3, actual = 500 m/s
A3 ´ C3, actual
Area at exit, m1 = m2 = m3 = 5 kg/s =
v3
5 ´ 0.3647
A3 = = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2
500
Cross-sectional area at exit = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2 Ans.
C3, actual 500
Coefficient of velocity = = = 0.875
C3 571.40

. Coefficient of velocity = 0.875 Ans.

4. In a steam nozzle steam expands from 16 bar to 5 bar with initial temperature of 300°C and
mass flow of 1 kg/s. Determine the throat and exit areas considering (i) expansion to be frictionless and,
(ii) friction loss of 10% throughout the nozzle.
Solution:
Let us assume velocity at inlet to nozzle to be negligible. From steam table, At inlet to the nozzle,
enthalpy,
h1 = 3034.8 kJ/kg at 16 bar, 300°C
s1 = 6.8844 kJ/kg×K
v1 = 0.15862 m3/kg
(i) Considering expansion to be frictionless
F 2 I n/ n - 1
Pressure at throat of nozzle, p2 = p1
H n + 1K , for n = 1.3, p2 = 8.73 bar

Enthalpy at throat and exit of nozzle can be looked from steam table as,
h2 = 2891.39 kJ/kg
h3 = 2777.0 kJ/kg
v2 = 0.2559 m3/kg
v3 = 0.3882 m3/kg
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 589

Fig. 13.22
Heat drop up to throat section = h1 – h2
Dq12 = 143.41 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, a f
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 = 535.56 m/s
Heat drop from throat to exit = h2 – h3
Dq23 = 114.39 kJ/kg

Velocity at exit, C3 = a
2 h2 - h3 + C22f
C3 = 718.06 m/s
m2 ´ v 2 1 ´ 0.2559
Throat area, A2 = = = 4.78 ´ 10–4 m2
C2 535.56
m3 ´ v3 1 ´ 0.3882
Exit area, A3 = = = 5.41 ´ 10–4 m2
C3 718.06
For frictionless expansion, Ans.
Throat area = 4.78 cm2
Exit area = 5.41 cm2
(ii) Considering expansion to have 10% friction loss:
Due to frictional heat loss actual heat drop shall get reduced.
Actual heat drop upto throat, Dq¢12 = 0.9 ´ q12
Dq¢12 = 129.07 kJ/kg
Thus, enthalpy at throat, h2, actual = 2905.73 kJ/kg
from steam table, v2, actual = 0.2598 m3/kg corresponding to the modified state as indicated by
enthalpy, h2, actual. This new state at throat shall have temperature of 231.35°C, which can be calculated
from known enthalpy h2, actual at respective pressure.
Actual velocity at throat, C2, actual = 2 ´ 129.07 ´ 10 3
C2, actual = 508.1 m/s
1 ´ 0.2598
Actual throat area, A2, actual =
508.1

Actual throat area = 5.11 ´ 10–4 m2 or, 5.11 cm2 Ans.

590 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Actual heat drop from throat to exit of nozzle, Dq¢23 = 0.9 ´ 114.39
Dq¢23 = 102.95 kJ/kg
Thus, enthalpy at exit, h3, actual = 2905.73 – 102.95
= 2802.78 kJ/kg
From steam table, corresponding to modified state as given by h3, actual the specific volume can be
given as, v3, actual = 0.40023 m3/kg
Actual velocity at exit, C3, actual = b g
2 ´ 102.95 ´ 10 3 + ( 508.1) 2
C3, actual = 681.22 m/s
1 ´ 0 .40023
Actual area at exit Þ A3, actual =
681.22
A3, actual = 5.875 ´ 10–4 m2

Actual area at exit, = 5.875 ´ 10–4 m2 or 5.875 cm2 Ans.

5. An impulse turbine of 1 MW has steam entering at 20 bar and 300°C and steam consumption of
8 kg per kW hour. Steam leaves at 0.2 bar and 10% of total heat drop is lost in overcoming friction in
diverging portion of nozzle. If throat diameter of each nozzle is 1 cm then determine (i) the number of
nozzles required (ii) exit diameter of each nozzle. Solve using mollier diagram.
Solution:
In impulse turbine the impulse action of steam is used for getting shaft work. A stage of simple
impulse turbine has steam nozzle and a ring of symmetrical blade. Total pressure drop in the stage thus
occurs in nozzle itself.
Throat pressure = 0.545 ´ 20 = 10.9 bar
From mollier diagram,
Heat drop up to throat, Dq12 = h1 – h2
Dq12 = 142 kJ/kg
v2 = 0.20 m3/kg

Fig. 13.23
Considering negligible inlet velocity, the velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 142
C2 = 532.9 m/s
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 591
A2 × C2
Mass flow rate through nozzle =
v2

=
b g
p ´ 10 -2
2
´ 532.9
4 ´ 0.20
= 0.209 kg/s
The number of nozzles can be determined by using the capacity of turbine, steam consumption
and mass flow rate through a nozzle.
1 ´ 10 3 ´ 8
Number of nozzles = = 10.63 » 11 nozzles
3600 ´ 0.209

Number of nozzles required = 11 Ans.

(ii) Total heat drop in nozzle, from mollier chart, (h1 – h3) = 807 kJ/kg
Useful heat drop, ∆q13, useful = 0.90 × 807
= 726.3 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 3 = 7.2 m3/kg
Velocity at exit = 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 726.3
C3 = 1205.2 m/s
Therefore, from continuity equation,
m3 × v3
A3 =
C3
0.209 ´ 7.2
=
1205.2
A3 = 1.25 × 10–3 m2
or

Area at exit = 12.5 cm2 Ans.

6. A nozzle is supplied with steam at 0.7 mPa and 275°C. Determine temperature and velocity at
throat considering no losses.
If diverging portion of nozzle is 6 cm long and throat diameter of 0.5 cm, determine the angle of
cone in nozzle so that steam leaves nozzle at 0.1 MPa. Assume heat utilization in diverging portion to be
85%. Solve using mollier diagram.
Solution:
Pressure at throat section of nozzle
p2 = 0.545 ´ 0.7
= 0.38 MPa
From mollier diagram,
Heat drop in nozzle up to throat,
h1 – h2 = Dq12 = 138 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v 2 = 0.58 m3/kg
592 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Temperature = 203°C

Fig. 13.24
Considering velocity at inlet to be negligible, velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 138 ´ 10 3
C2 = 525.35 m/s
p
b g
´ 0.5 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 525.35
2

Mass flow rate = 4

0.58
m1 = 0.0178 kg/s = m2 = m3
From mollier diagram, heat drop in diverging portion i.e. from throat to exit of nozzle shall be;
Dq23 = h2 – h3 = 247 kJ/kg
Dq23, actual = 209.95 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v3, actual = 1.7 m3/kg
Total heat drop = 138 + 209.95 = 347.95 kJ/kg

Velocity at exit of nozzle = 2 ´ 347.95 ´ 10 3

C3 = 834.2 m/s
m3 ´ v3
Area at exit, A3 =
C3
0 .0178 ´ 1.7
=
834.2
= 3.63 ´ 10–5 m2
3.63 ´ 10 -5 ´ 4
Diameter at exit =
p
= 6.8 ´ 10 m or 6.8 mm
–3

For Cone angle to be 2a,

6.8 - 5
tan a = , a = 0.86°
2 ´ 60
Cone angle, 2a = 1.72°
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 593
With no losses, Temperature at throat = 203° Ans.
Velocity at throat = 525.35 m/s
With losses, Cone angle = 1.72°
7. An impulse steam turbine generating 5000 hp requires 6 kg of steam per hp-hr at 16 bar, dry
saturated. In the first stage the steam is expanded through nozzle with an efficiency of 0.90 to a pressure
1
of 8 bar. These nozzles are placed so as to extend over approximately rd of the circumference with the
3
pitch circle diameter of 600 mm and pitch of 50 mm. Considering nozzle angle as 12° to the plane of
wheel and plates dividing being 3 mm thick, determine total length of nozzle arc and radial height of
nozzles.
Solution:

Fig. 13.25
At inlet to nozzle, from steam table, h1 = hg at 16 bar = 2794 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 16 bar = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
At exit of nozzle,
s1 = s2 = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
Since s2 < sg at 8 bar so the state at the end of expansion lies in wet region. Let dryness fraction at
state 2 be x2, then,
s2 = sf at 8 bar + x2 × sfg at 8 bar
6.4218 = 2.0462 + x2 × 4.6166
or, x2 = 0.9478
h2 = hf at 8 bar + x2 × hfg at 8 bar
= 721.11 + (0.9478 ´ 2048)
h2 = 2662.2 kJ/kg
Theoretically, change in enthalpy, Dh12 = 2794 – 2662.2
Dh12 = 131.8 kJ/kg
D h12 actual
= 0.90 or Dh12 actual = 0.9 ´ 131.8 = 118.62 kJ/kg
D h 12
h2 actual = 2794 – 118.62 = 2675.38 kJ/kg
h2, actual = 2675.38 = hf at 8 bar + x2 actual × hfg at 8 bar
594 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2675.38 = 721.11 + (x2 actual ´ 2048)
x2 actual = 0.9542
Specific volume, v2 actual = vf at 8 bar + x2 actual ´ vfg at 8 bar
v2 actual = 0.001115 + (0.9542 ´ (0.2404 – 0.001115))
v2 actual = 0.2294 m3/kg
Neglecting the velocity at inlet to nozzle,
C2 = 2 ´ D h12 actual
C2 = 487.1 m/s
By continuity equation,
A2 C2
m=
v2 actual
5000 ´ 6 A ´ 487.1
= 2
3600 0.2294
A2 = 3.925 ´ 10–3 m2
Area at exit of nozzle » 39.25 cm2
60 ´ p
Approximate length of nozzle arc, = = 62.83 cm
3
Length of nozzle arc
Number of nozzles =
Pitch
62.83
= » 13 nozzles.
5
Correct length of nozzle arc = 13 ´ 5 = 65 cm
Flow area at exit of each nozzle = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h
39.25 = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h ´ 13
or, h= 4.08 cm

Length of nozzle = 65 cm
Ans.
Radial height of nozzle = 4.08 cm
8. Air is expanded reversibly and adiabatically in a nozzle from 13 bar and 150°C to a pressure of
6 bar. The inlet velocity of the nozzle is very small and the process occurs under steady flow conditions.
Calculate the exit velocity of the nozzle. [U.P.S.C., 1992]
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states in nozzle be given as 1 and 2 respectively. Assuming no heat interaction and
work interaction, no change in potential energy during flow across the nozzle. Steady flow energy
equation gets modified as under;
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Neglecting velocity at inlet to nozzle C1.
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 595

C2 = a
2 c p × T1 - T2 f
Assuming adiabatic expansion in nozzle, between states 1 and 2.

FPI
( g - 1)
T2 g

HPK
2
=
T1 1

FPI
( g - 1)
g
=T ×
HPK
2
or, T2 1
1
(1. 4 - 1)

= (273 + 150) e j
6
13
1. 4

T2 = 339.16 K
Substituting in expression for exit velocity, C2,
C2 = 2 ´ 1.005 ´ ( 423 - 339.16 )
C2 = 12.98 m/s
Exit Velocity = 12.98 m/s Ans.
9. During a test on steam nozzle steam impinges a stationary flat plate which is perpendicular to
the direction of flow and the force on the plate is measured. The force is found to be 350 N when dry
saturated steam at 8 bar is expanded to 1 bar. Throat cross-section area is 5 cm2 and exit area is such that
the complete expansion is achieved under these conditions.
Determine
(i) the discharge at throat.
(ii) the efficiency of nozzle assuming that all the losses occur after throat and that n = 1.13
for isentropic expansion.
Solution:
For isentropic expansion up to throat.

F 2 I
n
P2 ( n - 1)

P1
=
H n + 1K
8F
2 I
1.13

H 113
. +1K
0 .13
P2 =

P 2 = 4.62 bar
From steam table,
Enthalpy at 1, h1 = hg at 8 bar = 2769.1 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 8 bar = 6.6628 kJ/kg.K

Fig. 13.26
596 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At throat section let the dryness fraction be x2, then
s1 = s2 = 6.6628 = sf at 4.62 bar + sfg at 4.62 bar × x2
6.6628 = 1.7872 + x2 × 5.0178
x2 = 0.9717 or 97.17%
h2 = hf at 4.62 bar + x2 × hfg at 4.62 bar
= 627.33 + (0.9717 ´ 2117.77)
h2 = 2685.17 kJ/kg
Specific volume at throat, v2 = vf at 4.62 bar + x2 × vfg at 4.62 bar
= 0.001089 + (0.9717 ´ 0.4035)
v2 = 0.3932 m3/kg
Enthalpy change up to throat Dh12 = h1 – h2
Dh12 = 83.93 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, C2 = 2 ´ D h12 = 2 ´ 83.93 ´ 10 3 = 409.71 m/s
A2 × C2
Discharge at throat, m2 =
v2

5 ´ 10 -4 ´ 409.71
=
0.3932
m2 = 0.521 kg/s

Discharge at throat = 0.521 kg/s Ans.

Force acting on plate
F = 350 N = m (C3¢ – C1)
C1 » 0
Exit actual velocity C3¢ = 671.78 m/s
For diverging section between states 1 and 3, s1 = s2 = s3
s3 = 6.6628 = sf at 1 bar + x3 × sfg at 1 bar
6.6628 = 1.3026 + (x3 ´ 6.0568)
x3 = 0.8238 or 82.38%
Enthalpy at exit
h3 = hf at 1 bar + x3 × hfg at 1 bar
= 417.46 + (0.8238 ´ 2258)
h3 = 2277.6 kJ/kg
Theoretical enthalpy drop, Dh23 = h2 – h3 = 407.57 kJ/kg
Actual enthalpy drop, Dh23¢ = hN × Dh23
Actual velocity
C3¢ = 2 × D h23¢
671.78 = 2 ´ h N ´ 407.5 ´ 10 3
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 597
hN = 0.5537 or 55.37%
Nozzle efficiency = 55.37% Ans.
10. A convergent-divergent nozzle operates with 5 kg of steam per minute being discharged at
1 bar. For the steam supplied to nozzle being at 10 bar and 200°C and supersaturation occurring up to
throat and normal afterwards, determine,
(i) the diameter of nozzle at exit.
(ii) the maximum degree of supersaturation.
(iii) the amount of undercooling at throat.
P
For supersaturation take Pv1.3 = constant and 1.3 / 0 .3 = constant
T
Solution:
Pressure at throat,
n
 2  ( n − 1)
P2 = P1   .
 n + 1
n = 1.3
P2 = 5.45 bar
From steam tables,
Enthalpy at inlet, h1 = 2827.9 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.6940 kJ/kg×K
v1 = 0.2060 m3/kg

Fig. 13.27
Enthalpy drop up to throat,

F n IJ P v  
( n − 1)

– h¢ = G 1 −  P2  
n
h1 2 H n -1K 1 1   P1 




FH 1.3 IK (10 ´ 10 LM F 5.45 I 0 .3 / 1.3

OP
´ 0.2060) 1 -
N H 10 K Q
= 2
0 .3
h1 – h2¢ = 116.67 kJ/kg
h2¢ = 2711.23 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction be x2 at throat, so using steam tables it can be obtained as under,
h2¢ = hf at 5.45 bar + (x2 ´ hfg at 5.45 bar)
598 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2711.23 = 663.36 + (x2 ´ 2098.15)
x2 = 0.9760
s2¢ = sf at 5.45 bar + (x2 × sfg at 5.45 bar)
= (1.8936 + (0.9760 ´ 4.8989) = 6.6749 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at exit be x3, so
s3 = s2¢ = 6.6749 kJ/kg×K
s3 = sf at 1 bar + x3 × sfg at 1 bar
6.6749 = 1.3026 + x3 ´ 6.0568
x3 = 0.8869
Enthalpy at exit, h3 = hf at 1 bar + x3 × hfg at 1 bar
= 417.46 + (0.8869 ´ 2258)
h3 = 2420.08 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 3 = vf at 1 bar + x3 × vfg at 1 ba
= (0.001043 + 0.8869 ´ 1.6929)
v3 = 1.5025 m3/kg
Velocity at exit, C3 = 2 × D h13 = 903.13 m/s
A3 × C3
Mass flow rate, m3 =
v3
5 A ´ 903.13
= 3
60 1.5025
A3 = 1.386 ´ 10–4 m2 or 1.386 cm2
Diameter of nozzle at exit d 3 = 0.0133 m or 1.33 cm

Diameter of nozzle at exit = 1.33 cm Ans.

Theoretically up to throat,

FP I
( n - 1)
T2
HPK
n
2
=
T1 1
(1. 3 - 1)
T2 = 473 ( 0.545) 1.3 = 411.18 K = 138.18°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 411.18 K,
Psat, 138.18°C = 3.44 bar
P2
Degree of supersaturation =
Psat ,138.18°C

5.45
= = 1.58
3.44
Amount of undercooling = (Tsat at 5.45 bar – T2)
= (155.12 – 138.18)
= 16.94°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 599

Degree of supersaturation = 1.58

Ans.
Amount of undercooling = 16.94°C
11. Steam undergoes expansion from 4 bar, 180°C to a pressure of 1.5 bar. If the expansion is
supersaturated and occurs with friction loss of 5 percent, determine the actual heat drop and degree of
undercooling. Following equations may be used for supersaturated steam,
P×v ´ 102 = (h – 2614), (Here P is in bar, v is specific volume in m3/kg, h is enthalpy in kJ/kg)
P
= constant and P×v1.3 = constant
e 1. 3 j
T 0 .3
Consider specific heat as 2.174 kJ/kg×K.
Solution:
At inlet for expansion, state 1, specific volume can be seen from steam table, v1 = 0.5088 m3/kg
Enthalpy at state 1 from empirical relation,
4 ´ 0.5088 ´ 102 = (h1 – 2614)
h1 = 2817.52 kJ/kg

Fig. 13.28
Using governing equation given,
P1 v11.3 = P2 v21.3
4 ´ 102 ´ (0.5088)1.3 = 1.5 ´ 102 ´ v21.3
v2 = 1.082 m3/kg
Enthalpy at 2,
P2 v2 ´ 102 = (h2 – 2614)
(1.5 ´ 1.082 ´ 102) = (h2 – 2614)
or, h2 = 2776.3 kJ/kg
Actual heat drop = hN ´ (h1 – h2)
= 0.95 ´ (2817.52 – 2776.3)
= 39.16 kJ/kg

Actual heat drop = 39.16 kJ/kg Ans.

600 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Temperature at state 2,
P
= constant
e 1.3 j
T 0 .3
4 ´ 10 2 1.5 ´ 10 2
( 453)1.3 / 0 . 3
=
a f
T2 1. 3 / 0 . 3
T2 = 361.24 K
Supersaturation causes rise in temperature due to reheat
0.05 ´ (2817.52 - 2776.3)
=
2.174
= 0.95 K or 0.95°C
T2¢ = 361.24 + 0.95 = 362.19 K
Amount of undercooling = T3 – T2¢
= Tsat at 1.5 bar – T2¢
= ((273 + 111.37) – 362.19) = 22.18°C

Degree of undercooling = 22.18°C Ans.

12. Steam is supplied at 14 bar, 400°C to set of 16 nozzles of impulse turbine. Pressure of steam at
exit of nozzle is 10 bar and the discharge is 5 kg/s. Nozzle efficiency is 90%. Determine the cross-
sectional area at exit of each nozzle. Also determine the percentage increase in discharge if steam is
supplied to nozzle with velocity of 100 m/s.
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states be 1 and 2. Therefore, enthalpy at state 1,
h1 = hat 14 bar, 400°C
From steam tables,
h1 = 3257.5 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.3026 kJ/kg×K
Since steam is superheated at inlet, so n = 1.3
For maximum discharge, throat pressure

F 2 I
n
P2 ¢ ( n - 1)

P1
=
H n + 1K
F IK
F 2 IH
1. 3

P ¢ = 14 ´ G
H 1.3 + 1 JK
0 .3
2

P2¢ = 7.64 bar

The actual pressure given at exit of nozzle is 10 bar which means that the nozzle is of convergent
type.
Actual pressure at exit of nozzle, P2. For isentropic expansion from 14 bar to 10 bar, s1 = s2 =
7.3026. State of steam at exit is superheated because s2 is more than sg at 10 bar (= 6.5865 kJ/kg×K).
This entropy s2 lies between superheat steam temperature of 350°C and 400°C at 10 bar.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 601

s2 = sat 10 bar, 350°C +

cs at10bar , 400 °C - sat10 bar , 350 °C h ´ (T2 – 350)
( 400 - 350 )

7.3026 = 7.3011 + FH 7.4651 - 7.3011 IK ´ (T 2 – 350)

50
T2= 350.46°C
At 350.46°C and 10 bar from steam tables by interpolation,
FG
hat10 bar , 400 ° C - hat10 bar,350 °C IJ
h2 = hat 10 bar, 350°C +
H 400 - 350
´ (T2 – 350)
K
= 3157.7 + FH 3263.9 - 3157.7 IK (350.46 – 350)
50
h2 = 3158.7 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit, v 2 = 0.2827 m3/kg
Actual enthalpy change, Dh12 = (h1 – h2) ´ hN
= (3257.5 – 3158.7) ´ 0.9
= 88.92 kJ/kg
Velocity at exit of nozzle, C2 = 2 × D h12

= 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 88.92
= 421.71 m/s
m × v2
Cross-sectional area at exit of nozzle A 2 =
C2 × N
5 ´ 0.2827
= ´ 104
421.71 ´ 16
= 2.13 cm2

Cross-sectional area at exit of nozzle, = 2.13 cm2 Ans.

Inlet velocity being C1 = 100 m/s

Modified velocity at nozzle exit C2¢ = 2 × D h12 + C12

= b 2 ´ 10
´ 88.92 + (100 ) 2
3
g
C2¢ = 433.41 m/s
A2 ´ C ¢2 ´ 16
Discharge with modified velocity =
v2
16 ´ 2.13 ´ 10 -4 ´ 433.41
=
0.2827
= 5.22 kg/s
602 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Percentage increase in discharge = FH 5.22 - 5 IK ´ 100

5
= 4.4%
% Increase in discharge = 4.4% Ans.
13. In a nozzle the steam enters at 20 bar, dry saturated and expands up to 5 bar. Considering the
expansion to be frictionless throughout and steam remaining in dry state during expansion upto throat,
determine the degree of supersaturation and degree of undercooling. Also determine the change of
entropy, the loss due to undercooling and percentage loss if steam has to revert instantaneously to
saturated state at constant enthalpy and if the further expansion takes place in thermal equilibrium.
Solution:
At inlet to nozzle, P1 = 20 bar, T1 = Tsat at 20 bar
or, T1 = 212.42°C
Pressure at throat, P2 = P1 ´ 0.58
P2 = 11.6 bar
T2 FG IJ
P2
n - 1/ n
(1.3−1)
Þ T2 = T1 ´ (0.58 ) 1.3
T1
=
H K
P1
T2 = 485.42 ´ 0.882
or, T2 = 428.14K

Fig. 13.29
But saturation temperature corresponding to throat pressure,
Tsat 11.6 bar = 186.43°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 428.14K (155.14°C)
Psat at 155.14°C = 0.5452 MPa
Psat at 155.14°C = 5.452 bar
11.6
Degree of supersaturation =
5.452
= 2.13
Degree of undercooling = Tsat at 11.6 bar – T2
= 186.43 – 155.14 = 31.29°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 603
Degree of supersaturation = 2.13
Ans.
Degree of undercooling = 31.29°C
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar = 2799.5 kJ/kg
v 1 = vg at 20 bar = 0.009963 m3/kg
s1 = sg at 20 bar = 6.3409 kJ/kg×K
Isentropic enthalpy drop,
 (n − 1) 
 n    P  n

h 1 – h2 =   ⋅ Pv −  
2
1 1 1 
 −    1 
n 1 P

 1.3  LM F IK FH
1.3 - 1 IK O
P
MN H
11.6
 ´ 20 ´ 10 ´ 0.009963 1 -
PQ
2 1. 3
h 1 – h2 = 
 1.3 − 1  20

Dh12 = h1 – h2 = 10.19 kJ/kg

or, h2 = 2789.31 kJ/kg
In the absence of supersaturation the state at throat will be 2².
Thus for getting enthalpy at 2² the dryness fraction may be assumed x2². The entropy at inlet and
throat shall be equal,
s2² = s1
s2² = 6.3409
6.3409 = sf at 11.6 bar + x2² × sfg at 11.6 bar
6.3409 = 2.2016 + (x2² ´ 4.3338)
x2² = 0.955
Enthalpy, h2² = hf at 11.6 bar + x2² × hfg at 11.6 bar
= 791.73 + (0.955 ´ 1991.88)
h2² = 2693.98 kJ/kg
Heat drop with no supersaturation upto throat, Dh12² = h1 – h2²
Dh12² = 105.52
Loss of available heat drop = Dh12² – Dh12 = 95.33 kJ/kg
D h12 ² - D h12 95.33
Increase in entropy, Ds12¢ = =
Tsat at 11. 6 bar 459.43
Ds12¢ = 0.2075 kJ/kg×K
Hence, entropy at 2¢, s2¢ = s1 + Ds12¢
s2¢ = 6.5484 kJ/kg×K
With super saturation
For isentropic expansion after throat, s2¢ = s3¢
604 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Let dryness fraction at exit be x3¢. So,
s3¢ = sf at 5 bar + (x3¢ × sfg at 5 bar)
6.5484 = 1.8607 + (x3¢ ´ 4.9606)
x3¢ = 0.945
Enthalpy at 3¢, h3¢ = hf at 5 bar + (x3¢ ´ hfg at 5 bar)
= 640.23 + (0.945 ´ 2108.5)
h3¢ = 2632.76 kJ/kg
Without supersaturation
Let dryness fraction be x3 at state 3, which will be obtained in the absence of supersaturation.
s1 = s3
s3 = 6.3409 = sf at 5 bar + (x3 ´ sfg at 5 bar)
6.3409 = 1.8607 + (x3 ´ 4.9606)
x3 = 0.903
Enthalpy at 3, h3 = hf at 5 bar + (x3 ´ hfg at 5 bar)
= 640.23 + (0.903 ´ 2108.5)
h3 = 2544.21 kJ/kg
Thus, loss due to undercooling, h3¢ – h3 = 2632.76 – 2544.21
Dh3¢3 = 88.55 kJ/kg
D h3 ¢ 3
Percentage loss =
a h1 - h3 f ´ 100

88.55
= ´ 100
(2799.5 - 2544.21)
= 34.68%

Entropy change = 0.2075 kJ/kg×K Ans.

Loss due to undercooling = 88.55 kJ/kg
Percentage loss = 34.68%
14. A steam injector delivers 150 kg of water per minute from a water tank where the constant
water level of 5 m below the axis of injector is maintained. Injector injects into the boiler having steam
at 20 bar. Water level in boiler is 0.8 m above the injector. Steam for injector is taken from boiler and
has dryness fraction of 0.95. Water is supplied at 25°C and velocity in delivery pipe is 20 m/s.
Determine,
(i) the mass of water pumped per kg of steam
(ii) the diameter of throat of mixing nozzle
(iii) the diameter of the steam nozzle considering pressure at throat to be 0.7 times of supply
pressure.
(iv) the temperature of water coming out of injector.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 605
Solution:

Fig. 13.30
Pressure at inlet of nozzle, P1 = 20 bar,
Temperature T1 = Tsat at 20 bar = 212.42°C
Pressure at throat, P2 = 0.7 ´ 20 = 14 bar
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar + x1 × hfg at 20 bar
= (908.79) + (0.95 ´ 1890.7)
h1 = 2704.95 kJ/kg
s1 = sf at 20 bar + x1 × sfg at 20 bar
= 2.4474 + (0.95 ´ 3.8935)
s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
At throat s2= s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at throat be x2
s2 = sf at 14 bar + x2 × sfg at 14 bar
6.1462 = 2.2842 + (x2 ´ 4.1850)
x2 = 0.923
h2 = hf at 14 bar + x2 × hfg at 14 bar
= 830.30 + (0.923 ´ 1959.7)
h2 = 2639.10 kJ/kg
Specific volume v2 = vf + x2 × vfg at 14 bar = 0.13 m3/kg
a f
at 14 bar
Velocity of steam at throat, C2 = 2 h1 - h2

= 2 ´ (2704.95 - 2639.10 ) ´ 10 3
606 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
C2 = 362.9 m/s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between states 3 and 4,
P3 C32 P C2
gZ3 + + = gZ4 + 4 + 4
r 2 r 2
C32 1.013 ´ 10 5 20 ´ 10 5 ( 20 ) 2
+ 3
= 3
+ (0.8 ´ 9.81) +
2 10 10 2
C3 = 64.91 m/s
Let mass of water lifted by per kg of steam be m kg, i.e. m kg of water per kg of steam.
C2 – m 2 gh2 w = (m + 1) ´ C3
C2 – m ´ 2 ´ 9.81 ´ 5 = (m + 1) ´ C3
362.9 – 9.90 m = (m + 1) ´ 64.91
m = 3.98 kg of water per kg steam

Mass of water pumped per kg of steam = 3.98 kg Ans.

Mass of mixture passing through state 3 for given water flow,
150 150 1
= + ´
60 60 3.98
= 2.5 + 0.628
m3 = 3.128 kg/s
m3 3.128
Area of throat of mixing nozzle = = = 0.482 cm2
r ´ C3 10 ´ 64.91
3

Diameter of throat of mixing nozzle, d3 = 0.783 cm

Diameter of throat of mixing nozzle = 0.783 cm Ans.

150 1
Mass of steam required for given water flow rate = ´
60 3.98
msteam = 0.628 kg/s
Asteam × Csteam
msteam =
vsteam
A2 × C2
msteam =
v2
A2 ´ 362.9
0.628 =
0.13
A2 = 2.25 cm2
d2 = 1.69 cm

Diameter of throat of steam nozzle = 1.69 cm Ans.

Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 607
In order to determine temperature of water coming out of injector the heat balance may be
written assuming no heat loss. For unit mass of steam entering injector
x1 ´ hfg1 + cps (T1 – T3) = m cpw(T3 – Tw)
(0.95 ´ 1890.7) + 4.18 (212.42 – T3) = 3.98 ´ 4.18 (T3 – 25)
T3 = 148.92°C
Temperature of water coming out of injector = 148.92°C Ans.
15. A steam injector is used for maintaining supply of the feed water to boiler producing steam at
20 bar. The pressure of exhaust steam for operating injector is 1.5 bar and dryness fraction is 0.9. The
mass of water taken from feed water tank is 5000 kg/hr and temperature is 17°C. Determine the mass of
water that can be pumped per kg of steam, area of steam and water discharge orifices. Delivery pressure
may be assumed to be 20% more than boiler pressure so as to overcome frictional losses and positive
delivery. Neglect change in elevation.
Solution:
At inlet to the steam nozzle pressure, P1 = 1.5 bar

F 2 I
n
( n - 1)
Pressure at throat, P2 = P1
H n + 1K , here n = 1.13, P2 = 0.87 bar

Fig. 13.31
Temperature at state 1, T1 = Tsat at 1.5 bar = 111.37°C = 384.37 K
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 1.5 bar + x1 × hfg at 1.5 bar
= 467.11 + (0.9 ´ 2226.5)
h1 = 2470.96 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.4336 + (0.9 ´ 5.7897)
s1 = 6.6443 kJ/kg×K
At state 2, s2 = s1 = 6.6443 = sf at 0.87 bar + x2 × sfg at 0.87 bar
6.6443 = 1.2560 + x2 × 6.1538
x2 = 0.88
h2 = hf at 0.87 bar + x2 ´ hfg at 0.87 bar
= 400.26 + (0.88 ´ 2268.71)
h2 = 2396.72 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v 2 = vf at 0.87 bar + x2 × vfg at 0.87 bar
608 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 0.001039 + (0.88 ´ 1.9649), v2 = 1.7302 m3/kg
Steam velocity, C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 385.33 m/s
By Bernoulli’s equation,
C32 P
= 4
2 r
1.2 ´ 20 ´ 2 ´ 10 5
C3 =
1000
C3 = 69.28 m/s
Let mass of water entrained per kg of steam be m kg water per kg of steam.
Neglecting momentum of entering water the momentum balance can be given as under.
1 ´ C2 = (m + 1) ´ C3
385.33 = (m + 1) ´ 69.28
m = 4.56 kg water per kg of steam
5000
Mass of steam supplied per second = = 0.3046 kg/s
3600 ´ 4.56
m v2
Area of steam nozzle, A2 =
C2
0.3046 ´ 1.7302
=
385.33
A2 = 13.68 cm2

Total discharge from injector = FH 5000 + 0.3046IK

3600
= 1.693 kg/s

Area of discharge orifice, = 1.693 = 0.2444 ´ 10–4 m2

69.28 ´ 10 3

= 0.2444 cm2

Mass of water pumped per kg of steam = 4.56 kg water/kg of steam Ans.

Area of steam nozzle = 13.68 cm2
Area of discharge orifice = 0.244 cm2

-:-4+15-5

13.1 What do you understand by nozzle? Discuss different types of nozzles.

13.2 Derive the expression of velocity of fluid leaving nozzle, considering flow to be frictionless and
adiabatic.
13.3 Obtain expression for discharge through nozzle.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 609
13.4 For a convergent-divergent nozzle sketch variation of specific volume, velocity, area and pressure
along the nozzle axis.
13.5 Show the following statement, “Converging duct behaves as nozzle for subsonic flows and the
diverging duct shall behave as nozzle when flow is supersonic.”
13.6 Prove that the maximum discharge of fluid per unit area through a nozzle shall occur when the
 n 
 
 2  ( n − 1) 
ratio of fluid pressure at throat to the inlet pressure is   , where n is the index of
 n +1
adiabatic expansion.
Also obtain the expression for maximum mass flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle having
isentropic expansion starting from rest.
13.7 For isentropic flow through a nozzle prove that area on p-v diagram gives the heat drop during
expansion. Also show processes on T-s and h-s diagram.
13.8 Explain the significance of choked flow.
13.9 Describe the ‘over expansion’ and ‘under expansion’ in nozzles.
13.10 Give the pressure and velocity variations along the length of ‘convergent nozzle’ and ‘convergent-
divergent nozzle’ when back pressure is reduced gradually from inlet pressure to the pressure
below designed back pressure value.
13.11 Discuss the effects of friction on the performance of nozzles. Also show these effects on T-s and
h-s diagrams.
13.12 What do you understand by supersaturation of steam flowing through nozzles? Explain the
phenomenon and factors responsible for it.
13.13 Describe the physical significance of supersaturation in steam nozzle.
13.14 Describe the working of steam injector and its applications.
13.15 Write short notes on the following:
(a) Nozzle efficiency (b) Velocity coefficient
(c) Discharge coefficient (d) Critical velocity
13.16 Steam at 10 bar and 250°C is admitted in convergent-divergent nozzle with initial velocity of 75
m/s. Determine the velocity at exit considering isentropic flow through nozzle. [886.35 m/s]
13.17 Air enters into a nozzle at 4 bar and leaves at 1 bar, 350°C and 700 m/s. Determine temperature
of air entering nozzle, nozzle efficiency and nozzle exit area for air flow rate of 4 kg/s. Take
cp = 1.003 kJ/kg×K. [594.27°C, 86.04%, 10.4 cm2]
13.18 In a steam nozzle the expansion pressure ratio of 7.5 is achieved with steam entering at 300°C and
leaving at 2 bar. For the steam mass flow rate of 1.2 kg/s determine the throat area considering
adiabatic expansion in the absence of friction loss. [4.45 cm2]
13.19 Steam at dry saturated state enters the nozzle at 10 bar and 90 m/s velocity. Steam leaves the
nozzle at 6 bar, 435 m/s. Considering heat loss of 1.51 kcal/kg of steam flow determine dryness
fraction at exit of nozzle and ratio of inlet to exit cross-section area. [0.92, 3.22]
13.20A convergent-divergent nozzle has steam entering at 10 bar and 0.97 dry and leaving at 0.6 bar. For
the steam mass flow rate of 0.2 kg/s determine the ratio of throat diameter to exit diameter
considering that 10% of overall isentropic heat drop is the frictional heat generated in divergent
portion of nozzle. [0.516]
13.21 A steam nozzle has steam entering at 6 bar, 300°C and expansion occurs upto steam pressure of
1.5 bar. For the mass flow rate being 5 kg/s and nozzle exit area being 6.75 cm2 determine nozzle
efficiency. [90%]
610 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
13.22 In a convergent-divergent nozzle steam enters at 7 bar, 0.96 dry and back pressure is 1 bar. Throat
area of nozzle is 6.5 cm2. In the diverging portion the friction causes reduction in total enthalpy
drop by 15% compared to ideal enthalpy drop. Determine mass flow rate, velocity and condition
of steam leaving nozzle assuming negligible inlet velocity. [0.684 kg/s, 736 m/s, 0.925]
13.23 Convergent-divergent nozzle operates with steam entering at 30 bar, 300°C and leaving at 5 bar,
800 m/s. Assuming negligible inlet velocity and the friction to occur in only divergent portion of
nozzle with mass flow rate of 10 kg/s, determine,
(a) the efficiency for expansion in divergent portion of nozzle,
(b) the velocity of steam at throat. [90%, 530 m/s]
13.24 Steam enters a convergent-divergent nozzle at 7 bar, 773 K and isentropic expansion occurs up
to pressure of 3 bar. Determine the rate of steam mass flow considering
(i) equilibrium flow
(ii) supersaturated flow with pv1.3 = constant
Also determine degree of supersaturation and degree of undercooling. Assume inlet velocity to
be negligible. [96 kg/s, 1.71, 17.5°C]
13.25 Steam expands from 20 bar, 250°C to pressure of 3 bar. Nozzle efficiency is 90% and exit area is
3.15 cm2. Assuming supersaturated flow to be governed by pv1.3 = constant and mean value of
specific heat for supersaturated steam being 1.93 kJ/kg×K determine the mass flow rate of steam
on per minute basis. [36 kg/min]
13.26 Steam at 8 bar, dry saturated enters a convergent-divergent nozzle to expand upto 1.5 bar.
Determine the ratio of cross-section area at exit and throat considering flow to be isentropic and
expansion index being 1.135. [1.94]
13.27 Convergent nozzle has steam entering at 4 bar, 150°C and leaving at atmospheric pressure. The
supersaturated expansion occurs following the equation,
Pv ´ 103 = 2.308 (h – 1943) where v is in m3/kg, P is in bar, h is in kJ/kg. Determine the mass flow
rate of steam for nozzle efficiency of 90% and throat area of 16.75 cm2. [1 kg/s]
13.28 A convergent-divergent nozzle has steam entering at 10 bar, 270°C and leaving at 1.2 bar. Loss
in nozzle occurs only in diverging portion because of friction and amounts to 15% of total
enthalpy drop. For the cone angle being 5° in diverging portion, throat diameter being 6 mm
determine the length of diverging portion of nozzle. [32 mm]
13.29 Steam at 1.5 bar, dry saturated is used in steam injector for feeding water into a boiler. Water
enters into boiler at pressure being 20% more than boiler pressure of 20 bar. Water is taken from
feed water tank at 20°C and rate of water supply is 1.67 kg/s. Determine
(a) the mass of water injected per kg of steam if coefficient of steam nozzle is 0.95.
(b) ratio of diameters of steam nozzle to water discharge nozzle.
(c) temperature of water entering the boiler.
Also state the assumptions made for analysis, if any.
[5.2 kg/kg of steam, 7.3, 121°C]
13.30 A steam injector lifts water from 4 m below the injector axis and feeds 150 kg per minute water
into the boiler which is 1 m above the injector axis. Boiler produces steam at 15 bar, dry saturated
and for steam injector the steam is taken from boiler itself. Water in the tank is at 30°C and the
velocity of water being delivered into boiler is 20 m/s. Determine (a) the mass of steam required
per hour for operating injector, (b) diameter of throat of mixing nozzle, (c) temperature of water
leaving injector, (d) diameter of throat of steam nozzle for the maximum steam flow and nozzle
efficiency of 92%. [1560 kg/hr, 8.15 mm, 124°C, 16.35 mm]
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 611

14
Steam Turbines

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Steam turbines date back to 120 B.C. when the first steam turbine was developed by Hero of Alexandria.
Subsequently number of steam turbines came up but the practically successful steam turbine appeared
at the end of nineteenth century when Gustaf De Laval designed a high speed turbine built on the
principle of reaction turbine in 1883. Before this in 1629 G. Branca developed the first impulse turbine.
Branca’s impulse turbine and Hero’s reaction turbine are shown in Fig. 14.1.

Fig. 14.1 Hero’s reaction turbine and Branca’s impulse turbine

In nineteenth century some more steam turbines were developed by Sir Charles A. Parsons and
C.G. Curtis which gave a filip to the development to the modern steam turbine. Over the period of time
the modern steam turbines evolved with capacity from few kilowatts to 350,000 kW and in speed from
1000 rpm to 40,000 rpm. Steam turbines offer the advantages over other prime movers in terms of
simplicity, reliability and low maintenance costs. Reciprocating steam engines use pressure energy of
steam while steam turbines use dynamic action of the steam. Steam turbines require less space as
compared to diesel engine or steam engine and also the absence of reciprocating parts & reciprocating
motion in steam turbine results in lesser vibrations and lighter foundation. In steam turbine the expand-
ing steam does not come into contact with lubricant and so exhaust steam leaves uncontaminated.
612 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

14.2 WORKING OF STEAM TURBINE

A steam turbine has basically nozzle and ring of moving blades mounted on a shaft called rotor. The shaft
motion of turbine depends solely upon the dynamic action of steam. Steam is injected through nozzles over
to the ring of moving blades. Thermal energy of steam is partly converted into kinetic energy due to static
pressure drop in nozzle. High velocity steam leaving nozzle enters the moving blade and the direction of
steam flow gets changed from inlet to exit. This change in direction of steam flow causes change of
momentum, which results in dynamic force acting as driving thrust for rotation of shaft. Steam turbine
can be impulse turbine or reaction turbine based on mechanism of driving thrust creation. If the static
pressure drop occurs principally in stationary nozzle with little or no static pressure drop occurring in rotor
blade passage, then turbine is called an ‘impulse turbine’. If the substantial static pressure drop occurs in
stationary nozzle and rotor blade passage both then turbine is called ‘reaction turbine’. Thus in case of
impulse turbine driving thrust is available due to change in momentum because of change in velocity
direction while moving across the blade from inlet to exit. In case of reaction turbine the static pressure
drop in rotor blade passage causes further conversion of thermal energy into kinetic energy and hence
generation of resultant reactive force. Driving thrust in reaction turbine comprises of reactive force and
force associated with change in momentum due to change in direction of velocity. Impulse Turbine has
basically following components which are also described in Fig. 14.2.
Stationary nozzle: Impulse turbine has stationary passage comprising of one or more stationary
nozzles in which steam at high static pressure and low velocity is expanded so as to increase velocity of
steam at exit of nozzle. High velocity stream leaves nozzle so as to deliver steam with correct direction
for smooth entry into moving blade.
Moving blades: Moving blades are fixed around the circumference of a rotor shaft with top of
blades connected together for rigidity by means of a blade shroud ring. Blades actually cause change in
direction of steam and so the momentum change occurs and thus impulse is generated. Steam turbine
blades are made of alloy steel and manufactured by machining from bar stock. Typical blade material
called nickel based super alloy may have Ni, Co, W, Cr, Al, Tn, Ti, Hf, Fe, Mo, C, Si, Mn, Cu, Za, B, S,
Pb in percentage by weight of 59, 10, 10, 9, 5.5, 2.5, 1.5, 1.5, 0.25, 0.25, 0.15, 0.1, 0.1, 0.05, 0.05,
0.015, 0.008 and 0.0005, respectively.
Guide blades: Turbine rotor has guide blades prior to moving blades so as to guide steam in proper
direction for smooth entry into moving blade. Guide blades are stationary guides mounted between the
rotor blade rings. Guide blades perform function of reversing the direction of steam leaving the preced-
ing moving blade row so that direction of steam entering moving blade rows is similar.
Casing: Casing refers to the outer enclosure housing nozzles and fixed blades. Casing is also
referred to as shell or cylinder. Casing confines steam to flow passages and also provides the structural
frame. Casings of large steam turbines are normally horizontally split for convenience of repair and
inspection. For high pressures and temperatures casings are made of cast carbon steel while low pres-
sure turbine casings are made from rolled flat steel plate. For very high temperatures stainless steel
casings are good.
Shaft: Shaft or rotor or spindle refers to the rotating member upon which moving blade ring is
mounted.
Ring or Wheel: Wheel refers to the ring upon which moving blades are mounted. Wheel is keyed
on to the shaft. This ring is also called disc.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 613

Fig. 14.2 Impulse turbine

Diaphragm: Diaphragm is attached to the casing containing the nozzles and performs function of
confining steam flow to nozzle passage.
Packing: Packing is provided for preventing the leakage across the annular space between the
diaphragm and shaft, casing and shaft. Packing is provided in the form of carbon rings or labyrinth
glands. Carbon rings present an effective seal against shaft leakage in small turbines and are extensively
used with labyrinth and water seals for preventing shaft leakage in larger turbines. Carbon ring consists
of a ring of carbon rectangular in cross section and usually divided into four segments. Rings snugly fit
into a recess in casing and are kept tight against shaft by means of garter spring. Labyrinth seals consist
of series of thin strips fixed to the casing or other stationary member and arranged so as to maintain the
smallest possible clearance with the shaft. The labyrinth seals have small restrictions that increase the
velocity of leaking fluid only to have it dissipated in the pockets, thereby throttling the fluid. Figure 14.3
shows the straight and stepped labyrinth seals. The tips of the strips are extremely thin so that if rubbing
occurs the tip gets worn away without damaging the shaft. These labyrinth seals do not prevent com-
plete leakage of fluid. These are effective in only reducing leakage. Complete leakage prevention is done
in association with other seals as carbon seals described earlier.

Fig. 14.3 Labyrinth seals

Steam chest: This is the steam supply chamber which houses steam before being supplied to
nozzles.
614 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Exhaust hood: The portion of casing which collects and delivers the exhaust steam to exhaust
pipe or condenser is called exhaust hood.
Throttle valve: Throttle valve, also called stop valve is located in steam supply line of the steam
turbine. Throttle valve may be manually operated or hydraulically operated for regulating steam flow
during start and stop of turbine.
Governor: Governor is also provided in steam turbine for controlling the steam mass flow so as to
maintain constant speed with load fluctuations. An overspeed governor with trip mechanism is also
provided to shut off the supply of steam.
Bearings: Turbine has main bearings to support the shaft. Along with these thrust bearings are
also provided to support the axial thrust.
Turning gear: Turning gear is generally used with large turbines and consists of a gear integral
with turbine shaft driven by electric motor through necessary speed reduction. Turning gear is used so
as to keep the turbine shaft rotating at about 1–20 rpm in order to avoid springing of shaft occurring due
to unequal expansions and contractions during warming and cooling of turbine.
Trip mechanism: Steam turbine is provided with a trip mechanism operating through an overspeed
governor to shut off supply of steam to turbine. Trip mechanism is actually safety device which gets
activated upon number of other adverse operating conditions of turbine such as loss of lubricating oil
pressure or condenser vacuum or excessive axial thrust etc.

14.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbines may be classified into different categories based on various attributes as given below.
(a) Based on the blade flow passage: In steam turbine thermal energy available with steam is
converted into kinetic energy which in turn produces driving thrust on the shaft. Based upon
the rotor blades the blade flow passage may be of (i) constant cross section area type from
blade inlet to exit, or, (ii) varying cross section area type from blade inlet to exit.
Turbines having former type blading are called impulse turbines while later type are in
reaction turbines. Figure 14.4 shows the impulse and reaction turbine blades.

Fig. 14.4 Impulse turbine and Reaction turbine blades

The mechanism of impulse and reaction forces getting generated is discussed here. From New-
ton’s second law we know,
F = m·a
F I
H K
dV
F = (m) ×
dt
For steady flow, F = (mass flow rate) ´ (change in velocity)
Similarly,Tangential force = (mass flow rate) ´ (change in tangential component of velocity)
The impulse force can be defined as the force because of change in tangential component of
velocity of fluid which may be due to change in direction or magnitude. Figure 14.5 shows the impulse
force generating because of change in velocity of fluid.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 615

Fig. 14.5 Impulse force

In case of Fig. 14.5 (a) the impulse force is available due to change in magnitude of velocity and
shall be given by the product of mass flow rate and change in velocity. In case (b) the impulse force is
generated due to change in direction of velocity and if the blade is stationary and frictionless then there
shall be no decrease in magnitude of velocity.
Reaction force is available when the tangential velocity of fluid is increased and is opposite in
reference to the direction of velocity.
In the case shown in Fig 14.5 (b), the total force exerted on blade is actually a combination of
impulse and reaction. Impulse force is available in the entrance half of the blade where jet impinges
causing a force to right.
While in the exit half, the leaving jet exerts a reactive force on the blade which also acts to the
right. Combined effect of the two forces on the impulse blade is arbitrarily called impulse force.
Reaction force available due to increase in tangential velocity of fluid can be seen in case of nozzle
due to acceleration of fluid.

Fig. 14.6 Reaction force

Detailed discussion on the reaction turbines running on shaft work resulting from reaction forces
is given along with “reaction turbines”.
(b) Based on the cylinder flow arrangement: Steam turbines may be classified based upon the
flow arrangement into following types.
(i) Single flow single casing turbine
(ii) Double flow single casing turbine
(iii) Cross flow compound turbine with single flow
(iv) Cross flow compound turbine with double flow
(v) Triple cross flow compound turbine with double flow
Various arrangements in the above listed turbines are shown by line diagram in Fig 14.7 Single
cylinder turbines are the one which have all the stages enclosed in one cylinder while in multi cylinder
616 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

turbines the stages are accommodated in more than one cylinders, say two or three. Flow in these can
be single flow, double flow, cross flow or reversed flow.

Fig. 14.7 Classification based on flow arrangement

(c) Based on direction of flow: Steam turbines can be classified based on the direction of flow by
which steam flows through turbine blading. Steam turbines can be:
(i) Radial flow turbine
(ii) Tangential flow turbine
(iii) Axial flow turbine
Radial flow turbines were developed by B.F. Ljungstorm of Sweden as shown in Fig. 14.8. Radial
flow turbine incorporates two shafts end to end and can be of suitably small sizes. Radial flow turbines
can be started quickly and so well suited for peak load and used as stand by turbine or peak load
turbines. These are also termed as Ljungstrom turbines.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 617

Fig. 14.8 Radial flow turbine (Ljungstrom turbine)

In radial flow turbines the steam is injected in middle near shaft and steam flows radially out-
wards through the successive moving blades placed concentrically. In radial flow turbines there are no
stationary blades so pressure drop occurs in moving blade passage. Concentric moving blades rings are
designed to move in opposite directions.
In tangential flow turbines the nozzle directs steam tangentially into buckets at the periphery of
single wheel and steam reverses back and re-enters other bucket at its’ periphery. This is repeated
several times as steam follows the helical path. Tangential flow turbines are very robust but less effi-
cient.
In axial flow turbines steam flows along the axis of turbine over blades. These axial flow turbines
are well suited for large turbo generators and very commonly used presently.
(d) Based on number of stages: Steam turbines can also be classified based upon the number of
stages in steam turbines i.e. depending upon the amount of heat drop. It can be:
(i) Single stage turbine
(ii) Multi stage turbine.
Single stage turbines have the expansion occurring in single stage while in multi stage turbines the
expansion occurs in more than one stages of turbine. When expansion occurs in two stages it is called
double stage turbine and with expansion occurring in three stages it is called triple stage turbine.
618 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

(e) Based on the application of turbine: Depending upon application the steam turbine can be
classified as below:
(i) Condensing turbine
(ii) Non-condensing turbine
(iii) Back pressure turbine
(iv) Pass out turbine
Condensing steam turbines are those in which steam leaving turbine enters into condenser. Such
type of steam turbines permit for recirculation of condensate leaving condenser. Also the pressure at the
end of expansion can be lowered much below atmospheric pressure as the expanded steam is rejected
into condenser where vacuum can be maintained. Condensing turbines are frequently used in thermal
power plants.
Non-condensing steam turbines are those in which steam leaving turbine is rejected to atmos-
phere and not to condenser as in case of condensing turbine.
Back pressure turbines reject steam at a pressure much above the atmospheric pressure and
steam leaving turbine with substantially high pressure can be used for some other purposes such as
heating or running small condensing turbines.

Fig. 14.9 Condensing and non-condensing steam turbines

Pass out turbines are those in which certain quantity of steam is continuously extracted for the
purpose of heating and allowing remaining steam to pass through pressure control valve into the low
pressure section of turbine. Pressure control valve and control gear is required so as to keep the speeds
of turbine and pressure of steam constant irrespective of variations of power and heating loads.
(f) Based on speed of turbine: Steam turbines can be classified based upon the steam turbine as
low speed, normal speed and high speed turbines as given below.
(i) Low speed steam turbine.
(ii) Normal speed steam turbine.
(iii) High speed steam turbine.
Low speed turbines are those steam turbines which run at speed below 3000 rpm. Normal speed
steam turbines are those turbines which run at speed of about 3000 rpm while high speed steam turbines
are the one which run at more than 3000 rpm.
(g) Based on pressure in steam turbines: Steam turbines can also be classified based upon the inlet
pressure of steam turbine as follows:
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 619

(i) Low pressure steam turbine

(ii) Medium pressure steam turbine
(iii) High pressure steam turbine
(iv) Super pressure steam turbine
Low pressure steam turbines have pressure of inlet steam less than 20 kg/cm2 while medium
pressure steam turbines have steam inlet pressure between 20 kg/cm2 to 40 kg/cm2. High pressure
steam turbines have steam inlet pressure lying between 40 kg/cm2 to 170 kg/cm2 while turbines having
inlet steam pressure more than 170 kg/cm2 are called super pressure steam turbines.

14.4 IMPULSE TURBINE

Schematic of impulse steam turbine is shown in Fig. 14.10. It has single-stage having a nozzle fitted in
the casing followed by ring of moving blades mounted on the shaft. Variation of velocity and pressure
along the axis of turbine is also shown here. Here pressure drop occurs only in the nozzle and ideally no
pressure drop occurs in blades.

Fig. 14.10 Schematic of simple impulse steam turbine stage

High pressure steam from boiler enters the nozzle through pipings and leaves nozzle at predefined
angle so as to smoothly flow over the moving blades. Steam velocity gets increased during its flow
through nozzle due to its expansion occurring in it. During the passage of steam over the moving blades
steam undergoes change in its’ direction while losing the velocity and thus causing rotation of moving
blade ring mounted on shaft.
Simple impulse turbine is used where small output at very high speed is required or only a small
pressure drop is available. These are not suited for applications requiring conversion of large thermal
energy into work. Speed of operation of turbine can be regulated by ‘compounding’ of impulse turbine
discussed ahead. Compounding of steam turbine is required as in case of simple impulse turbine, the
single stage may offer speed of the order of 30,000 rpm which can not be directly used for any
engineering application and needs to be reduced. Also such a high speed shall induce large stresses in the
blades. Compounding is a thermodynamic means for reducing the speed of turbine where speed reduc-
tion is realized without employing a gear box.
620 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Compounding can be of following three types:

(i) Pressure compounded impulse turbine
(ii) Velocity compounded impulse turbine
(iii) Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine
Detailed discussion upon the above three types of compoundings is given below:
(i) Pressure compounded impulse turbine: Pressure compounded impulse turbine is also called
as ‘Rateau’ turbine. Here pressure staging is done to utilize high velocity steam at acceptable shaft
speed. In this the entire pressure drop is realized in parts instead of taking it in single stroke. This
segmentation of pressure drop results in moderate steam velocities and thus yielding acceptable rota-
tional speed. In case of pressure compounding there is a ring of fixed nozzles followed by ring of
moving blades and subsequently there is again a ring of nozzles followed by a ring of moving blades.
Thus pressure compounded impulse turbine consists of a series of simple impulse stages or De Laval
turbine stages. Discharge from each moving blade row is supplied to stationary nozzle ring of the
subsequent stage. In pressure compounding high pressure steam enters the first ring of stationary
nozzles where part expansion occurs causing drop in pressure and increase in steam velocity. Steam
subsequently enters moving blade ring where no pressure drop occurs due to symmetrical blading but
velocity drops. Steam leaving moving blade ring enters the stationary nozzle ring where remaining part
of expansion occurs and expanded steam subsequently enters the moving blade ring. Pressure and
velocity variation in a pressure compounded impulse turbine stage are shown in Fig. 14.11 along with
the schematic of such compounding.

Fig. 14.11 Pressure compounded impulse turbine stage (Rateau turbine)

Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 621

In pressure compounding as the pressure drop occurs in parts so the steam velocities are not
very large and hence the turbine velocity gets reduced to low value. Turbine velocity may be further
lowered if number of stages is increased. Therefore, pressure compounded impulse turbine has large
number of stages which make it most expensive. This type of compounding is of most efficient type as
in this ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity remains constant. Pressure compounding is more prone
to leakage of steam from one section to other section at the shaft and outer casing as all pressure drop
occurs in the nozzles.
(ii) Velocity compounded impulse turbine: Velocity compounded impulse turbine is called ‘Curtis’
turbine. Here velocity staging is employed in order to utilize the high velocity steam jet with acceptable
rotational speed. In velocity compounded impulse turbine instead of absorbing all kinetic energy in a
single moving blade ring it is divided into two or more moving blade rings with guide blades in between
the rows. Schematic of velocity compounded impulse turbine stage with pressure and velocity distribu-
tion is shown in Fig. 14.12.

Fig. 14.12 Velocity compounded impulse turbine or ‘Curtis turbine’

In velocity compounded impulse turbine the high velocity steam from boiler enters the first ring
of stationary nozzles and undergoes the complete pressure drop as desired in a stage along with increase
in velocity. Low pressure and high velocity steam leaving nozzle enters the moving blade ring where a
part of velocity drop takes place while pressure drop does not occur due to symmetrical blade profile.
622 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Steam leaves moving blade ring and enters the fixed blades which act as guide blades. Steam is smoothly
guided by fixed blade ring and passes on to ring of moving blades in which remaining part of velocity
drop takes place. Thus in a stage of velocity compounded impulse turbine there is stationary nozzle ring
followed by moving blade ring and subsequently a fixed blade ring and moving blade ring. Here pressure
drop occurs only in nozzle and the velocity drop occurs in two parts in two moving blade rings respec-
tively. For the smooth and symmetrical impulse turbine blades used as fixed guide blades there is no
drop in velocity of steam passing through fixed blade ring.
Velocity compounded impulse turbine offers advantages such as less number of stages compared
to pressure compounding and so less cost. It also requires less space and is relatively more reliable and
easy to start. In multi stage velocity compounded impulse turbine the first stage has large pressure drop
and remaining turbine stages are subjected to lower pressure range, thus lesser number of stages. In
velocity compounded impulse turbine since pressure drop occurs in nozzle itself so the rest of turbine
and its’ casing need not be manufactured very strong. But the efficiency is low due to large frictional
losses due to large initial velocity and ‘non optimum value of ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity for
all blade rings’. Efficiency of velocity compounded impulse turbine goes on decreasing with increase in
number of stages.
(iii) Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine: Pressure-velocity compounded impulse
turbine is a combination of the two types of compoundings described earlier. In this, steam coming
from boiler enters the stationary nozzle ring followed by moving blade ring and subsequently fixed blade
ring followed by moving blade ring. Steam leaving moving blade ring enters the stationary nozzle ring
followed by moving blade, fixed blade and moving blade ring respectively. Schematic of pressure-
velocity compounded impulse turbine stage is shown in Fig. 14.13 along with pressure and velocity
variation across the different sections.

Fig. 14.13 Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine

Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 623

Here both pressure drop and velocity drop are divided into different sections as shown in Fig. 14.13.
Thus here one or more ‘Curtis stage’ (velocity compound) followed by ‘Rateau stage’ (pressure com-
pound) are provided. Curtis stages reduce pressure to a moderate level with high proportion of work per
stage and then the highly efficient ‘Rateau stages’ absorb the remaining energy available. Here it is
possible to reduce over all-length of turbine and thus there is saving in initial cost which more than
offsets the lower efficiency.

14.5 VELOCITY DIAGRAM AND CALCULATIONS FOR IMPULSE TURBINES

Velocity diagram gives an account of velocity of fluid entering and leaving the turbine. Velocity diagrams
for single stage of simple impulse turbine and compound steam turbine are described here.
Simple impulse turbine: Single stage of simple impulse turbine is shown in Fig. 14.14. It com-
prises of a row of nozzle followed by moving blade row. Pressure and velocity variations along the stage
in nozzle ring and moving blade ring are also shown. Subscript 0, 1 and 2 refer to nozzle inlet, nozzle exit
or moving blade inlet and moving blade exit respectively.

Fig. 14.14 Single stage of simple impulse turbine

Figure 14.15 gives the inlet and outlet velocity diagrams at inlet edge and outlet edge of moving
blade along with the combined inlet and outlet velocity diagram for a stage of simple impulse turbine.
The notations used for denoting velocity angles and other parameters during calculations are explained
as under, (SI system of units is used here).
pdN
U = Linear velocity of blade = , m/s where d = mean diameter of wheel in ‘m’
60
N = Speed in rpm.
C1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to moving blade or velocity of steam leaving nozzle.
(Absolute velocity is the velocity of an object relative to the earth)
C2 = Absolute velocity of steam at exit of moving bade.
624 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
C1w

Fig. 14.15
C1w = Whirl velocity at inlet to moving blade or tangential component of absolute velocity at inlet
to moving blade.
C2w = Whirl velocity at exit of moving blade or tangential component of absolute velocity at exit
of moving blade.
C1a = Flow velocity at inlet to moving blade or axial component of absolute velocity at inlet to
moving blade.
C2a = Flow velocity at exit of moving blade or axial component of absolute velocity at exit of
moving blade.
V1 = Relative velocity of steam at inlet of moving blade (Blade velocity at inlet) (Relative veloc-
ity is the absolute velocity of one moving object compared with absolute velocity of other
object.)
V2 = Relative velocity of steam at exit of moving blade (Blade velocity at exit).
m = Mass of steam flowing over blade
U
r = Ratio of linear velocity of blade and absolute velocity at inlet of moving blade =
C1
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 625

V2
k = Blade velocity coefficient (Ratio of relative velocity at exit and inlet) =
V1
a = Angle of absolute velocity with respect to the direction of blade motion.
a1 = Angle of absolute velocity at inlet to moving blade or nozzle angle.
a2 = Angle of absolute velocity at exit of moving blade or inlet angle of fixed blade in next
stage.
b = Angle of relative velocity with respect to the direction of blade motion.
b1 = Angle of relative velocity at inlet or inlet angle of moving blade.
b2 = Angle of relative velocity at exit or exit angle of moving blade.
Here steam enters the nozzle and leaves so as to smoothly glide into the ring of moving blades.
Steam leaves nozzle with absolute velocity C1 and at an angle of a1. This steam stream will be delivered
to moving blade with velocity C1 and angle a1 but due to linear velocity of moving blade the steam
stream actually glides over the moving blade with velocity V1 and blade angle at inlet b1. This velocity V1
is actually the result of two velocity vectors C1 and U. V1 is called the relative velocity of steam at inlet
of moving blade. Steam stream leaves the moving blade with velocity V2 which is relative velocity of
steam at exit of moving blade. Thus relative velocity is the actual velocity with which steam flows over
the moving blade. For a perfectly smooth and frictionless blade this relative velocity should not change
from inlet to exit as there is no expansion of steam in moving blade (blades are symmetrical and passage
between two consecutive moving blades is of constant area type from inlet to exit). Actually there
always exist some friction over the blade so the relative velocity at outlet will be smaller than the relative
velocity at inlet, i.e. V2 < V1. This reduction in relative velocity is quantified by parameter called blade
V
velocity coefficient (K). Blade velocity coefficient (K) is defined as, K = 2 .
V1
If we look at inlet section 1, then it is obvious that for the maximum change in momentum steam
should be delivered to the moving blade horizontally i.e. a1 = 0 and also leave horizontally i.e. a2 = 0 with
the semi-circular shaped moving blade. This semi-circular moving blade is not possible practically as the
moving blade wheel (ring) has series of blades and each blade has to receive steam from series of
nozzles one after the other. This is the reason due to which nozzles are placed at some angle to the blade,
say angle a1 in this case.
Due to injection of steam at angle a1 with velocity C1 over the blade, steam shall have two
components of velocity i.e. one tangential component and other axial component. Tangential component
of velocity is parallel to the direction of rotation of blades and is also called as whirl velocity. Axial
component of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of blade and is also called flow
velocity. Axial component or flow velocity is responsible for maintaining flow of steam across the
moving blade row. Volume flow rate of steam across the moving blade ring can be given by the product
of flow velocity and effective passage area available for flow. The magnitude of flow velocity influences
the size of wheel for given steam volume flow rate.
The whirl component of velocity is responsible for generation of thrust force due to change in
momentum. Both whirl velocity and flow velocity being the two perpendicular components of absolute
velocity depend largely upon the angle of absolute velocity i.e, a. At inlet the angle a1 should be selected
depending upon the thrust requirement and maintenance of flow across the blade row. With increase in
angle a1 the whirl velocity, C1 cos a1, decreases while the flow velocity, C1 sin a1, increases. Thus the
626 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

maximization of one leads to minimization of the other and so the compromise should be had for
selecting the angle of absolute velocity. Similarly at exit of blade again there shall be whirl velocity and
flow velocity components. For absolute velocity at exit being C2 and angle of absolute velocity at exit
being a2 (this shall be the inlet angle for subsequent nozzle if more than one similar stages are there), the
whirl velocity shall be C2 cos a2 and flow velocity as C2 sin a2. In the simple impulse turbine stage this
whirl velocity component at exit is a kind of loss at exit. Therefore in order to minimize loss at exit this
component should be minimum. For minimizing the whirl velocity at exit i.e. C2 cos a2, the angle a2
should be made minimum. Minimum loss could be reduced to zero if angle a2 is equal to 90°. This
becomes a typical case in which the turbine discharges axially (at 90°) and such turbines are also called
axial discharge turbine.
Thus it is obvious that in case of impulse turbine stage the moving blade merely deflects the
steam and the change in direction of steam from inlet to exit causes change of momentum and thus
thrust is generated. Moving blades being of symmetrical type offer a constant cross-section area be-
tween two consecutive blades from inlet to exit and so no expansion occurs in the moving blade. The
steam expansion only occurs in the nozzle. Also in the absence of expansion across moving blade the
pressure of steam remains constant from inlet to exit under ideal conditions. For symmetrical blades the
inlet and exit angles of blade are same i.e. b1 = b2.
Velocity diagrams are separately drawn at inlet of moving blade and at exit of moving blade as
shown in Fig. 14.15. Combined velocity diagram for the stage is also given here. Using the velocity
diagram various parameters can be estimated as discussed ahead.
The driving thrust on the rotor is produced as reaction of the force estimated by the rate of
change of momentum. Tangential force will be the force component producing driving thrust while axial
force will be the force component producing axial thrust. Driving thrust causes rotation of rotor while
axial thrust is to be absorbed by the thrust bearings provided for this purpose.
Let the mass flow rate be m, kg/s.
Tangential force FT = m ´ (change of tangential component of velocity or whirl velocity)
= m ´ (– C2 cos a2 – C1 cos a1)
FT = – m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1) = – m × D Cw
Driving thrust on rotor will be reaction of this force and will be equal and opposite.
Driving thrust, FD = – FT
FD = m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
FD = m×DCw
From velocity triangles,
(C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2) = (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
or, DCw = DV w
Hence FD = m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
= m× (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
This driving thrust can be used for getting the rate of work done on the rotor.
Rate of work done = W = FD ´ U
W = m×DCw.U
Work done per unit of steam mass flow, w = U×DCw
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 627

Rate of work done will be the power produced by the turbine stage.
W = m×U× (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
W = m×U× (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
FG IJ
V2 cos b 2
H
= m×U× V1 cos b1 1 +
K
V1 cos b 1
R F V I F cos b IJ UV
– U) S1 + G J × G
= m×U× (C1 cos a1
T H V K H cos b K W
2 2

1 1

W = m × U × (C1 cos a1 – U ) × {1 + K × C}

V2
where K = Blade velocity coefficient =
V1
cos b 2
C = Ratio of cosines of blade angles =
cos b 1
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade both K and C shall have unity value.
i.e. K = 1, C = 1
Therefore for simple impulse turbine stage having perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, rate of
work done,
W = 2 mU (C1 cos a1 – U)
From velocity diagram also the rate of work done per unit of steam mass flow ‘w’, can be
estimated as below,
w = U × DCw
Combined velocity diagram if drawn to the scale gives, U = AB, DCw = EF. Thus length EF and
AB shall give D Cw and U respectively.
Hence, w = AB ´ EF, rate of work done per unit of steam mass flow

Rate of work done W = m ´ AB ´ EF . The suitable scale factors are to be used while using
lengths.
The velocity diagram at inlet, outlet or combined velocity diagram can be suitably drawn to the
scale and various parameters be obtained by measuring respective geometrical entity i.e. length and
angle.
The work available at rotor can also be obtained using steady flow energy equation between
section 1 and 2. Assuming no change in potential energy from inlet to exit across the moving blade and
no heat interaction across the stage, the S.F.E.E. can be given as;
FG C12 IJ = m FG h + C IJ + W
2

H
m h1 +
K H 2K
2
2
2
R F C - C IJ UV
W = m Sa h - h f + G
2 2

T H 2 KW
1 2
1 2

In case of impulse stage the change in enthalpy from section 1 to 2 can be given by the change in
kinetic energy associated with relative velocity from 1 to 2.
628 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

FG V - V IJ
2 2

H2 2K
2 1
(h1 – h2) =

– h ) = bV - V g
1 2 2
or, (h1 2 2 1
2
Substituting in W,
Rate of work done in a stage:

W=
m
2
lbV 2
2
g b
- V12 + C12 - C22 gq
For perfectly smooth moving blade, V1 = V2 and (h1 – h2) = 0.

Hence W =
m
2
lbC 2
1 - C22 gq for stage with smooth blade
From velocity triangle at inlet
C12 = V12 + U 2 + 2UV1 cos b1
and from velocity triangle at outlet, C22 = V22 + U 2 – 2UV2 cos b2
Combining above two we get,
C12 – C22 = (V12 – V22) + 2U(V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
It is already seen, (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2) = (C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2)
or, DVw = DCw
or, (C1 – C22) = (V12 – V22) + 2U×DCw
2

or, (C12 – C22) + (V22 – V12) = 2U×DCw

Substituting in the expression for rate of work done,
m
W= {2U × DCw}
2

or, W = m×U×DCw W = m×U× (C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2)

Axial thrust: Axial component of velocity or flow velocity change causes creation of axial thrust.
Axial thrust due to change in momentum because of change in flow velocity.
Axial thrust = m ´ (C1a – C2a)
= m ´ (C1 sin a1 – C2 sin a2)
Axial thrust, Fa = m ´ DCa
From velocity diagrams the change in axial velocity is given by length DG. Length, DG = EC – FD
Axial thrust = m ´ DG = m ´ (EC – FD)
Diagram efficiency or blading efficiency: Diagram efficiency or blading efficiency refers to the
ratio of work done to the energy supplied to rotor in a stage. In case of impulse turbine this energy
supplied to rotor in a stage can be given by the kinetic energy supplied at inlet of moving blade. Assum-
FG C12IJ
ing no expansion in moving blades the energy supplied to rotor can be given by m ×
H 2 K
. Rate of work
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 629

done per unit mass of steam is also called diagram work.

Rate of work done
Hence, diagram efficiency =hD =
Energy supplied to rotor
m × U × DCw
hD =
C2
m× 1
2
2 U × D Cw
hD =
C12

2 × U × DCw
Diagram or blading efficiency =
C12
Stage efficiency or Gross efficiency: Stage efficiency refers to the ratio of rate of work done and
energy supplied to the stage. Energy supplied to the stage can be accounted by the change in enthalpy
between section 0 and 1 i.e. inlet of nozzle to exit of nozzle. Stage efficiency is thus the output of stage
divided by the available energy for the stage.
Energy supplied to stage = m × (h0 – h1)
Rate of work done
Stage efficiency, hs =
Energysupplied tostage
m × U × DCw
=
a
m × h0 - h1 f
U × DCw
Stage efficiency =
a
h0 - h1 f
Nozzle efficiency: Nozzle efficiency refers to the ratio of kinetic energy available and the enthalpy
change occurring across the nozzle i.e. between inlet and outlet (sections 0 and 1).
C12
m
a f
Nozzle efficiency, hN = 2
m h0 - h1

C12
Nozzle efficiency =
a
2 h0 - h1 f
Combining the stage efficiency, diagram efficiency and nozzle efficiency, it can be given that;
Stage efficiency = Diagram efficiency ´ Nozzle efficiency
Overall efficiency: The overall efficiency of stage can be given by the ratio of work delivered at
turbine shaft to the energy supplied to the stage.
Work delivered at shaft
Overall efficiency, ho =
Energysupplied to thestage

Overall efficiency = Nozzle efficiency ´ Diagram efficiency ´ Mechanical efficiency

630 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Optimization of turbine stage: Turbine being work producing machine is designed with the aim
of providing maximum work output. The diagram efficiency of turbine should be maximized as it
indicates the rate of work done per unit of energy supplied to the rotor. Work output per unit time in a
simple impulse turbine stage is given by, W = m×U× (C1 cos a1 – U) (1 + KC).
In this expression for work the output is seen to depend upon m, C1, U, a1, K and C. For all other
conditions fixed work output is seen to vary inversely with the angle a1 i.e. the work output increases
with decrease in nozzle exit angle, a1. Work output shall be maximum when angle a1 is reduced to zero
but nozzle exit angle a1 can not be reduced to zero as it shall not allow steam injection to successive
blades. Angle a1 also decides the axial or flow velocity at inlet, Ca, i.e. smaller the value of a1 smaller will
be axial velocity or flow velocity. As described earlier that the flow velocity maintains the flow across
the stage so smaller flow velocity requires larger steam flow passage area for the same mass flow of
steam. Small value of angle a1 will thus yield larger blade surface area resulting into larger surface
friction loss. Therefore the angle a1 is chosen as compromise between above considerations. Generally
a1 lies between 15 and 30°.
Thus the work can not be maximized by only selecting the minimum value of angle a1 and so
requires optimization of turbine stage performance with respect to some other parameter.
The diagram efficiency should be maximized with respect to suitable parameter.
2U × DCw
Diagram efficiency, hD =
C12

hD =
a
2U × C1 cos a 1 - U (1 + KC ) f
C12
FG U IJ FG cos a U IJ (1 + KC)
hD = 2
HC KH
1
1 -
C1 K
U
Here , is non-dimensional form of velocity. Let us denote by r
C1
U
i.e. r = , so, hD = 2r (cos a1 – r) (1 + KC)
C1
Diagram efficiency can be optimized with respect to non-dimensional velocity denoted by r. This
non-dimensional velocity r is also called as ‘blade-steam velocity ratio’ or ‘blade speed-steam velocity
ratio’ or ‘blade-steam speed ratio’.
Differentiating hD with respect to r, we get,
dh D
= 2 (cos a1 – 2r) (1 + KC)
dr
For a perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, K = 1, C = 1
dh D
= 4 (cos a1 – 2r)
dr
Equating first differential to zero;
cos a1 – 2r = 0

cos a 1
r=
2
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 631

Second order differential of hD with respect to r indicates that the diagram efficiency is maximum
cos a 1
corresponding to the blade speed-steam velocity ratio given as .
2
cos 2 a 1 × (1 + KC )
Hence, maximum diagram efficiency, h D,max =
2
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, maximum diagram efficiency,
h D, max = cos2 a
1

cos a 1
Corresponding to r = , the rate of work done can be given as the maximum rate of work
2
done. Mathematically,
Maximum rate of work done can be obtained by substituting
U cos a 1 2U
r= = or C1 =
C1 2 cos a 1
Rate of work, W = mU × (C1 cos a1 – U) (1 + KC)
Wmax = m×U× U (1 + KC)

Wmax = mU 2 (1 + KC)
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, K = 1, C = 1,
Wmax = 2 mU 2
The variation of diagram efficiency can be plotted with varying blade-steam velocity ratio as given
below.

Fig. 14.16 Diagram efficiency with blade speed-steam velocity ratio.

632 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

14.6 IMPULSE TURBINE BLADE HEIGHT

Impulse turbine blade height is a very important parameter. Blade height is a function of total annular
area required for the flow of fluid. It depends upon the mass flow rate through the section, specific
volume of steam at that section,

Fig. 14.17 Nozzle and blade passage

area of section through which steam is passing and flow velocity at the section. In estimating the
net annular area available for flow, edge thickness and blade angles are taken into account. The nozzle
passage and two row Curtis stage are shown in Fig 14.17.
Here estimation of both nozzle height and blade height has been described ahead.
For the nozzle passage shown the area available for flow at exit of one nozzle passage can be given
as A;
A = w×hn, where w is the width of flow passage at exit at mean nozzle height and hn is nozzle height.
The width of flow passage at exit at mean nozzle height can be given as,
w = (p sin a – t),
where ‘p’ is nozzle pitch at mean nozzle height and ‘t’ is edge thickness of nozzle and ‘a’ is nozzle
angle.
Therefore, A = (p sin a – t)×hn
In the absence of information about edge thickness considerations above equation can be used to
get nozzle height.
For full peripheral admission when nozzle diaphragm is occupied by nozzles, the number of
nozzles can be obtained as,
pd
n=
p
where ‘d’ is the diameter of mean nozzle ring and ‘n’ is number of nozzles.
Edge thickness in nozzle calculations can be accounted by edge thickness factor (k) denoted as,
FG p sin a - t IJ
k=
H p sina K
Thus, A = k hn×p sin a , can be used to get nozzle height. Considering the total number of nozzles,
the total nozzle area can be given as,
An = n×A

An = pd × hn × k sin a
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 633

Figure 14.17(b) shows the two stage Curtis stage having blade heights as hb1, hb2, hb3. Theoreti-
cally blade height at entrance is equal to nozzle height at exit but in order to avoid spilling of the fluid
issuing from nozzle passage the blade height is slightly increased at entrance. In case of impulse turbine
blade the pressure on both sides of blade remains constant and by continuity equation the volume flow
rate shall also remain same from inlet to exit.
From continuity equation for nozzle to moving blade, the volume flow rate shall be,
C1 p d×hn× k sin a = V1 × p d × hb × kb × sin b
where hb is blade height, kb is blade edge thickness factor and b is blade angle.
Generally it is assumed, k = kb, hence
hb C sin a C
= 1 = 1a = 1
hn V1 sin b V1 a
From velocity diagram at blade inlet it can be seen that, C1 sin a = C1a = V1 sin b = V1a.
Hence hb = hn, ideally but as described earlier the height at blade entrance is slightly increased,
which is also called ‘blade step-up’ or ‘overlap’. Similarly for two row Curtis stage considered here the
blade height can be related as,
hn × C1a
hb1 =
V2 a

hn × C1a
hb2 =
V3 a

hn × C1a
hb3 =
V4 a
Step up or overlap is arbitrarily taken and varies from 0.2 cm in high pressure stages to 2 cm in
low pressure stages of large turbines. Here in this calculation no consideration is made for increase in
specific volume of fluid in blade passage due to reheat although it shall be there but may be neglected on
account of being small.
Maximum height of blade is restricted by the stresses getting generated due to bending and
centrifugal forces.
Alternatively, the blade height can be estimated by the volume flow rate considerations. Moving
blade height at exit can be given as below;

FG l IJ (p
mv =
Hp K
b
b sin b2 – tb) lhb1× V2

where, l is the length of arc covered by nozzle and pb is the distance between two consecutive blades,
FG l IJ gives the number of exit passages in
tb is edge thickness of blade as shown in Fig 14.18. Here
Hp K
b
nozzles through which steam arrives over the moving blade.
634 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Fig. 14.18 Blade height description

Steam turbines are called full admission turbines when the nozzle coverage of blades is complete
i.e. in such case l = pd, where ‘d’ is mean blade diameter of the rotor.

14.7 CALCULATIONS FOR COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

Velocity diagram for simple impulse turbine is described earlier. Similar to the velocity diagram de-
scribed, the velocity diagram for the compounded impulse turbine stage can be drawn. Velocity diagram
for velocity compounded impulse turbine stages is shown in Fig. 14.19.

Fig. 14.19 Stage of velocity compounded impulse turbine and velocity diagram for the stage.
Here high pressure steam first enters the nozzle and steam leaving nozzle enters the row of
moving blades. Steam leaving moving blades enters the fixed blade row. Fixed blades just act as guide
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 635

blades and are fixed to casing. Steam is guided by fixed blade to smoothly enter into next row of moving
blades. Thus nozzle, moving blade row, fixed blade row and moving blade row together constitute stage
of velocity compounded impulse turbine. Let us consider section at exit of nozzle as 1 – 1, at exit of
first moving blade row as 2 – 2, at exit of fixed blade row as 3 – 3 and at exit of second row of moving
blades as 4 – 4.
Absolute velocity, relative velocity and different angles are shown in velocity diagrams at sections
1 – 1, 2 – 2, 3 – 3, and 4 – 4.
Steam enters first row of moving blades at section 1 – 1 with absolute velocity C1 and leaves
moving blade with velocity C2 at angle a2. Steam passes through fixed blades and leaves it with absolute
velocity C3 at angle a3. Steam finally leaves second row of moving blades with absolute velocity C4 at
angle a4. Let us assume that the moving blades and fixed blades are symmetrical and the blades are
perfectly smooth i.e. no friction loss occurs on moving blades and fixed blades.
Mathematically the velocity and angles can be related as follows for the above assumptions.
Constant relative velocity across moving blades due to smooth blades surface;
V1 = V 2
and
V3 = V 4
Across the fixed blade also there shall be no friction loss resulting in;
C2 = C3
Due to symmetry of moving blades;
b1 = b2 & b3 = b4
Due to symmetry of fixed blades; a2 = a3
Let us also assume that the stream finally leaving the stage goes out with minimum energy for
yielding maximum efficiency. Stream should leave the stage axially for above assumption, i.e. a4 = 90°.
In this case when discharge from last blade row is axial then the velocity of whirl at exit is zero. Such
turbines are also called axial discharge turbine.
The total work available from turbine stage shall be algebraic summation of work available from
first row of moving blades and second row of moving blades. Diagram efficiency shall be the ratio of
total work and energy supplied to the stage.
Thus, Total work from stage = Work from first row of moving blades
+ Work from second row of moving blades
Work from first row of moving blades can be written as already described for simple impulse
stage.
WI = 2 × m × U × (C1 cos a1 – U)
Similarly, work from second row of moving blades,
WII = 2 × m × U (C3 × cos a3 – U)

or WII = 2 × m × U (C2 × cos a2 – U)

From velocity diagram, C2 × cos a2 = V2 × cos b2 – U
Substituting,
636 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

WII = 2 × m × U (V2 cos b2 – 2U)

WII = 2 × m × U (V1 cos b1 – 2U)
from velocity diagram,
V1 cos b1 = C1 cos a1 – U
Substituting,
WII = 2m × U (C1 cos a1 – 3U)
Total work from stage, WT = WI + WII
WT = 2m × U × (C1 cos a1 – U) + 2m × U (C1 cos a1 – 3U)

WT = 2m × U × (2C1 cos a1 – 4U)

Total work
Diagram efficiency, hd =
Energy supplied

k2 m × U × a2C × cosa - 4U fp
FG m × C IJ
1 1
= 2

H 2 K
1

4U
hd = (2C1 × cos a1 – 4U)
C12

U
Non dimensional form of velocity , = r, i.e. blade speed to steam velocity ratio
C1
or, hd = 4 × r × (2cos a1 – 4r)

Differentiating diagram efficiency with respect to r and applying conditions to get the optimum
value of r for maximum diagram efficiency;
dh d d
= (8r cos a1 – 16r2)
dr dr
Substituting
dh d
= 0
dr

cos a 1
or, r opt = or 4U = C1 cos a1
4
Maximum efficiency, hd,max = cos 2a 1
For the optimum value of ropt the work may be estimated as;
Work from Ist row, WI = 6m × U 2
Work from IInd row, WII = 2m × U 2
Total work from velocity compounded turbine stage, WT = WI + WII
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 637
WT = 8mU 2
1
Here it is obvious that for optimum value of r i.e. ropt the work available from second row is
th
4
of the total work from stage. It can be extrapolated from here that if there are more than two rows of
moving blades in a velocity compounded turbine stage i.e. three, four or more number of rows, then the
optimum blade speed to steam velocity ratio r can be generalised for ‘n’ number of moving blade rows.
cos a 1 cos a 1
ropt = i.e. for three rows, ropt =
2n 6
Similarly, work from the last row of moving blades shall be,
1
Wlast row = of total work.
2n
1
Thus from a three row stage, work from last row shall be th of the total work and from a four
8
1
row stage, work from last row shall be th of the total work. Here it is obvious that as the number
16
of rows increases the work from last row goes on giving diminishing work. Therefore, with increase
in number of rows the work obtained from last row decreases, so the number of rows is generally
limited to two. If we look at diagram efficiency then it shows that the efficiency also diminishes with
increase in number of stages. Graphical pattern between the diagram efficiency versus blade speed to
steam velocity ratio r is shown in Fig. 14.20.

Fig. 14.20 Diagram efficiency vs. blade speed to steam velocity ratio for velocity
compounded impulse turbine

14.8 REACTION TURBINES

In a reaction turbine the pressure drop occurs in both stationary and moving rows contrary to the
impulse turbine where the total pressure drop occurs in stationary nozzles alone. The difference in
blading of reaction and impulse has already been described earlier. In reaction turbine the passage
638 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

between two consecutive blades is of converging type as compared to impulse turbine blading which
has constant cross-sectional area passage between two consecutive blades.

Fig. 14.21 Reaction turbine stage

Figure 14.21 shows the schematic of a reaction turbine stage having fixed blades followed by
moving blades row. Due to the varying cross section area for steam flow the pressure drop occurs in
both stationary (fixed) blades row and moving blades row. The velocity increases in stationary blades
which act as nozzles. Thus the passage formed in the stationary blades in reaction turbine are of nozzle
type although they do not have conventional nozzle shape. Steam stream leaving stationary blades
impinges upon the moving blades. This impinging stream exerts a force to the right as evident from the
velocity diagrams of reaction blading. Velocity diagram of reaction turbine is similar in principle to the
velocity diagram in impulse turbine.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 639

Fig. 14.22 Velocity and force diagram of reaction blading

Steam entering moving blades is subjected to pass through converging area passage along with
change in direction. Thus there is increase in velocity (V2 > V1) from inlet to exit in moving blade which
results in a reaction force. Change in direction of velocity is accompanied by change in momentum thus
an impulse force. It shows that the rotation of shaft is caused by the combination of impulse and
reaction forces. The magnitude of impulse force depends upon the pressure drop in fixed blades. It may
be noted that due to shaft rotation being caused by combination of impulse and reaction forces these
reaction turbines are also termed as impulse-reaction turbine. These are also called full admission tur-
bines as the steam enters through fixed blade row over complete annulus. The enthalpy drop over the
reaction turbine stage shows that heat drop occurs in both fixed blades and moving blades rows. If the
total enthalpy drop in stage is equally divided between the stationary and moving blades then the stage is
called 50% reaction stage. A mathematical parameter called ‘degree of reaction’ is used to quantify the
proportion of enthalpy drops occurring in stationary and moving blades. The ‘degree of reaction’ is
defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in moving blades row (rotor blades) to the total enthalpy drop in the
stage. Mathematically it can be given as,
Enthalpy drop in moving blades ( rotor blades )
Degree of reaction =
Total enthalpy drop in thestage
h1 - h2
Degree of reaction, e=
h0 - h2
1
In case of 50% degree of reaction, e = 0.5 and h1 – h2 = (h – h2)
2 0
1
or, (h0 – h1) = (h1 – h2) = (h – h2)
2 0
Such turbines having 50% degree of reaction are called ‘Parson’s turbine’. Parson’s turbine has
symmetrical blades for moving and stationary blades i.e. inlet angles of stationary and moving blades are
equal and also the exit angles of stationary and moving blades are equal. Term symmetrical blading in
reaction turbine refers to the 50 per cent reaction stage.
640 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

A typical degree of reaction value of zero refers to the condition when there is no enthalpy drop
in moving blades. This refers to the impulse turbine stage where no heat drop occurs in moving blades.
In reaction turbines also the compounding is done similar to that in impulse turbine for reducing
the speed of rotation. The compounding in reaction turbine is shown in Fig. 14.23. where pressure drop
gradually occurs in the stationary and moving blade rows. In reaction turbine blading there is possibility
of steam leakage across the tip of blade and casing as there is large clearance here. This leakage of
pressure from the tip clearance is more vulnerable in high pressure region as there occurs large pressure
drop in high pressure region for given enthalpy drop. Due to this fact the initial stages in high pressure
region are taken to be of impulse type and subsequent stages are reaction stages. Above fact is generally
interpreted as “the inefficient reaction blading in high pressure stage”. Generally, the modern turbines
have first stage as velocity compounded (Curtis stage) followed by stages of pressure compounded
type (Rateau stages) or reaction stages.

Fig. 14.23 Reaction turbine having compounding

Velocity diagram for 50% reaction turbine: 50% degree of reaction turbine stage has symmetrical
stationary and moving blades. The combined velocity diagram for a moving blade having section 1 – 1
as inlet section and section 2 – 2 as exit section is shown in Fig. 14.24.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 641

Fig. 14.24 Combined velocity diagram for a moving blade of 50% reaction turbine.
From earlier discussions it is clear that 50% degree of reaction turbine has equal enthalpy drops
occuring in stationary blade row and moving blade rows. Steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.) when
applied over turbine stage yields the following assuming no heat interaction, no change in potential
energy.
Let us assume that turbine has more than one symmetrical stage such that absolute velocity of
steam leaving moving blade row equals to the velocity of steam entering fixed blade. Thus, from given
velocity diagram steam enters fixed blade with velocity C2 while leaves it with velocity C1. In case of
moving blades the relative velocities are to be considered i.e. velocity increasing from V1 to V2 from inlet
to exit.
For stationary blade row the S.F.E.E. gives,
C22 - C12
h0 – h1 =
2
V22 - V12
For moving blade row the S.F.E.E. gives, h1 – h2 =
2
Total enthalpy drop in stage, h0 – h2 = (h0 – h1) + (h1 – h2)
and for 50% degree of reaction as C1 = V2 and V1 = C2
so,
h0 – h1 = h1 – h2
h0 = 2h1 – h2
or, (h0 – h2) = 2 (h1 – h2)
h1 - h2 1
i.e. =
h0 - h2 2
Hence it proves that symmetrical blading results in 50% degree of reaction turbine.
Rate of work done from reaction stage can be estimated similar to that of impulse stage. Work
done = m × U × DCw
where DCw= Cw2 + Cw1 = (C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2)
For symmetrical blading, C2 = V1, a2 = b1, so, DCw = C1 cos a1 + V1 cos b1
or, DCw = C1 cos a1 + (C1 cos a1 – U)
DCw = 2C1, cos a1 – U
Therefore, work done, W = m × U × (2C1 cos a1 – U)
642 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Axial thrust in turbine can be quantified by the sum of thrust due to change in axial velocity and
due to pressure difference across the moving blade row. Mathematically the axial thrust can be given as,
Fa = m × (C1a – C2a) + (p1A1 – p2A2), where A1 and A2 are cross-sectional areas available as flow
passage at inlet and exit of moving blade row and p1 & p2 are pressures of steam at inlet and exit sections
of moving blade rows.
In case of 50% reaction turbine C1a = C2a, therefore axial thrust is only due to pressure difference
across moving blade row.
Diagram efficiency of reaction stage can be estimated by knowing the energy input to the moving
blades and taking ratio of work done to energy input.
C12 FG V 2
- V12 IJ
Energy input to moving blades, Ein = m × +m×
H K
2
2 2
m
Ein = × (C12 + V22 – V12)
2
m
= (C12 + C12 – V12), as C1 = V2
2
V2
Ein = m (C12 – 1 )
2
From velocity diagram, V12 = C12 + U 2 – 2C1U cos a1
Substituting value of V1 in energy input expression,
R cC + U - 2C U cosa h UV
= m × SC - 2
2
1
2
1 1

T W
Ein 1 2

R C + 2UC cosa - U U
= m× S VW
2 2

T
1 1 1
Ein
2
W
Thus, diagram efficiency, hd =
Ein
a
m × U × 2 C1 cos a 1 - U f
=
m×
lC12 + 2 U C1 cos a 1 - U 2 q
2
a
2U × 2 C1 cos a 1 - U f
hd =
bC12 + 2UC1 cos a 1 - U 2 g
U 2 r × a 2 cosa
1 -r f
Substituting r =
C1
, hd =
b
1 + 2 r cos a 1 - r 2 g
The maximum value of diagram efficiency and the optimum value of blade speed to steam velocity
ratio, r can be estimated by differentiating with respect to r and equating to zero.
d hd
= 0
dr
or, 2 cos a1 – 2r = 0
or, r = cos a1
Substituting 'r' for getting maximum value of diagram efficiency, hd,max
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 643

a
2 cos a 1 × 2 cosa 1 - cos a 1 f
hd,max =
b 1 + 2 cos 2 a 1 - cos 2 a 1 g
2 cos 2 a 1
or, hd,max =
1 + cos 2 a 1

Work output for the condition of maximum diagram efficiency can be obtained by substituting
r = cos a1
U
or, = cos a1
C1
Substituting in expression for work, or, U = C1 × cos a1
For hd,max work; W = m × C1 cos a1 (2C1 cos a1 – C1 cos a1)
W = m × C12 cos2a1

W = m × U 2 for maximum diagram efficiency.

Optimum blade speed to steam velocity ratio yields the condition U = C1cos a1 which shall
modify the velocity diagram for such optimum reaction stage as shown in Fig. 14.25.

Fig. 14.25 Velocity diagram for optimum reaction turbine stage having ρ = cos α1
Height of blade in reaction turbine can be estimated from the volume flow rate as given below.
Reaction turbine stage is full admission stage.
Taking number of blades as ‘N’, thickness of blade as ‘t’, the mass flow rate as ‘m’, average
specific volume as ‘v’ it can be written that,
m × v = (pd – Nt) × l × V2 sin b2

m⋅v
Height of blade, l =
(π ⋅ d − N ⋅ t ) ⋅ V2 ⋅ sin β2
It is observed that the minimum height for reaction turbine blade should not be less than 5 per cent
of mean blade ring diameter and the maximum height should not exceed beyond 20 per cent of mean
blade ring diameter. If the blade is of tapered type then the maximum height may go up to 30 per cent of
mean blade ring diameter. The lower and upper limits of blade height are to be maintained while deciding
blade height as shorter blades have increased energy losses while longer blades may have excessive
stresses in them. Generally in reaction stages of turbine the blade height is allowed to increase gradually
so as to give increasing annular area for expanding fluid.
644 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

14.9 LOSSES IN STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbine being work producing device running at quite high speed has number of losses occurring
in it. These losses when put together result into substantial loss of energy. Therefore, while selecting a
turbine due attention should be paid to the losses in turbine. Some of the losses occur within turbine
stages while some are external to stage. These losses are described ahead.
1. Losses in nozzles: Steam turbine nozzle is designed for isentropic expansion so as to result in
increase in velocity from inlet to exit. Practically in a nozzle the steam leaving nozzle may not have
velocity equal to the designed velocity value. This deviation in operating state of nozzle may occur
because of non-isentropic expansion. The reasons for non-isentropic expansion may be friction losses
between the steam and nozzle wall, viscous friction resistance to flow in the steam particles, boundary
layer formation and separation, heat loss during flow etc. Mathematically, this shift from isentropic
expansion to non-isentropic expansion is quantified using the parameter called ‘nozzle efficiency’. Nozzle
efficiency as described earlier is defined by the ratio of ‘actual enthalpy drop’ to the ‘isentropic enthalpy
drop’ between inlet and exit of nozzle.
2. Losses in moving blades: In steam turbine stage steam is supposed to glide smoothly over
the moving blades after leaving nozzles or fixed blades. In actual turbine stage during flow of steam over
moving blade, there may be number of factors causing loss of energy as given under:
(i) Blade friction may incur frictional loss which is taken into account by the blade friction
factor. This friction factor largely depends upon the Reynolds number, although it is earlier
defined as the ratio of relative velocity leaving blades to the relative velocity of steam entering
blades. This loss may be termed as “passage loss”.
(ii) “Boundary layer separation” may occur due to sharp deflection of fluid within the blade
passage. Deflection results in centrifugal force which causes compression near concave
surface and the rarefaction near the convex surface of blade, thus resulting in separation of
boundary layer.
(iii) Loss of energy may be due to turbulence at outlet of preceding row of nozzles due to finite
thickness of nozzle exit edge. There is mixing of steam jet leaving nozzles and entering
moving blade. Due to this transition of flow from nozzle passage to blade passage there is
formation of eddies and turbulence gets set in. This turbulence is generally in the form of
trailing vortices which keep on disappearing at high velocities. These cause the reduction of
kinetic energy delivered to blades and are called “wake losses”. Wake losses are visible at
the trailing edge of fixed blades too due to thickness of trailing edge.
(iv) Loss of energy is also there due to breakage of flow which occurs upon the impingement
of steam upon the leading edge of moving blade. This is also termed as ‘impingement loss’.
These losses are less if the flow is laminar as compared to the turbulent flow.
(v) Loss of energy also occurs during passage of steam from one stage to other i.e. rows. This
loss is also termed as ‘carry over loss’. This carry over loss is minimum if spacing between
consecutive rows is kept small.
The different losses as described above are accounted by taking the profile loss coefficient (kp),
incidence loss coefficient (ki) and carry over loss coefficient (kc). Profile loss coefficient takes into
account the losses due to turbulence, friction, fluid deflection in blade passage, curvature of blade and
actual exit angle being different from blade exit angle. Incidence loss coefficient takes care of losses due
to turbulence introduced by angle of incidence. The carry over loss coefficient takes care of losses due
to kinetic energy loss during transition of flow between the rows. Therefore, the actual relative velocity
leaving blade shall be, V2 = kp × ki × kc × V1
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 645

3. Disc friction loss: This is a kind of loss of energy visible whenever any object say disc is
rotated in air or other medium. The disc would cut the atmosphere and impart motion to surrounding air.
There shall always exist relative motion between solid wall of object and the air or surrounding fluid.
Due to this relative motion surrounding medium always exerts a resistance to motion of moving object.
This may result in loss of energy due to friction which may be felt by the increase in enthalpy of
surrounding fluid. In case of steam turbines too the rotor is completely surrounded by the steam which
offers resistance to the rotor motion. The loss of energy of rotor may go into the steam enveloping it.
This loss of energy is termed as ‘disc friction loss’. The disc friction loss may cause heating of steam
surrounding the rotor i.e. a portion of kinetic energy is transferred from the rotor disc to steam by
heating of steam. Disc friction loss is substantial in case of impulse stages as compared to reaction
stages where it is very small and can be neglected.
4. Windage loss: Windage loss occurs when the rotor blades come in contact with near station-
ary fluid (steam). In case of partial admission turbines i.e. generally impulse turbines there is churning of
steam in the region having no active steam in steam turbine. When moving rotor blades come in contact
with inactive steam then there is transfer of energy from blade to steam. This loss of energy from rotor
to fluid is termed as ‘windage loss’.
In case of full admission turbine the region inside turbine having inactive steam is negligible and so
the windage loss is nearly negligible. To minimize windage loss the turbine should be filled with moving
steam (active steam). Windage losses are very small in case of low pressure stages. Reaction turbines
have negligible windage losses as they are full admission turbines.
5. Loss due to leakage: Steam leakage may occur across the turbine shaft and between stages.
Leakage of steam may result in availability of less work from stage as steam is not fully utilized for
producing work. Leakage occurs during flow from one stage to other or from one row to other through
the clearance space between diaphragm and shaft. Leakage also occurs across the blade tip. Leakage
across diaphragm occurs in both impulse turbine and reaction turbine stages. Leakage across tip is not
prominent in case of impulse turbine as the pressure difference is very small. Tip leakage is prominent
in reaction turbine stages.
Due to this diaphragm and tip leakage effective mass flow rate for doing work gets reduced and is
consequently a loss of energy. Leakage is accompanied by the increase in entropy and so the decrease
in availability of work due to throttling of steam which is an irreversible process. Leakage loss can be
minimized by reducing the clearances as much as possible after providing for expansion of turbine parts
so that the metal-to-metal rubbing is avoided. Different seals such as labyrinths, carbon rings, water,
steam or air seals are used to prevent this leakage through clearance. Also in order to reduce leakage loss
the drum type construction is preferred to diaphragm and wheel type construction in reaction turbines.
Another type of leakage may be of balance-piston leakage which refers to leakage between balance
piston and casing. Here fluid leaks out in high pressure region of turbine and atmospheric air bleeds into
casing in low pressure sub atmospheric region (condensor side). Generally this is not a total loss as the
leakage out and leakage in are not varying too much. This kind of loss can also be prevented by
employing labyrinth packing. At low pressure/subsonic region (condenser side) of turbine the labyrinth
packing is fed with low pressure steam so that steam leaks in instead of air in case of unavoidable
leakage.
6. Losses in bearings: Turbine bearings are critical parts to support high speed rotation of shaft.
Generally, a loss to the tune of 1% of turbine output occurs in bearings. Although this loss depends upon
bearing load, oil viscosity, speed of shaft, bearing surface area and film thickness etc.
7. Losses at inlet and exit: Loss at inlet of steam turbine occurs at regulating valves at entry. At
these valves which may be stop valve or governor valves the throttling loss generally occurs causing
lowering of entering steam pressure.
646 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

At the exit of steam turbine the steam becomes wet and the fluid now is mixture of water droplet
and steam. Due to wetness of steam at exit end the water particles being heavier cause loss of kinetic
energy. These water particles, if in excessive amount may also endanger the turbine blade. The kinetic
energy of fluid at exit of steam turbine is a total loss and theoretically the fluid leaving turbine must have
the lowest possible energy in it. This loss of energy may be of the order of 10 – 13 per cent.
8. Losses due to radiations: Radiation losses also occur in steam turbines, although they are very
small compared to other losses and may be neglected. In case of steam turbines the high temperature
steam is limited to small part of casing so losses are small. But the radiation losses are quite significant
in gas turbines. In order to prevent radiation losses the pipings, turbine casing etc. carrying hot fluid
should be well insulated.

14.10 REHEAT FACTOR

In case of steam turbine the expansion process must occur isentropically under ideal conditions. But in
actual practice due to large number of losses such as friction, leakage, entry and exit losses etc. the
expansion inside does not remain isentropic. These factors are actually resulting into the situation having
incomplete conversion of available energy into the shaftwork. Thus, the actual steam leaving turbine will
be leaving with higher enthalpy than the enthalpy of steam at exit under isentropic expansion. Figure. 14.26
shows the ideal and actual expansion process in case of single stage and multi stage steam turbine. Single
stage expansion shows that ideally steam enters at state 1 and leaves at 2.

Fig. 14.26 Ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine showing reheat effect on h–s diagram
While actually steam enters at state 1 and leaves at state 2¢ i.e. enthalpy at state 2¢ is higher than
at 2. Comparison of expansion process 1–2 and 1–2¢ shows that due to various losses the total available
energy (h1 – h2) is not completely converted into shaft work. Portion of available energy given by
{(h1 – h2) – (h1 – h2¢)} remains with expanding fluid i.e. steam itself. On h–s diagram the shift in state
after expansion from 2 to 2¢ due to non-ideal operation is understood as reheating of steam at constant
pressure. For the sake of simplicity this reheating from 2 to 2¢ is considered to be of constant pressure
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 647

type, whereas actually it may not be so. If the state of steam after expansion lies in wet region then
it can be seen that non-isentropic expansion causes increase in dryness of steam at exit i.e. dryness
fraction at 2, (x2) will be less than that at 2¢(x2 ¢ ), x2 < x2 ¢ .
Reheating of steam is accompanied by increase in entropy i.e. s2¢ > s2. Figure 14.27 shows the
ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine on T–s diagram. For single stage expansion the T– s diagram
shows the amount of heat lost/dissipated due to the friction etc. and subsequently recovered by steam
expanding in steam turbine in the form of reheating by the area 22¢ BA.

Fig. 14.27 Ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine on T-S diagram
In case of multi stage expansion the h – s diagram shown in Fig. 14.26 indicates the four stage
expansion starting from state 1. In the first stage theoretically the ideal expansion is given by the line
1–2 while actually it is 1–2¢. Second stage expansion shall begin from state 2¢ and isentropic and non-
isentropic expansion processes are shown by 2¢–3 and 2¢–3¢ respectively. Actual state after expansion in
second stage is 3¢ and the subsequent stage expansion begins from this point. Expansion in third stage
results in theoretical and actual states as 4 and 4¢ respectively. In the last stage starting from 4¢ the ideal
and actual states after expansion are at 5 and 5¢ respectively.
Thus for multi stage expansion the actual states at the end of each stage are 2¢, 3¢, 4¢ and 5¢. For
any stage, say first stage the isentropic and non-isentropic enthalpy drop may be related to stage effi-
ciency as below,
ah - h f
ah - h f
2¢
Stage efficiency, hs for Ist stage = 1
1 2
Here the locus of actual state points 1–2¢ – 3¢ – 4¢ – 5¢ is also called the ‘condition’ line as it
approximates actual state of steam during its exit through turbine stages. If we look at the enthalpy
drops occurring in ideal and actual conditions then it is seen that the sum of isentropic enthalpy drops in
stages i.e. (Dh12 + Dh2¢ 3 + Dh3¢4 + Dh4¢–5) shall be different from the actual enthalpy drop (Dh12¢ + Dh2¢3¢
+ Dh3¢4¢ + Dh4¢5¢).
This sum of isentropic enthalpy drop (heat drop) is generally termed as cumulative heat drop
(Dhc). Total enthalpy drop for isentropic expansion can be given by Dh1-5¢ and this is also termed as
‘Rankine heat drop’ (DhRankine).
Let us look actual and ideal expansion in a stage, say second stage where expansion begins at 2¢
and should go up to 3 while it actually ends at 3¢. The shift in state from 3 to 3¢ indicates reheating of
steam during expansion. This phenomenon is called reheating of steam during expansion in steam
turbine and is quantified by ‘Reheat Factor’. ‘Reheat factor’ is defined by the ratio of ‘cumulative heat
648 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

drop’ to ‘Rankine heat drop’ i.e. cumulative heat drop (Dhc) to direct isentropic heat drop (DhRankine).
Cumulative heat drop ∆ h12 + ∆ h2′3 + ∆ h3′4 + ∆ h4′5 + …
Reheat factor = =
Rankine heat drop ∆ h 1 − 5″

D h12 + D h2 ¢ 3 + D h3 ¢ 4 + D h4 ¢ 5 D hc
RF = =
D h1 - 5 ² D hRankine

Reheat factor value is always greater than unity because cumulative heat drop shall always be
more than Rankine heat drop. This may be seen from h–s diagram which has diverging constant pres-
sure lines because of which the cumulative heat drop becomes more than Rankine heat drop. Reheat
factor value increases with increase in number of stages for a given pressure range. If the stage effi-
ciency is reduced then also the value of reheat factor increases for given pressure range and number of
stages. From designer’s point of view the reheat factor must have value of unity under ideal conditions.
But, since unity reheat factor value can not be attained so efforts must be made to reduce the reheat
factor value to make it close to unity. Unity reheat factor indicates that actual expansion is similar to ideal
expansion and ‘cumulative heat drop’ equals to ‘Rankine heat drop.’
Reheat factor may be related to internal efficiency of turbine as detailed below. Internal efficiency
is given by the ratio of ‘sum of actual outputs of stages’ and ‘the available energy in turbine’. Internal
efficiency may also be given by the ratio of internal work done of turbine to the Rankine heat drop.
D hactual
Mathematically, internal efficiency, hint =
D hRankine
D h12 ¢ + D h2 ¢ 3 ¢ + D h3 ¢ 4 ¢ + D h3 ¢ 5 ¢
hint =
D h15 ²
D h15 ¢
or, hint =
D h15 ²
If the stage efficiency for turbine stages is given by hS and stage efficiency remains same for all
stages, then stage efficiency can be given as,
D h12 ¢ D h2 ¢ 3 ¢ D h3 ¢ 4 ¢ D h4 ¢ 5 ¢
hS = = = =
D h12 D h2 ¢ 3 D h3 ¢ 4 D h4 ¢ 5
Also, Dh15¢ = Dh12¢ + Dh2¢3¢ + Dh3¢4¢ + Dh4¢5¢
Let us assume the available energy in each stage to be equal as, Dhstage
Dh12 = Dh2¢3 = Dh3¢4 = Dh4¢5 = Dhstage
or,
Dh12¢ = hS×Dhstage = Dh2¢3¢ = Dh3¢4¢ = Dh4¢5¢
Substituting in internal turbine efficiency, for ‘n’ number of stages
Dh15¢ = hS × Dhstage ´ n
h S × D hstage ´ n h S × D hstage ´ n
hint = =
D h15 ² D hRankine
From definition of reheat factor,
D hc
RF =
D hRankine
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 649

∆ hc
DhRankine =
RF
Substituting DhRankine in hint,
h S × D hstage ´ n ´ RF
hint =
D hc

hint =
c h
h S × n × D hstage × RF
D hc
For single stage turbine,

D h12 ¢ × RF
hint =
D h12
For the four stage turbine as considered here,

a D h f × RF
aD h f
15¢
hint =
15²

Thus it is obvious that the internal efficiency of a turbine having multiple stages is always more
than stage efficiency as Reheat factor is more than unity.

14.11 STEAM TURBINE CONTROL

In actual operation of steam turbine the speed and output of turbine are to be constantly monitored and
controlled as rarely any turbine operates at constant load. This operation of turbine at off-design condi-
tions also deteriorates performance of turbine. Therefore, for safe and optimum operation of turbine it
has certain control and monitoring instruments. Number and size of these control and monitoring instru-
ments depends upon size of turbine and its’ application. Some of typical controls and instruments used
are described below for monitoring pressure, temperature, speed, noise and vibration etc.
(i) Pressure measurement is done for oil pressure to bearing, water/steam pressure to gland
seals, steam pressure at stop valves, steam chest, inlet and exit of each stage in turbine.
Pressure gauges are mounted at suitable locations for each one of above.
(ii) Temperature measurement are done at almost all the locations of pressure measurement.
(iii) Speed measurement is required to know speed of turbine in rpm during starting and
shutdown of turbine. Turbine speed is obtained from the generator frequency recorder.
(iv) Eccentricity of shaft is also to be monitored for which an eccentricity recorder is provided
to indicate and record eccentricity of shaft at high pressure end of turbine. Eccentricity
recorder has a detector coil at low pressure end of shaft, a transfer switch on turning gear,
and a power unit and recorder mounted on control panel. Eccentricity of shaft causes
variation in air space between shaft and coil detector and therefore change in current flowing
through coil, which is being sensed appropriately.
(v) Vibrations at main bearings of turbine and generator are being monitored using vibration
amplitude recorder. This type of recorder has a detector at each bearing and detector voltage
is proportional to the bearing vibrations. Voltage variation is sent for suitable signal
transformation and vibration amplitude is recorded.
(vi) Due to excessive temperature the turbine casing may undergo axial expansion for which an
expansion indicator is put. Expansion is monitored with respect to some selected mark on
650 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

foundation. Steady expansion of casing is permitted while unsteady expansion may be

harmful.
(vii) Noise of turbine operation is being measured using noise meter as any unusual sound level
may indicate possibility of failure.
(viii) Flow rate of steam at all crucial points in steam turbine is being measured employing flow
meters and signals monitored at control panel.
(ix) Control panel also has wattmeters, voltmeters, ammeters for respective measurements.
Control panel also has the digital control of various valves, governor control etc.
Now-a-days the control panel of turbines has all digital controls and monitoring employing suitable
microprocessors.

14.12 GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES

Governing of steam turbine is required for controlling and regulating the output of a turbine
according to variable demands in service. This regulation of turbine is done by maintaining accurate and
positive control of speed, pressure and flow by employing governors. Governing of turbine maintains
the speed of turbine at constant level irrespective of load. Governing of steam turbines can be of
following types depending upon the mechanism of regulation.
(i) Throttle governing
(ii) Nozzle control governing
(iii) By-pass governing
(iv) Combined governing i.e., Combination of above as ‘throttle and nozzle control governing’
or ‘throttle and by-pass governing’.
(i) Throttle Governing: Throttle governing of steam turbine bases upon the throttling of steam up
to suitable pressure and regulate the mass flow of steam through the turbine so as to control the output
of turbine. Here in throttle governing, aim is to alter the mass flow rate as for example by reducing it, the
available energy gets reduced and hence lowering of output.

Fig. 14.28 Throttle governing on h-s diagram

In throttle governing the steam entering is regulated by opening and closing of valve. As the valve
is closed, the throttling or constant enthalpy process occurs across the valve with an increase in entropy
and corresponding decrease in availability of energy per unit mass flow of steam. Also due to throttling
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 651

the state of steam entering turbine stage gets modified and the modified expansion line for each load is
obtained. It may be noted that even when the governor valve is full open the pressure drop does occur
and thus it can be said that throttling is evident at all loads on turbine. Representation of throttle govern-
ing on h-s diagram shows that the steam is available at state ‘0’ at p0 pressure in the main steam line. At
the inlet from main steam line when the governor valve is full open the throttling results in modified state
1 from where expansion occurs following path 1–3 under insentropic expansion and non-isentropic
expansion occurs following path 1–3¢. When mass flow rate is reduced for reduced load on turbine then
this partial closing of valve causes throttling as shown by 1–2. Now as a result of this throttling from 1
to 2 the modified expansion paths are 2–4 and 2–4¢ for isentropic and non-isentropic expansion in
turbine. Thus it shows that as a result of throttling the available energy gets reduced from Dh1-3 to
Dh2-4 and Dh2-4 < Dh1-3. Hence this lowering of available energy causes reduced output from turbine.

Fig. 14.29 Schematic of simple throttle governing

Schematic of simple throttle governing in steam turbines is shown in Fig. 14.29. Here a centrifgal
governor is used to sense the change in speed of shaft. The relay system has a pilot valve and servo-
motor. The displacement of servomotor piston either upward or downward decides the opening of
throttle valve ‘C’. Servomotor piston is actuated by the high pressure oil entering from pilot valve to
upper or lower half of servomotor piston D. Under normal operation the servomotor piston occupies
middle position and pilot valves keep the inlet and exit ports in closed position. When oil enters the upper
half of servomotor then servomotor piston lowers down and the throttle valve starts closing causing
reduction of steam flow rate and so the output till the speed is maintained to normal running speed.
Simultaneously, the oil from lower half of servomotor gets drained out through pilot valve port. When oil
under pressure enters lower half of servomotor then servomotor piston gets lifted up causing lift of
throttle valve.
For throttle governing of steam turbine the steam consumption rate may be plotted with load
resulting into characteristic line called Willans line as shown in Fig. 14.30.
652 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Fig. 14.30 Characteristics of throttle governing

During throttle governing the Willan’s line is straight line making an intercept on y-axis. Math-
ematically, it can be given as,
M = K·L + M0
where M is steam consumption in kg/h at any load L.
M0 is steam consumption in kg/h at no load i.e. L = 0
L is any load on turbine in kW.
K is the constant and gives slope of Willan’s line.
Here it shows that even at no load the steam consumption shall be M0 (kg/h) which is graphically
given by intercept on y-axis.
M M
Above equation can also be written as, =K+ 0
L L
M
where is the specific steam consumption at any load, kg/kW×h
L
M
and 0 is the specific steam consumption at no load, kg/kW×h.
L
Throttle governing offers following disadvantages due to throttle action at inlet:
(a) Throttling increases initial superheat at inlet and the greatest variations in steam velocity
occur in the later stages.
(b) The wetness of steam gets reduced in later stages due to throttling. Due to this reduced
wetness there occurs reduction in stage efficiency at part load operation of turbine.
(ii) Nozzle Control Governing: Nozzle control governing is the one in which steam flowing
through nozzles is regulated by valves. Nozzle control governing is generally employed at
first stage of turbine due to practical limitations. The nozzle areas in remaining stages remain
constant. If some how the nozzle governing is provided for all nozzles in each and every
stage then an ideal condition of turbine flow passage areas conforming to mass flow rate
at all loads shall exist. Under such ideal conditions the pressure, velocities and nozzle and
blade efficiencies would be constant with load. For such ideal condition the Willan’s line
would be straight line as indicated for throttle governing of turbine.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 653

In nozzle governing the nozzles of turbines are grouped in two, three or more groups upto six or
eight groups. When nozzle governing is employed then the pressure and temperature of steam entering
first stage nozzles are independent of load. Figure 14.31 shows the schematic of nozzle control governing.

Fig. 14.31 Schematic of nozzle control governing

As the valves are being regulated for actuating nozzle control governing so there occurs some
throttling of steam at each valve. However, the amount of throttling is considerably lesser and the
decrease in availability of energy to turbine is not too much. In order to avoid this occurrence of
throttling very large number (infinite) of nozzle and governing valves may be put.
(iii) By Pass Governing: In case of by-pass governing arrangement is made for by-passing
surplus quantity of steam without allowing total steam quantity to contribute in turbine
output when load reduces. Arrangement of by pass governing is shown in Fig. 14.32.

Fig. 14.32 Arrangement in by pass governing

654 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Diagram shows that steam from main line enters the main valve which is controlled by speed
governor. Steam from main valve enters the nozzle box or steam chest. By pass valve is
also provided on the nozzle box. By pass valve is connected to a passage which delivers
steam being by passed to later end of turbine. By pass valve is actuated when load varies,
thus allowing only part of steam entering main valve to contribute in power output. By pass
valve is controlled by speed governor for all loads within its’ range. In this kind of governing
depending upon turbine and its’ application there may be more than one by pass valves.
(iv) Combined governing: Some times when the governing requirements are not met by any one
kind of arrangements of governing i.e. throttle, nozzle control and by pass governing, then
the combination of two governing mechanisms may be employed. These popular
combinations are ‘throttle and nozzle control combined governing’ and ‘throttle and by pass
combined governing’.

14.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THROTTLE GOVERNING AND

NOZZLE CONTROL GOVERNING
Differences between throttle governing and nozzle control governing are as given;
Throttle governing Nozzle control governing
(a) This governing is realized by (a) This governing is realized by nozzle
throttling of steam at inlet to tur- control so the degree of throttling
bine so there occur severe thrott- losses in valves are negligible.
ling losses.
(b) It has smaller losses due to (b) It has large partial admission losses.
partial admission of steam.
(c) This governing is generally (c) This governing is employed in
employed in both impulse turbines impulse turbine and reaction turbines
and reaction turbines. having initial impulse stages.

14.14 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES

Differences between the impulse turbine and reaction turbines are as under.
Impulse turbines Reaction turbines
(a) Impulse turbine has profile type (a) Reaction turbine has airfoil type blades
blades and has constant area between and has converging area between two
two consecutive blades. consecutive blades.
(b) Impulse turbine stage has pressure (b) Reaction turbine stage has pressure
drop occurring only in nozzles. No drop occurring in both fixed as well
pressure drop occurs in moving blade as moving blades.
row.
(c) Impulse turbines have incomplete (c) Reaction turbines have complete
admission of steam or steam being admission of steam or steam being
admitted at selected positions around admitted all around the rotor through
the motor. fixed blade ring.
(d) Impulse turbine diaphragm has (d) Reaction turbine has fixed blade
nozzles mounted on it. Velocity of ring attached to casing to serve
Cont.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 655

steam is quite large. as nozzle and guide blades for entering

steam. Velocity of steam is comparatively smaller.
(e) Impulse turbine has lesser (e) Reaction turbine has higher
efficiency and much power can not efficiency and is capable of
be developed from it. producing large power output.
(f) These occupy less space for same (f) These occupy large space for
power output. same power output.
(g) These are not very costly as (g) Reaction turbines are costly as
the manufacturing of impulse turbine their blades are very difficult to
blades is much simpler. be manufactured.
(h) Impulse turbines are suitable for (h) Reaction turbines are suited for
small power requirement. medium and higher power requirements.

EXAMPLES

1. Single stage impulse turbine has equal blade angles and nozzle angle of 15°. Determine the
maximum possible blade efficiency if the blade velocity coefficient is 0.85. Determine the blade speed
to steam velocity ratio if the actual blade efficiency is 90% of maximum blade efficiency.
Solution:
Given, a1 = 15°, b1 = b2, K = 0.85
F
cos 2 a 1 cos b 1 I
Maximum blade efficiency, hb,max =
2 H 1+ K×
cos b 2 K
cos 2 15°
= (1 + 0.85)
2
= 0.863 or 86.3%
Maximum blade efficiency = 86.3% Ans.
Actual blade efficiency = 0.90 ´ 0.863
= 0.7767
Blade efficiency for single stage impulse turbine can be given as,
h b = 2(1 + K) (r cos a1 – r2)
0.7767 = 2(1 + 0.85) (r cos 15 – r2)
0.2099 = (r ´ 0.966 – r2)
or,
r2 – 0.966r + 0.21 = 0
r = 0.653 or 0.347
Blade speed to steam velocity ratio = 0.653
or 0.347 Ans.
2. A single stage of simple impulse turbine produces 120 kW at blade speed of 150 m/s when steam
mass flow rate is 3 kg/s. Steam enters moving blade at 350 m/s and leaves the stage axially. Considering
velocity coefficient of 0.9 and smooth steam entry without shock into blades, determine the nozzle angle
and blade angles. Solve using velocity diagram.
656 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Solution:
V2
Given: U = 150 m/s, C1 = 350 m/s, = 0.9, a2 = 90°
V1
For impulse turbine single stage,
Output = 120 ´ 103 = 150 ´ DCw ´ 3
DCw = 266.67 m/s.
Let scale be 1 cm = 50 m/s for drawing velocity diagram using given information.
V1 = 255 m/s Þ BD = 5.1 cm
C1 = 350 m Þ AD = 7 cm
V2 = 229.5 m/s Þ BE = 4.59 » 4.6 cm

Fig. 14.33

Steps:

(i) Draw AB = 3 cm = FH 150 IK corresponding to U.

50
(ii) Draw perpendicular from A as a2 = 90° for axial discharge from turbine.
Mark point F along AB corresponding to DCw (= 266.67 m/s), AF = 5.33 cm
(iii) Draw perpendicular from F along FD. Open compass for C1 (= 350 m/s) i.e. 7 cm and mark
point D keeping needle at A. Join AD and DB corresponding to C1 and V1 respectively.
Measure V1 (= 5.1 cm or 255 m/s) by length BD. Estimate V2 = V1 ´ 0.9 = 229.5 m/s.
(iv) Open compass for V2 (= 229.5 m/s) i.e. 4.59 cm and mark point E keeping needle on B.
Join points E and A, E, B to show C2 and V2 respectively. This completes velocity diagram.
Measure, Ð BAD = a1 = 39°
Ð FBD = b1 = 61.5°
Ð ABE = b2 = 47°

Nozzle angle = 39°

Blade angles at inlet and exit = 61.5° and 47° Ans.
3. In a single stage simple impulse turbine the steam flows at rate of 5 kg/s. It has rotor of 1.2 m
diameter running at 3000 rpm. Nozzle angle is 18°, blade speed ratio is 0.4, velocity coefficient is 0.9,
outlet angle of blade is 3° less than inlet angle. Determine blade angles and power developed.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 657

Solution:
U V
Given: r = = 0.4, 2 = 0.9, a1 = 18°, b2 = b1 – 3
C1 V1
2 ´ p ´ 3000 ´ 1.2
U = = 188.5 m/s Þ C1 = 471.25 m/s
60 ´ 2
Using these parameters the velocity diagram is drawn.
Scale 1 cm = 50 m/s.

Fig. 14.34
From velocity diagram, b1 = 29°, b2 = 26°, DCw = 495 m/s (= length FG)
Power developed = m × U × DCw
= 5 ´ 188.5 ´ 495 = 466537.5 J/s
= 466.54 kW

Blade angles at inlet and exit = 29° and 26°

Power developed = 466.54 kW Ans.
4. In a single stage impulse turbine the isentropic enthalpy drop of 200 kJ/kg occurs in the nozzle
having efficiency of 96% and nozzle angle of 15°. The blade velocity coefficient is 0.96 and ratio of
blade speed to steam velocity is 0.5. The steam mass flow rate is 20 kg/s and velocity of steam entering
is 50 m/s. Determine
(a) the blade angles at inlet and outlet if the steam enters blades smoothly and leaves axially.
(b) the blade efficiency
(c) the power developed in kW
(d) the axial thrust.
Solve using velocity diagram.
Solution:
Let the state at inlet to nozzle, leaving nozzle and leaving blade be denoted using subscripts
0, 1 and 2.
Using nozzle efficiency the actual enthalpy drop may be calculated as.
Actual enthalpy drop in nozzle, DhN = 200 ´ 0.96 = 192 kJ/kg

Velocity of steam leaving nozzle, C1 = 2 × D hN + C0 a f 2

Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 659
Axial thrust, Fa =m × (Va1 – Va2)
= 20 ´ (170 – 75)
= 1900 N

Axial thrust = 1900 N Ans.

5. A De Laval turbine runs with steam supplied at 16 bar, 250°C.
The nozzle efficiency is 90%, blade velocity coefficient is 0.98, mechanical efficiency is 95%,
nozzle angle is 15°, symmetrical blades with 30° angle, mean diameter of wheel is 80 cm, back pressure
is 0.15 bar. Determine
(a) the speed of rotation,
(b) the steam consumption per-bhp-hr,
(c) the stage efficiency,
(d) the percentage energy loss at exit.
Solution:
From steam table at inlet to turbine nozzle, h0 = 2919.2 kJ/kg
s0 = 6.6732 kJ/kg·K
At exit i.e. back pressure 0.15 bar, s1 = s0 = 6.6732 kJ/kg·K
s1 = sf at 0.15 bar + x1× sfg at 0.15 bar
6.6732 = 0.7549 + x1 ´ 7.2536
x1 = 0.8159
Enthalpy h1 = hf at 0.15 bar + x1 ´ hfg at 0.15 bar
= (225.94 + (0.8159 ´ 2373.1))
h1 = 2162.15 kJ/kg
Isentropic heat drop = h0 – h1
= (2919.2 – 2162.15)
= 757.05 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam C1 = 2 ´ 757.05 ´ 0.90 ´ 10 3
C1 = 1167.34 m/s
Nozzle angle a1 = 15°, Blade angle b1 = b2 = 30°
V2
Blade velocity coefficient, = 0.98
V1
The velocity diagram is drawn using above information. Taking scale 1 cm = 100 m/s.

Fig. 14.36
660 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

From velocity diagram, V1 = 630 m/s, given by length BD,

Length AB gives U = 570 m/s
Using blade velocity coefficient, V2 = 0.98 ´ V1 = 617.4 m/s
DCw = Given by length GF = 1080 m/s
Length AE gives C2 velocity,
C2 = 320 m/s
22 0.80
U = 2p N ´ r Þ 570 = 2 ´ ´N´
7 2
N = 226.7 rps
N = 13602 rpm

Speed of rotation = 13602 rpm Ans.

Work done per kg of steam, W = U × DCw
= 570 ´ 1080 = 615600 W/kg
= 615.6 kW/kg
1hp = 0.7457 kW
hp per kg of steam per second = 826.86 hp
Using mechanical efficiency, bhp can be obtained as = 0.95 ´ 826.86
= 785.52 hp
3600
Steam consumption per bhp-hr = = 4.58 kg
785.52
Steam consumption per bhp-hr = 4.58 kg Ans.
Work done
Stage efficiency =
Energysupplied tostage
615.6
=
( 757.05 )
= 0.8132

Stage efficiency = 81.32% Ans.

C22
Loss at turbine exit per kg of steam =
2
= 51200 J/kg
51200
Percentage energy loss at exit =
b
757.05 ´ 103 g
´ 100

= 6.76%

Percentage energy loss at exit = 6.76% Ans.

6. Following data refer to a De Laval steam turbine having equiangular blades;
Steam entering nozzle = 100 m/s
662 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

m ×U × D Cw
Horse power developed =
745.7
3 ´ 200 ´ 485
=
745.7
= 390.23 hp
HP developed = 390.23 hp Ans.
7. In a simple impulse steam turbine stage steam enters the nozzle at 15 bar, dry saturated with
velocity of 150 m/s. Nozzle angle is 20° and steam leaves nozzle at 8 bar and enters into smooth blades.
Considering nozzle velocity coefficient of 0.90 and blades to be equiangular determine the following
for maximum diagram efficiency.
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the blading efficiency,
(c) the stage efficiency.
Solution:
From steam tables, enthalpy at inlet to nozzle, h0 = hg at 15 bar, = 2792.2 kJ/kg
entropy, s0 = sg at 15 bar = 6.4448 kJ/kg.K
Let dryness fraction at exit of nozzle be x1 at 8 bar.
For isentropic expansion, s1 = s0 = 6.4448 kJ/kg·K
s1 = 6.4448 = sf at 8 bar + x1 ´ sfg at 8 bar
6.4448 = 2.0462 + (x1 ´ 4.6166)
x1 = 0.9528
h1 = hf at 8 bar + x1 ´ hfg at 8 bar
= 721.11 + (0.9528 ´ 2048)
h1 = 2672.44 kJ/kg
Isentropic heat drop in nozzle = (h0 – h1) = 119.76 kJ/kg

Velocity at exit of nozzle C1 = a f

2 h0 - h1 + C02

= 2b119.76 ´ 10 3
g
´ 0.9 + (150 ) 2
C1 = 487.92 m/s
For maximum diagram efficiency the blade velocity can be obtained by,
cos a 1 U cosa 1
r= Þ =
2 C1 2

cos15
U = 487.92 ´ Þ U = 229.25 m/s
2
Velocity diagram is drawn considering C1 = 487.92 m/s, U = 229.25 m/s a1 = 20°, b1 = b2.
Scale 1 cm = 50 m/s.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 663

Fig. 14.38
From velocity diagram, length BD = 5.7 cm i.e. V1 = 285 m/s
Since blades are smooth so V1 = V2
C2 = 150 m/s (= length AE)
DCw = 455 m/s (= length AF)
V2 = 285 m/s
b1 = 36° = b2
Blade angle at inlet = 36°
Blade angle at exit = 36° Ans.
Work done per kg of steam = U × DCw = (229.25 ´ 455) = 104.31 ´ 103 J/kg
C12 ( 487.92 ) 2
Kinetic energy supplied per kg of steam = =
2 2
= 119.03 ´ 103 J/kg
104.31 ´ 10 3
Blading efficiency = = 0.8763
119.03 ´ 10 3
Work done per kgof steam
Stage efficiency =
Energysupplied per kgof steam tostage
104.31 ´ 10 3
=
RS (150 ) 2 UV = 0.7962
T
119.76 ´ 10 3 +
2 W
Blading efficiency = 87.63%
Stage efficiency = 79.62% Ans.
8. Single row impulse turbine operates between 10 bar and 5 bar with expansion efficiency of
95%. 10 kg of dry saturated steam per second enters into nozzle and leaves nozzle at angle of 20° to the
axis of rotation of blades. The blade velocity coefficient is 0.90, blade speed is 200 m/s and internal
losses due to disc friction and windage losses is 0.5 kJ/kg of steam. Consider that there is no axial thrust
on the blades.
Determine,
(a) Blade angles,
(b) Stage efficiency,
(c) Stage output in hp and prepare heat balance sheet. Also reason out the error if any by
solving using velocity diagram.
664 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Solution:
From steam tables:
Enthalpy of steam entering, h0 = hg at 10 bar = 2778.1 kJ/kg
Entropy. s0 = sg at 10 bar = 6.5865 kJ/kg·K
For isentropic expansion s1 = s0 = 6.5865 kJ/kg·K
Let dryness fraction at exit of nozzle be x1 at pressure of 5 bar.
s1 = sf at 5 bar + x1 ´ sfg at 5 bar
6.5865 = 1.8607 + (x1 ´ 4.9606)
x1 = 0.9527
Enthalpy at exit of nozzle, h1 = hf at 5 bar + x1, hfg at 5 bar
= 640.23 + (x1 ´ 2108.5)
h1 = 2648.99 kJ/kg
Isentropic heat drop = (h0 – h1) = 129.11 kJ/kg
Actual heat drop = 0.95 ´ (h0 – h1) = 122.65 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle considering negligible inlet velocity,
C1 = a f
2 h0 - h1 ´ 0.95

= 2 ´ 122.65 ´ 10 3
C1 = 495.28 m/s
V2
Given: U = 200 m/s, a1 = 20°, = 0.90
V1
C1a = C2a (As there is no axial thrust)

Fig. 14.39
From velocity diagram V1 = 320 m/s, V2 = 0.90 ´ V1 = 288 m/s,
C2 = 180 m/s, DCw = 485 m/s
angle ÐFBD = b1 = 32°
angle ÐABE = b2 = 39°
Work done per kg of steam = U × DCw
= (200 ´ 485)
= 97000 J/kg, Actual work = (97 – 0.5) = 96.5 kJ/kg
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 665

Work done per kgof steam

Stage efficiency =
Energy input per kgof steam tostage

=
b97000 ´ 10 -3
- 0.5 g
= 0.7474 or 74.74%
129.11
( 97 - 0.5) ´ 10
Output in hp = = 1294.09 hp
0.7457
Energy lost in nozzle = (h0 – h1) ´ 0.05 = 6.46 kJ/kg
FG V
- V22
2
IJ FG ( 320) 2
- ( 288 ) 2 IJ
H K H K
1
Energy lost in blade friction = =
2 2
= 9.73 kJ/kg
C22 (180 ) 2
Exit energy loss = = = 16.2 kJ/kg
2 2
Heat balance sheet in kJ/kg of steam
Input, kJ/kg % Expenditure, kJ/kg %
Heat supplied = 129.11 (i) Useful work = 96.5 74.63
100% (ii) Nozzle friction loss = 6.4 4.95
(iii) Blade friction loss = 9.7 7.50
(iv) Windage & disc friction loss = 0.5 0.38
(v) Exit energy loss = 16.2 12.55
129.11 129.3 kJ/kg, Error = 0.19 kJ/kg

Error of 0.19 kJ/kg is due to cumulative error creeping in from construction and rounding off
measurements from velocity diagram.
9. Following data refer to the velocity compounded impulse turbine with two rows of moving
blades:
Steam supply: 60 bar, 500°C
Speed of rotation: 3600 rpm
Mean radius of blades: 60 cm
Steam supply: 6 kg/s
Blade speed to steam velocity ratio: 0.2
Nozzle efficiency: 90%
Nozzle angle: 20°
Exit angles: 25°, 25° and 40° for first moving, fixed and second moving
blades respectively
Blade velocity coefficient: 0.85 for all blades
Disc friction and Windage loss: 20 hp.
Determine,
(a) the stage pressure
(b) the blading efficiency
(c) the power output
(d) the state of steam leaving stage.
666 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Solution:
60 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 2 ´ p ´ 3600
Blade speed, U = rw = = 226.2 m/s
60
U
r = 0.2 = so C1 = 1131 m/s
C1

C12 (1131) 2
Actual heat drop in stage, Dh¢01 = = = 639.58 kJ/kg
2 2
F D h¢ 01I
Theoretical heat drop Dh01 =
H 0.9 K = 710.64 kJ/kg

Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = h0 – Dh01

Enthalpy at inlet to nozzle, h0 = hat 60 bar, 500°C
h0 = 3422.2 kJ/kg
Entropy s0 = 6.8803 kJ/kg·K

Fig. 14.40
hence, h1 = 2711.56 kJ/kg, s1 = s0 = 6.8803 kJ/kg·K
From mollies diagram, P1 = 3.8 bar corresponding to h1 vertically below 60 bar and 500°C state.
Stage pressure = 3.8 bar Ans.
Velocity diagram is drawn using scale of 1 cm = 100 m/s and following,
U = 226.2 m/s, C1 = 1131 m/s, a1 = 20°, b2 = 25°, a3 = 25°, b4 = 40°
V2 V
= 4 = 0.85
V1 V3

Fig. 14.41
From diagram, V 1 = 935 m/s, V2 = 794.75 m/s, C2 = 610 m/s
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 667

C3
= 0.85, Þ C3 = 0.85 ´ C2 = 518.5 m/s
C2
V 3 = 335 m/s Þ V4 = 284.75 m/s
Velocity diagram is drawn in following steps:
(i) Draw AB corresponding to U (= 226.2 m/s)
(ii) Draw AD at angle 20° corresponding to C1 (= 1131 m/s)
(iii) Join D with B and measure BD (= 9.35 cm) or V1 = 935 m/s, Estimate V2 = 0.85 ´ V1
(iv) Draw BE corresponding to V2 = (794.75 m/s) at angle b2 (= 25°)
(v) Join E with A and measure AE (= 6.1 cm) or C2 = 610 m/s. For fixed blade C3 = 0.85
´ C2, Estimate C3.
(vi) Draw AG at angle a3 (= 25°) corresponding to C3 (= 518.5 m/s)
(vii) Join G with B and measure BG (= 3.35 cm) or V3 = 335 m/s. Estimate V4 = 0.85 ´ V3
for IInd moving blade.
(viii) Draw BF at angle 40° corresponding to V4 (= 284.75 m/s)
(ix) Join F with A and measure AF (= 2.8 cm) or C4 = 280 m/s.
Length KH (= 15.6 cm) or DCw Ist moving = 1560 m/s
Length JI (= 5.45 cm) or DCw II moving = 545 m/s

Total Work done = (U × DCw Ist moving) + (U × DCw II moving)

per kg of steam
= 226.2 (1560 + 545)
= 476.15 kJ/kg
476.15
Blading efficiency = = 0.7444 or 74.44%
639.58

Net power output = FH 476.15 ´ 6 IK – 20

0.7457
= 3811.16 hp

FG C IJ = (280)
2 2

H2K 2
4
Energy loss at exit per kg = = 39.2 kJ/kg

. ´ 0.7457
381116
Heat equivalent of net work = = 473.66 kJ/kg
6
Hence Dh = 473.66 + 39.2 = 512.86 kJ/kg
Corresponding to enthalpy drop of 512.86 kJ/kg from h0 the final condition of steam can be seen
from mollier diagram. The state is at 225° (superheated steam at 3.8 bar (approximately)
Blading efficiency = 74.44%
Net output = 3811.16 hp
State of steam leaving stage = 225°C Ans.
10. Determine blade speed, blade and nozzle angles and work done per kg of steam, ratio of
height required for moving blades rows and fixed blade row with respect to nozzle height. Increase in
668 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

volume of steam during expansion in velocity compounded impulse turbine having two moving blade
rows may be neglected. Further data required for analysis is given as under,
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle = 500 m/s
Angle at exit of second moving blade = 30° from plane of rotation of blades
Velocity coefficient = 0.90 for each blade.
There is no axial thrust on any of moving blade row and the discharge from stage is axial. The
axial velocity in first moving blade is twice that of second moving blade. Solve using velocity diagram.
Solution:
Let us draw the velocity diagram for the stages in backward manner starting from exit of second
moving blade and coming gradually to inlet of Ist moving Blade.
V2 V C
Given, C1 = 500 m/s, b4 = 30°, = 4 = 3 = 0.90
V1 V3 C2
a4 = 90°, C2a = C1a and C2a = 2 × C3a
C3a = C4a
Steps:
(i) Start with any length AB designating U, say AB = 2 cm
(ii) Draw line BG at angle b4 (= 30°) such that G lies vertically below A, there is axial discharge
V
from stage. Measure BG = 2.7 cm which gives V4. Estimate V3, as V3 = 4 = 3 cm
0.9
(iii) Draw a line GF parallel to AB as C3a = C4a. Using compass for 3 cm width mark state F
with compass needle at B. Join B and F. Measure AF (= 4.8 cm) which gives C3.
C3
Estimate C2 = = 5.33 cm
0.9
(iv) Draw a line ED parallel to AB as C2a = 2 × C3a i.e. 3.5 cm below AB and using compass
for 5.33 cm width mark state E with compass needle at A. Join E and A to show C2. Join
V
E and B which shows V2. Measure BE (= 7 cm) which gives V2. Estimate V1 = 2 =
0.9
7.78 cm.
(v) Using compass open for 7.78 cm mark point D with compass needle at B. Join line BD and AD
which show V1 and C1 respectively. Measure length AD = 9.6 cm. Thus C1 of 500 m/s velocity
is shown on length of 9.6 cm. Scale comes out, 9.6 cm = 500 m/s, 1cm = 52.08 m/s

Fig. 14.42
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 669

Hence using scale, 1 cm = 52.08 m/s.

So AB = 2 cm Þ U = 2 ´ 52.08 m/s, U = 104.16 m/s
DCwI moving = HI = 13.05 cm = 679.64 m/s
DCwII moving = 4.55 cm or 236.96 m/s
AG = C4 = C3a = 1.75 cm = 91.14 m/s
HE = C2a = C1a = 3.5 cm = 182.28 m/s
Angles Ð BAD = a1 = 21°
Ð IBD = b1 = 26°
Ð ABE = b2 = 28.5°
Ð HAE = a2 = 39°
Ð BAH = a3 = 20°
Ð ABF = b3 = 33°

Blade speed = 104.16 m/s

Ist moving blade inlet and exit angle = 26°, 28.5°
Fixed blade inlet and exit angle = 39°, 20°
IInd moving blade inlet angle = 33°
Nozzle angle = 21° Ans.
Total work done = U × DCwI moving + U × DCwII moving
per kg of steam
= 104.16 (679.64 + 236.96)
= 95473.056 J/kg » 95.47 kJ/kg
Area ´ Flow velocity or axial velocity
Using continuity equation, =constant,
Specific volume
Let height of nozzle first moving, fixed blade and second moving blades be ln, lm1, lf, lm2 respec-
tively
ln ´ Ca1 = lm1 ´ Ca2
lm1 Ca 1 182.28
= = = 1
ln Ca 2 182.28
Ratio of height of Ist moving blade to nozzle = 1
lf Ca 2
Ratio of height of fixed blade to nozzle = = =1
ln Ca 2
Ratio of height of IInd moving blade to nozzle,
lm 2 C 182.28
= a1 = =2
ln Ca3 9114
.
Ratio of height of Ist moving blade to nozzle = 1
Ratio of height of fixed blade to nozzle = 1
Ratio of height of IInd moving blade to nozzle = 2 Ans.
670 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

11. In a Parson’s reaction turbine the rotor of 1m diameter runs at 3000 rpm. Determine
the isentropic enthalpy drop in the stage considering stage efficiency of 0.80 , r = 0.7, blade outlet
angle = 20°.
Solution:
U
Given, r = = 0.7, hstage = 0.80, b2 = 20°
C1
2 ´ p ´ 3000 ´ 1
U = rw = = 157.08 m/s
60 ´ 2
or, C1 = 224.4 m/s
Drawing velocity diagram considering given information.
As it is Parson’s reaction turbine so a1 = b2 and b1 = a2
Scale 1 cm = 50m/s

Fig. 14.43
Steps:
(i) Draw AB corresponding to U = 157.08 m/s.
(ii) Draw AD at angle a1 = b2 = 20° corresponding to C1 (= 224.4 m/s).
(iii) Join point D with B which gives V1 (= 95 m/s). Measure angle ÐFBD = b1 = 56°
(iv) Draw C2 along AE at angle a2 = b1 = 56°. Also draw EB at angle 20°.
It intersects at E. Lines AE and BE give C2 and V2 respectively.
(v) Length FG gives DCw (= 260 m/s) of 5.2 cm.
Work output = U × DCw
(per kg of steam) = 157.8 ´ 260
= 40840.8 J/kg
40840.8
State efficiency hstage = 0.80 =
D hisentropic
Dhisentropic = 51051 J/kg or 51.05 kJ/kg

Enthalpy drop in stage = 51.05 kJ/kg Ans.

12. A Parson’s reaction turbine has mean diameter of blades as 1.6 m and rotor moving at 1500
rpm. The inlet and outlet angles are 80° and 20° respectively. Turbine receives steam at 12 bar, 200°C
and has isentropic heat drop of 26 kJ/kg. 5% of steam supplied is lost through leakage. Determine the
following considering horse power developed in stage to be 600 hp.
(a) the stage efficiency
(b) the blade height.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 671

Solution:
Given: 50% reaction turbine with b1 = 80° & b2 = 20°
N = 1500 rpm, d = 1.6 m Þ a2 = 80° and a1 = 20°
1.6 ´ 2 ´ p ´ 1500
U = rw = = 125.66 m/s
2 ´ 60
Velocity diagram for turbine stage is drawn as below using above data.

Fig. 14.44

From velocity diagram, Length AD = C1 = 168.75 m/s

Length FG = DCw = 170 m/s
Length FE = C2a = 52.5 m/s = C1a
Work done = U × DCw = 125.66 ´ 170 = 21362.2 J/kg or 21.36 kJ/kg per kg of steam.
Since 5% of steam gets leaked so only 95% of steam supplied will be used for production of work
Net work per kg of steam = 0.95 ´ 21.36 = 20.29 kJ/kg
Work done 20.29
Stage efficiency = = = 0.7804 or 78.04%
Heat supplied 26
Let mass of steam supplied be m kg per second to produce 600 hp.
0.7457 ´ 600 = m ´ 20.29
m = 22.05 kg/s
Assuming heat drop per stage to be small so that the specific volume remains nearly constant
throughout in the stage.
Specific volume at inlet from steam table, v1 = vat 12 bar, 200°c
v1 = 0.16930 m3/kg
Let height of blades be ‘h’.
Volume of steam flow rate = p ´ d ´ h ´ C1a
22.05 ´ 0.16930 = p ´ 1.2 ´ h ´ 52.5
h = 0.01886 m or 1.89 cm

Stage efficiency = 78.04%

Height of blade = 1.89 cm Ans.
13. In a reaction turbine 6 kg/s steam is admitted at 15 bar dry saturated in the first stage. Turbine
has eight pairs on mean diameter of 50 cm and run at 3000 rpm with mean blade speed to steam velocity
672 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

ratio of 0.8. There occurs tip leakage of steam at all rows amounting to 10% of total and efficiency of
working steam is 85%. Considering blade outlet angles for both fixed and moving blades to be 20°,
determine the following analytically.
(i) the output from turbine in hp.
(ii) the pressure of steam leaving turbine,
(iii) the mean blade height.
Solution:
Let the degree of reaction be 50% for the reaction turbine.
p ´ 50 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 2 ´ 3000
Mean blade speed U= = 78.54 m/s
2 ´ 60
U 78.54
Steam velocity, C1= = = 98.18 m/s
r 0.8
Angles, a1 = 20°, b2 = 20°
DCw = 2C1 cos a1 – U
= {(2 ´ 98.18 ´ cos 20) – 78.54)}
DCw = 105.98 m/s
Actual mass of steam flowing through rows, mactual = 6 ´ 0.90 = 5.4 kg/s
Power output = U × DCw ´ mactual ´ no. of pairs
78.54 ´ 105.98 ´ 5.4 ´ 8 ´ 10 -3
=
0.7454
= 482.4 hp

Output from turbine = 482.4 hp Ans.

Theoretical heat drop in turbine can be obtained using efficiency of working steam,
482.4 ´ 0.7454
Dh = = 70.51 kJ/kg
6 ´ 0.85
At inlet to steam turbine the enthalpy may be seen from steam table as,
h1 = hat 15 bar, dry saturated = hg at 15 bar = 2792.2 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 15 bar = 6.448 kJ/kg×K, v1 = 0.13177 m3/kg
Hence, enthalpy at exit of turbine
hexit = h1 – Dh
= 2792.2 – 70.51
hexit = 2721.69 kJ/kg
Pressure at exit of turbine can be approximated from the mollier diagram corresponding to hexit
and sexit (= s1) vertically below state 1. Pressure at exit = 12 bar (approx.)
Pressure at exit = 12 bar Ans.
Dryness fraction at exit of turbine, is obtained using entropy values,
s1 = sexit
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 673
= sf at 12 bar + xexit ´ sfg at 12 bar
6.448 = 2.2166 + xexit ´ 4.3067
xexit = 0.98
vexit = vf at 12 bar + xexit’ vfg at 12 bar
= 0.001139 + 0.98 ´ (0.16333 – 0.001139)
vexit = 0.16009 m3/kg
v1 + vexit ( 0.13177 + 0.16009)
Mean specific volume = =
2 2
= 0.14593 m3/kg
p ´ 50 ´ h ´ C1a
Steam mass flow rate = 6 ´ 0.92 ´ 0.14593 =
100
Axial component of velocity C1a = C1sin α1
= 98.18 sin 20
C1a = 33.58 m/s
This axial component of velocity, C1a is approximated as average flow velocity
Substituting C1a, h is estimated as under
6 ´ 0.92 ´ 0.14593 ´ 100
h= = 0.0153 m
p ´ 50 ´ 33.58

Mean blade height = 1.53 cm Ans.

14. A reaction turbine has mean blade speed of 180 m/s, blade speed to steam velocity ratio of 0.8,
outlet angles of fixed and moving blades as 20° and 30°, specific volume at outlet of fixed blade as
0.5 m3 and at moving blade outlet as 0.6 m3. Areas at exit of fixed blade and moving blades are same,
Consider the efficiency of blades as 90% when considered as nozzles and K2 = 0.88 where K is blade
velocity coefficient. Determine
(i) the degree of reaction,
(ii) adiabatic heat drop,
(iii) the overall stage efficiency.
Solution:
Given: a1 = 20°, b2 = 30°, r = 0.8, U = 180 m/s.
Mean blade speed
Steam velocity C1 =
Blade speed to steam velocity ratio
180
=
0.8
C1 = 225 m/s
Axial velocity component, at inlet C1a = C1 sin α1
= 225 sin 20
C1a = 76.95 m/s
From continuity equation, the steam mass flow rate at exit of fixed blades and moving blades shall
be same, so
674 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

C1a C 2a
=
vat exit of fixed blades vat exit of moving blades

76.95 C
= 2a
0.5 0.6
C2a = 92.34 m/s
From geometry of velocity diagrams,
C2a = V2 sin b2
C2 a 92.34
V2 = =
sin b 2 sin 30
V2 = 184.68 m/s
V12 = C12 + U 2 – 2C1U cos a1
= (225)2 + (180)2 – (2 ´ 225 ´ 180 ´ cos 20)
= 6309.9

RS C - K C 2 2 2
UV
T 2´h W
1 2
Heat drop in fixed blades =
N

Heat drop in moving blades = S

RV -K V 2 2 2
UV
T 2 ´h W
2 1

N
Here nozzle efficiency is given as 0.9 for both fixed and moving blades.
C22 = V22 + U 2 – 2UV 2 cos b2
= (184.68)2 + (180)2 – (2 ´ 180 ´ 184.68 ´ cos 30)
C22 = 8929.18
C2 = 94.49 m/s

RS (225)
- ( 0.88 ´ 8929.18)
2
UV
Heat drop in fixed blades =
T 2 ´ 0.9 W
= 23.76 kJ/kg
RS (184.68) 2
- ( 0.88 ´ 6309.9) UV
Heat drop in moving blades =
T 2 ´ 0.9 W
= 15.86 kJ/kg
Heat drop in moving blades
Therefore, degree of reaction =
Total heat drop
15.86
=
( 23.76 + 15.86)
= 0.4003 or 40.03%

Degree of reaction = 40.03% Ans.

Adiabatic heat drop in one pair of blades = (23.76 + 15.86)
= 39.62 kJ/kg.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 675

Heat drop in a pair of blades = 39.62 kJ/kg Ans.

Work done = U × DCw
= U × (V2 cos b2 + C1 cos a1 – U)
= 180 ´ (184.68 cos 30 + 225 cos 20 – 180)
= 34446.31 J/kg = 34.45 kJ/kg
34.45
Stage efficiency = = 0.8695 or 86.95%
39.62

Stage efficiency = 86.95% Ans.

15. A multi stage steam turbine has steam entering at 20 bar, 300°C and leaving at 0.05 bar and
0.95 dry. Determine reheat factor, condition of steam at exit from each of five stages considering
efficiency ratio of 0.555 and all stages doing equal work.
Solution:
At inlet to turbine, the enthalpy h1 = hat 20 bar, 300°C
h1 = 3023.5 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.7664 kJ/kg×K
Enthalpy at exit, h6 = hf at 0.05 bar + x ´ hfg at 0.05 bar
= 137.82 + (0.95 ´ 2423.7)
h6 = 2440.34 kJ/kg
h1 – h6 = 583.16 kJ/kg = Actual heat drop
Given: Stage efficiency or efficiency ratio = 0.55
Since all the stages do equal work, so the useful enthalpy drop in each of stage shall be equal.

Fig. 14.45
676 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

Enthalpy drop in each stage = FH h - h IK = 116.63 kJ/kg

1 6
5
For first stage, h1 – h2 = 116.63 kJ/kg
h1 - h2
Stage efficiency =
h1 - h2 ¢
116.63
h1 – h2¢ =
0.555
= 210.05 kJ/kg
For second stage, h2 – h3 = 116.63 kJ/kg
h - h3
Stage efficiency = 0.555 = 2
h2 - h3 ¢
116.63
h2 – h3¢ = = 210.05 kJ/kg
0.555
Similarly, for third stage h3 – h4¢ = 210.05 kJ/kg
for fourth stage, h4 – h5¢ = 210.05 kJ/kg
for fifth stage, h5 – h6¢ = 210.05 kJ/kg
After isentropic heat drop up to state 6², s1 = s6² = 6.7664 kJ/kg×K
s6² = sf at 0.05 bar + x6² × sfg at 0.05 bar

x6² = FH 6.7664 - 0.4764 IK

7.9187
x6² = 0.7943
Enthalpy, h6² = hf at 0.05 bar + x6² × hfg at 0.05 bar
= 137.82 + (0.7943 ´ 2423.7)
h6² = 2062.96 kJ/kg
F = bh - h g + c h - h h I
GG + bh - h g + ch - h h + ch - h hJJK
1 2¢ 2 3¢

H
Cumulative heat drop
3 4¢ 4 5¢ 5 6¢

Adialatic heat drop c = h - h h

Reheat factor, RF =
1 6²

5 ´ 210.05
=
( 3023.5 - 2062.96)
RF = 1.09
Reheat factor = 1.09 Ans.
Plotting the actual heat drop shown by 1-6 on Mollier diagram state of steam leaving each stage
can be given as under.
No. of stage 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure at exit of stage, bar 6.9 2.6 0.8 0.2 0.05
Condition of steam 235°C 160°C dry sat. 0.975 0.95
dryness dryness
factor factor
Ans.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 677

16. In a five stage turbine the steam is supplied at 35 bar, 450°C and leaves at 0.07 bar, 0.89 dry.
Determine the following for equal work between the stages:
(i) the state of steam at inlet to each stage,
(ii) the stage efficiency or efficiency ratio for all stages,
(iii) the reheat factor,
(iv) the overall turbine efficiency.
Solve using Mollier diagram.

Fig. 14.46
Solution:
From mollier diagram,
h1 – h6 = 1028 kJ/kg
h1 - h6
Considering equal work the enthalpy drop in each stage =
5
= 205.6 kJ/kg
Plotting the condition line as straight line between 1 and 6, the following states are obtained at inlet
of each stage

No. of stage 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure, at inlet bar 35 14.5 5.5 1.7 0.35
State of steam 450°C 342°C 235°C 125°C 0.95
The enthalpy drops as evident from mollier diagrams,
h1 – h2¢ = 264 kJ/kg, h2 – h3¢ = 246 kJ/kg, h3 – h4¢ = 240 kJ/kg,
678 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

h4 – h5¢ = 240 kJ/kg, h5 – h6¢ = 235 kJ/kg

and h1 – h2 = h2 – h3 = h3 – h4 = h4 – h5 = h5 – h6 = 205.6 kJ/kg
h - h2 205.6
Stage efficiency for different stages, hstage,I = 1 = = 0.7788
h1 - h2 ¢ 264
h2 - h3 205.6
hstage,II = = = 0.8358
h2 - h3 ¢ 246
h3 - h4 205.6
hstage,III = = = 0.8567
h3 - h4 ¢ 240
h4 - h5 205.6
hstage,IV = = = 0.8567
h4 - h5 ¢ 240
h5 - h6 205.6
hstage,V = = = 0.8749
h5 - h6 ¢ 235

Stage efficiencies = 77.88%, 83.58%, 85.67%, 85.67%, 87.49% Ans.

From mollier chart. h1 – h6² = 1162 kJ/kg
(h1 − h2′ ) + (h2 − h3′ ) + (h3 − h4′ ) + (h4 − h5′ ) + (h5 − h6′ )
Reheat factor , RF =
(h1 − h6″ )
( 264 + 246 + 240 + 240 + 235)
=
1162
RF = 1.05
Ans. Reheat factor = 1.05
ah - h f 1028
Overall efficiency, h =
ah - h f
1 6
= = 0.8847
1 6² 1162

Overall efficiency = 88.47% Ans.

17. One stage of an impulse turbine consists of a converging nozzle ring and one ring of moving
blades. The nozzles are inclined at 22° to the blades whose tip angles are both 35°. If the velocity of
steam at exit from the nozzle is 660 m/s, find the blade speed so that the steam passes without shock.
Find diagram efficiency neglecting losses if the blades are run at this speed.
[U.P.S.C., 1992]
Solution:
Diagram efficiency of impulse turbine, when losses are neglected, shall be equal to the maximum
diagram efficiency obtained for optimum blade speed-steam velocity ratio (r).
cos 2 a 1
hdiag, max = (1 + K·C)
2
Considering turbine to have smooth and symmetrical blades i.e. K = 1,C = 1 and Blade angles,
b1 = b2
Nozzle angle = a1 = 22°
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 679
hdiag, max = cos2 a1 = 0.8597 or 85.97%
cos a 1 U
Also roptimum = =
2 C1
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle is C1 and given as 660 m/s.
cos22 U
=
2 660
U = 305.97 m/s
Blade speed = 305.97 m/s
Diagram efficiency = 85.97% Ans.
18. A simple impulse turbine has a mean blade speed of 200 m/s. The nozzles are inclined at 20°
to the plane of rotation of the blades. The steam velocity from nozzles is 600 m/s. The turbine uses 3500
kg/hr of steam. The absolute velocity at exit is along the axis of the turbine. Determine (i) the inlet and
exit angles of the blades, (ii) the power output of the turbine, (iii) the diagram efficiency, and (iv) the
end thrust (per kg steam per second) and its’ direction.
[U.P.S.C., 1998]
Solution:
Given, U = 200 m/s, a1 = 20°, C1 = 600 m/s, a2 = 90°, m = 3500 kg/hr
scale: 1 cm = 50 m/s

Fig. 14.47
From geometry, C1 sin a1 = 600 sin 20 = 205.2 m/s
C1 sin a 1
tan b1 =
C1 cos a 1 - U
FG 205.2 IJ
b1 = tan–1
H (600.cos 20 - 200) K
b1 = 29.42°
For symmetrical blade, b1 = b2 = 29.42°

Blade inlet angle = Blade exit angle = 29.42° Ans.

Power output = m × U × DCw
3500 ´ 200 ´ 600 × cos 20
=
1000 ´ 60 ´ 60
= 109.63 kW
Power output = 109.63 kW Ans.
680 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

a m × U × DC f
FG m × C IJ
w
Diagram efficiency = 2

H 2K
1

2U × C1 cosa 1
=
C12
2U × cosa 1
=
C1
2 ´ 200 ´ cos 20
=
600
= 0.6265

Diagram efficiency = 62.65% Ans.

U 200
From velocity diagram, V2 cos b2 = U, V2 = = = 229.61m/s
cos b 2 cos 29.42
End thrust = (C2 – C1 sin a1)
= (V2 sin b2 – C1 sin a1)
= (229.61 (sin 29.42) – 600 sin 20)
= – 92.43 N/kg·s
End thrust = 92.43 N/kgs in reverse direction Ans.

EXERCISE

14.1 Describe the principle of steam turbine operation.

14.2 Classify the steam turbines and differentiate between steam turbine and steam engines.
14.3 Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbines.
14.4 What do you understand by compounding of steam turbines? Describe different types of
compounding of steam turbines.
14.5 Describe the velocity diagram for single stage impulse turbine. Also obtain the expressions for
force, work done, diagram efficiency, gross stage efficiency and axial thrust.
14.6 Obtain the condition for maximum blade efficiency in single stage impulse turbine. Also show how
this efficiency varies with blade speed to steam velocity ratio.
14.7 Compare different types of compounding of steam turbines with one another.
14.8 Sketch the velocity diagram of a two stage velocity compounded turbine.
14.9 Obtain the optimum blade speed to steam velocity ratio for two stage velocity compounded
impulse turbine. Also plot the variation of diagram efficiency with blade speed to steam velocity
ratio.
14.10 What do you understand by axial discharge turbine?
14.11 Discuss the significance of “whirl component of velocity” and “flow component or axial
component of velocity” in steam turbine.
14.12 Describe the working of reaction turbine. Explain, why pure reaction turbine is not used in practice.
14.13 How does reaction turbine blades differ from impulse turbine.
14.14 Discuss different losses in steam turbines.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 681

14.15 Sketch the velocity diagram for a single stage reaction turbine having 50% degree of reaction.
14.16 Obtain the condition for maximum diagram efficiency of a reaction turbine in terms of absolute
angle at inlet to moving blade.
14.17 What is meant by reheat factor? Also discuss its’ relevance with the help of T–s and h–s diagrams
14.18 Describe the governing in steam turbines. Give different methods for governing in steam turbines.
14.19 Differentiate amongst different methods of governing of steam turbine.
14.20 Give the reason for following statement;
“Velocity compounded impulse stages are generally placed at the high pressure inlet end of steam
turbine”.
14.21 Show that the reheat factor in steam turbine having steam entering dry and saturated at absolute
temperature T1, and expanding up to the absolute temperature T2 with stage efficiency h s, shall
be
T1 + T2
given as, RF =
a
2 T2 + h s T1 - T2 f
The number of stages may be considered infinite and the condition line is straight line.
14.22 A steam turbine stage is supplied with steam at 50 bar, 350°C and leaves turbine at pressure of
5 bar. Determine steam supply rate if the isentropic efficiency is 82% and power output is 15224
kW [37.8 kg/s]
14.23 A De Laval steam turbine has steam leaving nozzle with velocity of 1200 m/s at angle of 20° and
mean blade speed of 400 m/s. Considering blades to be symmetrical, blade velocity coefficient of
0.8 and steam flowing at rate of 1000 kg/hr, determine the following using velocity diagram,
(a) the blade angle
(b) the power developed
(c) the relative velocity of steam entering blades
(d) the blade efficiency.
[30°, 30°, 145.5 kW, 830 m/s, 72.8%]
14.24 Determine the turbine output from a single stage impulse turbine having smooth blades, steam
flow rate of 20 kg/s, steam velocity of 600 m/s, blade speed of 250 m/s, nozzle angle of 20° and
blade outlet angle of 25°. Also calculate axial thrust. [3275 kW, 800N]
14.25 Determine nozzle angle, blade angles at inlet and exit for a single stage impulse steam turbine
developing 132 kW, speed of 3340 rpm, mean rotor diameter of 1 m, steam flow rate of 2 kg/s, blade
velocity coefficient of 0.9, steam leaving nozzle at 400 m/s and steam discharges axially from
turbine. Solve using velocity diagram. [21°, 36°, 32°]
14.26 De-Laval turbine has nozzle angle of 20°, symmetrical blades and blade velocity coefficient of 0.85.
Determine maximum blade efficiency. Also find out the blade speed to steam velocity ratio if the
actual blade efficiency is 92% of maximum blade efficiency. [81.6%, 0.6 or 0.34]
14.27 What shall be the nozzle angle for a De-Laval turbine offering maximum possible efficiency of
90%? [18.44°]
14.28 A stage of simple impulse turbine has 10 kg/s steam entering the rotor having mean diameter of
105 cm, running at 50 r.p.s.. Nozzle angle is 18°, blade speed to steam velocity ratio is 0.42, blade
velocity coefficient is 0.84 and the exit angle of blade 3° less than inlet angle. Draw the velocity
diagram and obtain (a) the axial thrust on blades, (b) the tangential thrust on blades, (c) the
resultant thrust on blades (d) the power developed. [250 N, 3900 N, 3908 N, 641.5 kW]
14.29 A singe stage impulse steam turbine has mean diameter of rotor as 1 m and runs at 3000 rpm. Steam
leaves nozzle at 20° with velocity of 300 m/s. Determine the power developed if the axial thrust on
682 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics

blades is 98 N, blades are symmetrical and there occurs 19% frictional loss of kinetic energy of
relative velocity at inlet to blades. [181.2 kW]
14.30 Single row impulse turbine has blade speed of 175 m/s and steam leaves nozzle at 400 m/s. Steam
flows at the rate of 163.2 kg/min and leaves turbine axially. Considering blade velocity coefficient
of 0.9 determine nozzle angle, blade angles at inlet and exit, axial thrust, energy loss at exit, energy
loss in blades and diagram efficiency if turbine produces 180 kW output.
[19°, 32.6°, 36.3°, 4.35 N, 8.27 kJ/kg, 5.53 kJ/kg. 41.36%]
14.31 Following data refer to a stage of velocity compounded impulse steam turbine;
Nozzle angle: 16°
Angle at exit of first moving blade: 20°
Angle at exit of fixed blade: 25°
Angle at exit of second moving blade: 30°.
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle: 800 m/s
Blade speed: 150 m/s
Blade velocity coefficient for first moving, fixed and second moving blades: 0.8, 0.85 and 0.85.
Steam flow rate: 5 kg/s
Determine, (a) diagram efficiency, (b) the energy carried at exit, (c) the axial thrust on each moving
blade ring, (d) the power developed. [66.2%, 3.79 kJ/kg, 20.9 N, 27 N, 1059 kW]
14.32 A two stage velocity compound impulse steam turbine has mean blade speed of 150 m/s, steam
leaves nozzle with 675 m/s velocity at angle of 20°. The exit angles of first row moving blade, fixed
blade and second row moving blade are 25°, 25° and 30° respectively. For the blade velocity
coefficient of 0.9 for all blades and flow rate of4.5 kg/s determine,
(a) the power output, (b) the diagram efficiency.
[80.7 kW, 78.5%]
14.33 A simple impulse turbine has nozzles at angle of 20° to the direction of motion of moving blades
and steam leaves nozzle at 375 m/s, blade velocity coefficient is 0.85, steam flow rate is 10 kg/
s and blade speed is 165 m/s. Determine,
(a) Inlet and outlet angles for blades such that there is no axial thrust.
(b) The power output.
[34.4°, 41.6°, 532 kW]
14.34 A Parson’s reaction turbine has blade speed of 78.5 m/s, stage efficiency of 80%, blade speed
to steam velocity ratio of 0.7 and blade outlet angle of 20°. Estimate the isentropic enthalpy drop
in the stage. [12.32 kJ/kg]
14.35 In a 50% reaction turbine the inlet and exit angles are 80° and 20° respectively. Blade speed is
113 m/s and steam is admitted in turbine at 12 bar, 200°C and leaves after adiabatic enthalpy drop
of 17.5 kJ/kg with only 95% of heat drop being utilized for producing work of 620 hp. Calculate
the stage efficiency and blade speed. [78.5%, 2.29 cm]
14.36 A reaction turbine has mean blade speed of 220 m/s and blade speed to steam velocity ratio
of 0.7. Determine the angle at inlet of blade and work done per kg of steam flow if angle at exit
is 20°.
Also determine the percentage increase in diagram efficiency if turbine is run for optimum blade
speed to steam velocity ratio.
[55°, 81.5 kJ/kg, 93.8%]
14.37 A reaction turbine has eight pairs with mean blade speed of 68 m/s and average blade speed to
steam velocity ratio of 0.8. Steam at 15 bar, dry saturated is supplied at the rate of 300 kg/min.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 683

Angle at exit of fixed and moving blade is 20°. Determine (a) the horse power, (b) the average blade
height. [312.6 hp, 1.35 cm]
14.38 In a four stage velocity compounded impulse turbine, steam is supplied at 35 bar, 420°C and leaves
at 0.07 bar. Obtain the initial pressure, quality at inlet of each stage and internal efficiency of
turbine if the average efficiency is 70%. Also find reheat factor.
[11.3 bar, 304°C, 2.9 bar, 189°C, 0.55 bar, 0.99, 74.6% 1.07]
14.39 A reaction turbine stage has steam leaving fixed blade at 3 bar, 0.94 dry and velocity of 143
m/s. Ratio of axial velocity of flow to blade velocity is 0.7 at entry and 0.75 at exit from moving
blades. Angles at exit of fixed and moving blades are same. The height of blade is 1.8 cm and
steam flow is 150 kg/min. For blade velocity of 70 m/s determine the degree of reaction.
[58.2%]
14.40 A three stage turbine has steam entering at 30 bar, 350°C and leaves first, second and third stages
at 7 bar, 1 bar and 0.1 bar respectively. For equal stage efficiency of 70% determine (a) the final
condition of steam, (b) the reheat factor, (c) the overall thermal efficiency.
[0.94, 1.05, 24.5%]
14.41 A four stage turbine has steam supplied at 20 bar, 350°C and leaves at 0.05 bar. Considering
overall efficiency to be 80% and equal work from the stages and straight condition line determine,
(a) the steam pressure at exit of each stage, (b) the each stage efficiency, (c) the reheat factor.
[9 bar, 2.4 bar, 0.5 bar, 0.05 bar, 72.5%, 76%, 78.4%, 82.5%, 1.04]