.

2 Mechanics

2.2.1 Kinematics
Velocity and acceleration of a point particle as the derivatives of its displacement vector.
Linear speed; centripetal and tangential acceleration. Motion of a point particle with a
constant acceleration. Addition of velocities and angular velocities; addition of accelerations
without the Coriolis term; recognition of the cases when the Coriolis acceleration is zero.
Motion of a rigid body as a rotation around an instantaneous center of rotation; velocities and
accelerations of the material points of rigid rotating bodies.

2.2.2 Statics
Finding the center of mass of a system via summation or via integration. Equilibrium
conditions: force balance (vectorially or in terms of projections), and torque balance (only for
one-and two-dimensional geometry). Normal force, tension force, static and kinetic friction
force; Hooke’s law, stress, strain, and Young modulus. Stable and unstable equilibria.

2.2.3 Dynamics
Newton’s second law (in vector form and via projections (components)); kinetic energy for
translational and rotational motions. Potential energy for simple force fields (also as a line
integral of the force field). Momentum, angular momentum, energy and their conservation
laws. Mechanical work and power; dissipation due to friction. Inertial and non-inertial frames
of reference: inertial force, centrifugal force, potential energy in a rotating frame. Moment of
inertia for simple bodies (ring, disk, sphere, hollow sphere, rod), parallel axis theorem; find-
ing a moment of inertia via integration.

2.2.4 Celestial mechanics

Law of gravity, gravitational potential, Kepler’s laws (no derivation needed for first and third
law). Energy of a point mass on an elliptical orbit.

2.2.5 Hydrodynamics
Pressure, buoyancy, continuity law. the Bernoulli equation. Surface tension and the associ-
ated energy, capillary pressure.

2.3 Electromagnetic fields

2.3.1 Basic concepts

Concepts of charge and current; charge conservation and Kirchhoff’s current law. Coulomb
force; electrostatic field as a potential field; Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Magnetic B-field;
Lorentz force; Ampère’s force; Biot-Savart law and B-field on the axis of a circular current
loop and for simple symmetric systems like straight wire, circular loop and long solenoid.

2.3.2 Integral forms of Maxwell’s equations

Gauss’law (for E-and B-fields); Ampère’s law; Faraday’s law; using these laws for the
calculation of fields when the integrand is almost piece-wise constant. Boundary conditions
for the electric field (or electrostatic potential) at the surface of conductors and at infinity;
concept of grounded conductors. Superposition principle for electric and magnetic fields.
2.3.3 Interaction of matter with electric and magnetic fields
Resistivity and conductivity; differential form of Ohm’s law. Dielectric and magnetic
permeability; relative permittivity and permeability of electric and magnetic ma-
terials; energy density of electric and magnetic fields; ferromagnetic materials; hysteresis and
dissipation; eddy currents; Lenz’s law. Charges in magnetic field: helicoidal motion,
cyclotron frequency, drift in crossed E-and B-fields. Energy of a magnetic dipole in a
magnetic field; dipole moment of a current loop.

2.3.4 Circuits
Linear resistors and Ohm’s law; Joule’s law; work done by an electromotive force; ideal and
non-ideal batteries, constant current sources, ammeters, voltmeters and ohmmeters. Nonlinear
elements of given V -I characteristic. Capacitors and capacitance(also for a single electrode
with respect to infinity); self-induction and inductance; energy of capacitors and inductors;
mutual inductance; time constants for RL and RC circuits. AC circuits: complex amplitude;
impedance of resistors, inductors, capacitors, and combination circuits; phasor diagrams;
current and voltage resonance; active power.

2.4 Oscillations and waves

2.4.1 Single oscillator

Harmonic oscillations: equation of motion, frequency, angular frequency and period. Physical
pendulum and its reduced length. Behavior near unstable equilibria. Exponential decay of
damped oscillations; resonance of sinusoidally forced oscillators: amplitude and phase shift
of steady state oscillations. Free oscillations of LC-circuits; mechanic-electrical analogy;
positive feedback as a source of instability; generation of sine waves by feed back in a LC-
resonator.

2.4.3 Waves
Propagation of harmonic waves: phase as a linear function of space and time; wave length,
wave vector, phase and group velocities; exponential decay for waves propagating in
dissipative media; transverse and longitudinal waves; the classical Doppler effect. Waves in
inhomogeneous media: Fermat’s principle, Snell’s law. Sound waves: speed as a function of
pressure (Young’s or bulk modulus) and density, Mach cone. Energy carried by waves:
proportionality to the square of the amplitude, continuity of the energy flux.

2.4.4 Interference and diffraction

Superposition of waves: coherence, beats, standing waves, Huygens’ principle, interference
due to thin films (conditions for intensity minima and maxima only). Diffraction from one
and two slits, diffraction grating, Bragg reflection.

2.4.5 Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter

Dependence of electric permittivity on frequency (qualitatively); refractive index; dispersion
and dissipation of electromagnetic waves in transparent and opaque materials. Linear
polarization; Brewster angle; polarizers; Malus’ law.

2.4.6 Geometrical optics and photometry

Approximation of geometrical optics: rays and optical images; a partial shadow and full
shadow. Thin lens approximation; construction of images created by ideal thin lenses; thin
lens equation Luminous flux and its continuity; illuminance; luminous intensity.

2.4.7 Optical devices

Telescopes and microscopes: magnification and resolving power; diffraction grating and its
resolving power; interferometers.

2.5 Relativity
Principle of relativity and Lorentz transformations for the time and spatial coordinate, and for
the energy and momentum; mass-energy equivalence; invariance of the space time interval
and of the rest mass. Addition of parallel velocities; time dilation; length contraction; relativ-
ity of simultaneity; energy and momentum of photons and relativistic Doppler effect;
relativistic equation of motion; conservation of energy and momentum for elastic and non-
elastic interaction of particles.

2.6 Quantum Physics

2.6.1 Probability waves

Particles as waves: relationship between the frequency and energy, and between the wave
vector and momentum. Energy levels of hydrogen-like atoms (circular orbits only) and of
parabolic potentials; quantization of angular momentum. Uncertainty principle for the con-
jugate pairs of time and energy, and of coordinate and momentum(as a theorem, and as a tool
for estimates).

2.6.2 Structure of matter

Emission and absorption spectra for hydrogen-like atoms (for other atoms —qualitatively),
and for molecules due to molecular oscillations; spectral width and lifetime of excited
states. Pauli exclusion principle for Fermi particles. Particles (knowledge of charge and spin):
electrons, electron neutrinos, protons, neutrons, photons; Compton scattering. Protons and
neutrons as compound particles. Atomic nuclei, energy levels of nuclei (qualitatively); alpha-
, beta-and gamma-decays; fission, fusion and neutron capture; mass defect; half-life and
exponential decay. Photoelectric effect.

2.7 Thermodynamics and statistical physics

2.7.1 Classical thermodynamics

Concepts of thermal equilibrium and reversible processes; internal energy, work and
heat; Kelvin’s temperature scale; entropy; open, closed, isolated systems; first and second
laws of thermodynamics. Kinetic theory of ideal gases: Avogadro number, Boltzmann factor
and gas constant; translational motion of molecules and pressure; ideal gas law; translational,
rotational and oscillatory degrees of freedom; equipartition theorem; internal energy of ideal
gases; root-mean-square speed of molecules. Isothermal, isobaric, isochoric, and adiabatic
processes; specific heat for isobaric and isochoric processes; forward and reverse Carnot
cycle on ideal gas and its efficiency; efficiency of non-ideal heat engines.

2.7.2 Heat transfer and phase transitions

Phase transitions (boiling, evaporation, melting, sublimation) and latent heat; saturated vapor
pressure, relative humidity; boiling; Dalton’s law; concept of heat conductivity; continuity of
heat flux.

2.7.3 Statistical physics

Planck’s law (explained qualitatively, does not need to be remembered), Wien’s displacement
law;the Stefan-Boltzmann law.

3. Experimental skills

3.1 Introduction
The theoretical knowledge required for carrying out the experiments must be covered by
Section 2 of this Syllabus.
The experimental problems should contain at least some tasks for which the experimental
procedure (setup, the list of all the quantities subject to direct measurements, and formulae to
be used for calculations) is not described in full detail.
The experimental problems may contain implicit theoretical tasks (deriving formulae
necessary for calculations); there should be no explicit theoretical tasks unless these tasks test
the understanding of the operation principles of the given experimental setup or of the
physics of the phenomena to be studied, and do not involve long mathematical calculations.
The expected number of direct measurements and the volume of numerical calculations
should not be so large as to consume a major part of the allotted time: the exam should test
experimental creativity, rather than the speed with which the students can perform technical
tasks.
The students should have the following skills.

3.2 Safety
Knowing standard safety rules in laboratory work. Nevertheless, if the experimental set-up
contains any safety hazards, the appropriate warnings should be included in the text of the
problem. Experiments with major safety hazards should be avoided.

3.3 Measurement techniques and apparatus

Being familiar with the most common experimental techniques for measuring physical
quantities mentioned in the theoretical part.
Knowing commonly used simple laboratory instruments and digital and analog versions of
simple devices, such as calipers, the Vernier scale, stopwatches, thermometers, multimeters
(including ohmmeters and AC/DC voltmeters and ammeters), potentiometers, diodes,
transistors, lenses, prisms, optical stands, calorimeters, and so on.
Sophisticated practical equipment likely to be unfamiliar to the students should not dominate
a problem. In the case of moderately sophisticated equipment (such as oscilloscopes,
counters, rate meters, signal and function generators, photo gates, etc), instructions must be
given to the students.

3.4 Accuracy
Being aware that instruments may affect the outcome of experiments.
Being familiar with basic techniques for increasing experimental accuracy (e.g. measuring
many periods instead of a single one, minimizing the influence of noise, etc).
Knowing that if a functional dependence of a physical quantity is to be determined, the
density of taken data points should correspond to the local characteristic scale of that
functional dependence.
Expressing the final results and experimental uncertainties with a reasonable number of
significant digits, and rounding off correctly.

3.5 Experimental uncertainty analysis

Identification of dominant error sources, and reasonable estimation of the magnitudes of the
experimental uncertainties of direct measurements (using rules from documentation, if
provided).
Distinguishing between random and systematic errors; being able to estimate and reduce the
former via repeated measurements.
Finding absolute and relative uncertainties of a quantity determined as a function of measured
quantities using any reasonable method (such as linear approximation, addition by modulus
or Pythagorean addition).

3.6 Data analysis

Transformation of a dependence to a linear form by appropriate choice of variables and fitting

a straight line to experimental points. Finding the linear regression parameters (gradient,
intercept and uncertainty estimate) either graphically, or using the statistical functions of a
calculator (either method acceptable).
Selecting optimal scales for graphs and plotting data points with error bars.

4. Mathematics

4.1 Algebra
Simplification of formulae by factorization and expansion. Solving linear systems of
equations. Solving equations and systems of equations leading to quadratic and biquadratic
equations; selection of physically meaningful solutions. Summation of arithmetic and
geometric series.

4.2 Functions
Basic properties of trigonometric, inverse-trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic
functions and polynomials.
This includes formulae regarding trigonometric functions of a sum of angles. Solving simple
equations involving trigonometric, inverse-trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
functions.

4.3 Geometry and stereometry

Degrees and radians as alternative measures of angles. Equality of alternate interior and
exterior angles, equality of corresponding angles. Recognition of similar triangles. Areas of
triangles, trapezoids, circles and ellipses; surface areas of spheres, cylinders and cones;
volumes of spheres, cones, cylinders and prisms. Sine and cosine rules, property of inscribed
and central angles, Thales’ theorem. Medians and centroid of a triangle. Students are
expected to be familiar with the properties of conic sections including circles, ellipses,
parabolae and hyperbolae.
4.4 Vectors
Basic properties of vectorial sums, dot and cross products. Double cross product and scalar
triple product. Geometrical interpretation of a time derivative of a vector quantity.

4.5 Complex numbers

Summation, multiplication and division of complex numbers; separation of real and
imaginary parts. Conversion between algebraic, trigonometric, and exponential
representations of a complex number. Complex roots of quadratic equations and their
physical interpretation.

4.6 Statistics
Calculation of probabilitiesas the ratio of the number of objects or event occurrence
frequencies. Calculation of mean values, standard deviations, and standard deviation of group
means.

4.7 Calculus
Finding derivatives of elementary functions, their sums, products, quotients, and nested
functions. Integration as the inverse procedure to differentiation. Finding definite and
indefinite integrals in simple cases: elementary functions, sums of functions, and using the
substitution rule for a linearly dependent argument. Making definite integrals dimensionless
by substitution. Geometric interpretation of derivatives and integrals. Finding constants of
integration using initial conditions. Concept of gradient vectors (partial derivative formalism
is not needed).

4.8 Approximate and numerical methods

Using linear and polynomial approximations based on Taylor series. Linearization of

equations and expressions. Perturbation method: calculation of corrections based on
unperturbed solutions. Numerical integration using the trapezoidal rule or adding rectangles.s