UNDERSTANDING VIRTUE THEORY NATURE OF VIRTUE ETHICS VIRTUE ETHICS

Examining the Key Concepts and Relation to • emphasizes the importance of not only doing
One’s Character the right thing but also having proper
dispositions, motivations, and emotions in being
VIRTOUS PERSON
good.
• A kind of person who has virtue.
• Ideally, individuals should not be tempted to
VIRTUES engage in unethical behavior, and they should
derive enjoyment from doing good because
• Trained behavioral dispositions that result in they are inherently good.
habitual acts of moral goodness.
• Virtue ethics extends beyond actions,
VICE encompassing emotions, character, and moral
• Trained behavioral dispositions that result in habits, calling individuals to aspire to be an ideal
habitual acts of moral wrongness. person.

VIRTUE THEORY VIRTUES

• An ethical theory that emphasizes an • are considered excellences of character and

individual’s character rather than following a set trained behavioral dispositions leading to
of rules.” habitual acts

VIRTUE THEORY OR VIRTUE ETHICS NATURE OF VIRTUE ETHICS VIRTUE ETHICS

The central theme of which is that morality • emphasizes the importance of not only doing
involvesproducing excellent persons, who act the right thing but also having proper
well out of spontaneous goodness and serve as dispositions, motivations, and emotions in being
examples to inspire others. good.

• Ideally, individuals should not be tempted to

engage in unethical behavior, and they should
RANGE OF VIRTUES derive enjoyment from doing good because
CARDINAL they are inherently good.

They are main virtues, wisdom, • Virtue ethics extends beyond actions,
temperance, courage, and justice encompassing emotions, character, and moral
habits, calling individuals to aspire to be an ideal
THEOLOGICAL person.
According to the New Testament by
Paul. They are faith, hope, and charity.
VIRTUES

• are considered excellences of character and

trained behavioral dispositions leading to
habitual acts.
 • Virtue systems recognize principles of action
as guides but acknowledge that these are not
TYPES OF VIRTUES
the essence of morality.
MORAL VIRTUES
• Reasoning about actions is sometimes
• Honesty appropriate, but virtue ethics emphasizes giving
attention to feelings such as sympathy and
• Benevolence loyalty.
• Non-malevolence • Discovering and imitating proper moral
• Fairness examples replace meticulous reasoning as
significant aspects of the moral life. Speech
• Kindness
• Apprentice-like training in results in a virtuous
• Conscientiousness person virtue, gained by imitating ideal models,
• Gratitude who spontaneously does what is good.

NON-MORAL VIRTUES • Two ways this of ideal types training comes

into focus are through an examination of
persons or by following someone who embodies
an ideal type.
• Courage
• Optimism The Ideal Type: Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
• Rationality
• Self-control Virtues for Human Flourishing:
• Patience • Aristotle, in Nicomachean Ethics, identifies
• Endurance virtues as characteristics enabling individuals to
• Industry live well in communities.
• Musical Talent
• Cleanliness • Human well-being, or eudaimonia (happiness
• Wit or human flourishing), requires proper social
institutions.

The exact classification of virtues can be

debated, as some virtues may fall into either the Virtue Ethics as a Branch of Politics:
moral or nonmoral category. • The moral person thrives in a flourishing
• The moral virtues are closely associated with political setting, actively encouraged by the
what is deemed essential for the moral life and state to inculcate virtues.
incompatible with the immoral life, but this • Aristotle views ethics as intertwined with
distinction can be imprecise. politics, where the state plays a role in fostering
• The nonmoral virtues, while generally seen as the virtues essential for a good life.
contributing to the moral life, areasily
expropriated for immoral purposes.
Human Essence and Function: Unequal Abilities and Conditions for Virtue:

• Aristotle posits that humanity has an essence • Aristotle holds an elitist view, suggesting
or function, which is to use reason in pursuit of unequal abilities for virtue among individuals.
the good life (eudaimonia).
• The moral virtues are a necessary but not a
• Virtues indicate the moral-political sufficient condition for happiness. One must, in
characteristics necessary for people to attain addition to being virtuous, be healthy, wealthy,
happiness. wise, and have good fortune.

Distinction Between Moral and Intellectual Emphasis on Virtuous Character Over Rules:
Virtues:
• Aristotle's ethical framework minimizes
explicit mention of moral rules or principles.

• Moral virtues, unlike intellectual virtues, must • The emphasis is on the importance of good
be lived to be learned; they are acquired upbringing, habits, self-control, courage, and
through the development of right habits. character in shaping a virtuous life.

• Virtuous living involves acquiring habits that

act as virtues, contributing to the pursuit of the
Natural Expression of Virtue:
good life.
• Aristotle asserts that a person of moral
excellence naturally does good, comparing it to
Golden Mean and Virtuous Living: inherent and natural occurrences like the
change of seasons or the rotation of planets.

• Aristotle introduces the concept of the Golden

Mean, where virtues lie between excess and The Ideal Individual
deficiency.
On, Father Maximilian Kolbe:
• Virtuous living, according to Aristotle, is
• Father Maximilian Kolbe, a Polish friar, was
characterized by moderation and balance, such
arrested for publishing anti-
as courage as a means between cowardice and
Nazi pamphlets and sentenced to Auschwitz.
foolhardiness.
• He volunteered to take the place of a fellow
“We can experience fear, confidence, desire,
prisoner selected for starvation, displaying an
anger, pity, and generally any kind of pleasure
extraordinary act of self-sacrifice.
and pain either too much or too little, and in
either case not properly. But to experience all • The prisoners, including Father Kolbe, faced
this at the right time, toward the right objects, their impending deaths with peace and singing
toward the right people, for the right reason, hymns, astonishing the Nazi guards.
and in the right manner—that is the mean and
the best course, the course that is the mark of
virtue.” - Aristotle
Virtue Ethics and Imitation:

• Virtue ethics suggests that individuals learn by Critique of "Moral Saints" Argument:
watching and imitating others.
• Philosopher Susan Wolf's argument that moral
• Rather than relying on rules, lives exemplify saints are unattractive is challenged.
appropriate attitudes and dispositions in a
• Lives of moral exemplars like Jesus, Gandhi,
holistic fashion.
and others are described as not "dull-witted or
• Lives of moral exemplars like Socrates, Gandhi, humorless or bland."
Mother Teresa, and Father Kolbe serve as
• Exemplars embody the spirit of love, justice,
examples of moral excellence, inspiring others
and courage, offering proof that a higher way of
to become ideal types.
life is achievable.

Value of Moral Exemplars:

Value of Moral Saints for Society:
• Albert Schweitzer, who renounced fame for a
medical career in French West Africa, and other
moral heroes are important role models. • The value of moral saints is affirmed in society.
• The example of Jesus and the habit of asking, • Moral agents who go beyond minimal morality
"What would Jesus do?" contribute to the moral are seen as necessary for a society to overcome
conscience of individuals. evil and achieve a high degree of flourishing.
• Saints and moral heroes are considered • The actions of moral saints are contrasted
valuable, inspiring individuals to aspire to higher with the bystander effect in the Kitty Genovese
moral standards. murder case, emphasizing the importance of
highly virtuous individuals in society.

Challenging Individuals to Aspire to Moral

Reverence for life:
Heights:
• It is an absolute ethic. This does not mean this
• Moral saints challenge individuals to aspire to
ethic is to be applied absolutely or completely in
moral heights and overcome moral mediocrity.
every situation; rather, the reverence for life
ethic is a goal, an ideal, for which we are to • Exemplars serve as living proof that a higher
strive. way of life is available to everyone.
• Dr. Schweitzer states: “It [reverence for life] • The lesson of moral exemplars is that
cannot be completely achieved; but that fact individuals can overcome temptation and live a
does not really matter. In this sense, reverence deeply moral life.
for life is an absolute ethic. It does not lay down
specific rules for each possible situation. It
simply tells us that we are responsible for our
lives. It does not set either maximum or
minimum limits to what we must do.”
CRITICISMS OF ACTION BASED ETHICS Action-based theory

• Virtue Theory, dominant player in moral • We should acquire good character

philosohpy for 2000 years • We should act properly by following
moral traits, not simply act according to
• Thomas Hobbes, non-Aristotelian philosopher
rules; We judged people based on how they
Morality is formed through social agreements,
moral rules; (2) morality involves being
such as maintaining contracts, showing
act, not on whether they are virtuous people. a
gratitude, and avoiding hatred. He argues that
virtuous person.
moral philosophy should teach virtues like
justice, gratitude, and sociability, while avoiding • Referred to as rule-governed or deontic •
vices like injustice, pride, and arrogance, which Sometimes called aretaic ethics
hinder these rules and maintain peace. (incorporates both utilitarian
and
• In the 18th century, utilitarianism and
Kantianism shifted attitudes towards virtue (excellence or virtue) deontological reliance
theory, with philosophers like Bentham and Mill on actio-guiding rules)
asserting that morality is determined by the
consequences of our actions.
Views of Recent Virtue Therorist

• Action-Based Ethics Lack a Motivation

GENERAL APPROACH TO MORAL THEORIES
Component

• Action-Based Ethics Are Founded on an

Virtue-based theory Obsolete Theological-Legal Model

We should acquire good character traits, not • Action-Based Ethics Ignore the
simply act according to moral rules; (2) morality Spontaneous Dimensions of Ethics
involves being a virtuous person.
• Action-Based Ethics Are Minimalist and
Sometimes called aretaic ethics (excellence or Neglect the Development of
virtue)

Character

• Action-Based

Virtue-based
Overemphasize

theory
 • Overlapping Qualities

Connections between Virtue-Based and Action- • Evolving Perspectives

Based Ethics

Pure virtue-based ethics:

VIRTUE RELATIVISM:
• The virtues are dominant and have intrinsic
• The challenge of virtue relativism arises as
value. Moral rules or duties are derived from
what counts as a virtue changes over time and
the virtues. For example, if we claim that we
place.
have a duty to be just or beneficent, we must
discover the virtues of fairness and • Different cultures and historical periods may
benevolence in the good person. have varying prspectives on what virtues are.

Strong Emphasis on Virtues: PRACTICAL PROBLEM:

• Pure virtue-based ethics assigns the highest • Pure virtue-based ethics provides insufficient
moral weight to virtues, suggesting that moral guidance on how to resolve ethical dilemmas.
rules are derived from and reflect these virtues.
• Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, for example,
lacks clarity on specific actions one should take
in ethical situations.
CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS:
• The approach fails to offer practical guidance
• The approach faces challenges as it may not
on resolving ethical dilemmas.
cover all ethical actions; sometimes rules and
moral reasons are used in decision-making. • Questions arise about identifying a "good
person" and recognizing what actions they
• There is a lack of a complete, pure virtue-
would take in specific situations.
based account, leading to two major types of
problems: epistemological and practical.

THE STANDARD ACTION-BASED VIEW

EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEM: Action-guiding principles are the essence of
morality. The virtues are derived from the
• Difficulty in determining which habits and
principles and are instrumental in performing
emotions constitute genuine virtues.
right actions. For each virtue, there is a
• The circular reasoning problem: defining corresponding principle that is the important
virtues by referring to the actions of virtuous aspect of the relationshi
persons without clear principles or criteria.
THE ACTION-NATURE OF THE RULES THESIS

Moral rules require persons to perform or omit

CHALLENGES IN DETERMINING VIRTUES certain actions, and these actions can be
performed by persons who lack the various
• Subjectivity
virtues as well as by those who possess them.
• Context Dependency (For example, both the
benevolent and those who lack benevolence FORCES COUNTERING SELFISHNESS
can perform beneficent acts such as giving to
External sanctions (law and social pressure) and
charity.)
the creation of dispositions in people are forces
countering natural selfishness.

THE REDUCTIONIST THESIS

The moral virtues are dispositions to obey the VIRTUES FOR SOCIAL WELL-BEING
moral rules—that is, to perform or omit certain
• Geoffrey Warnock identifies four
actions. (For example, the virtue of benevolence
virtues necessary for social well-
is a disposition to carry out the duty to perform
being: nonmaleficence, beneficence, fairness,
beneficent acts.) According to the
and honesty.
correspondence theory of virtues, each virtue
corresponds to an appropriate moral principle. • These virtues counteract natural tendencies to
harm, discriminate, and deceive.

INSTRUMENTAL VALUE THESIS

DUTY-BASED ETHICAL THEORISTS
The moral virtues have no intrinsic value but do
have instrumental and derivative value. Agents • Virtues are acknowledged by duty-based
who have the virtues are more likely to do the ethical theorists, but they argue that virtues can
right acts (that is, obey the rules). The virtues only be derived from right actions or good
are important only because they motivate the consequences.
right action.
• Traits without principles are considered blind,
and virtues correspond to specific moral
principles.
TWO ASSESSMENTS IN MORALITY

• Standard view emphasizes making separate

assessments of the agent and the act within the IMPORTANCE OF VIRTUES
scope of morality.
• Virtues are motivationally indispensable,
• Act is logically prior in the relationship providing the dispositions that generate right
between the two assessments. action.

• There are standard moral virtues and

nonmoral virtues, with the latter supporting
NATURE OF MORALITY
morality.
• Morality aims to promote human flourishing
and reduce suffering.

• Acts of utmost importance are those that

counteract natural inclinations toward self- RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VIRTUES AND
interest. PRINCIPLES

• Virtues are derived from foundational moral

principles.
• Specific virtues correspond to specific moral complement each other, and both may have
duties. intrinsic value.

ENABLING VIRTUES

• Nonmoral virtues (enabling virtues) support VIRTUE-BASED ETHICIST'S CRITIQUE

the fulfillment of moral duties.
• Virtue-based ethicists reject the standard
• Courage is an example of an enabling virtue action -based view and its correspondence
that enhances both virtues and vices. theory.

• They find it reductionistic, treating virtues as

second-class citizens subordinate to master
RESPONSE TO VIRTUE-BASED CRITICISMS
rules.

• To the charge of lacking a motivational

COMPLEMENTARITY OF VIRTUES AND RULES
component, it is argued that children can be
raised to value correct principles and embody • Virtue theorists advocate for
them in their lives. complementarity, recognizing the importance of
both rules and virtues without reducing either.
• Separation of rational decision-making
procedures from theological ones is proposed in • Some instances of rule-following may lack
response to claims of an improper theological– virtue, and some virtues may be valued for their
legal model. own sake without direct correspondence to a
moral duty.
• Action-based ethicists argue that developing a
consistent system is crucial for guidance in
actions.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR CHARACTER
• The spontaneous dimension of morality can
• Pluralistic ethicists argue that individuals have
be honored without restricting morality
indirect control over their emotions and
completely to virtues.
attitudes.
• Moral minimalism is defended for its appeal to
• We are responsible for instilling
minimal common sense and universalizability.
the, right dispositions and
• Ethical relativism is challenged by asserting attitudes, contributing to the
the possibility of discovering the Good for man development of virtues.
within an Aristotelian naturalism.
INTRINSIC VALUE OF VIRTUES
Complementarity (pluralistic) ethics
• Pluralistic ethicists reject the view that virtues
• Both action-based and virtue-based models have only instrumental value; virtues are
considered intrinsically valuable.
are necessary for a complete system. Neither
the virtues nor rules are primary; they
• Virtues, such as self-respect and reactive
attitudes, have importance for their own sake
and contribute to the quality of life.