BUILDING

TECHNOLOGY I
DIVISION 05 - METALS
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
• is a soft, nonmagnetic silvery metal
• characterized by its light weight (1/3 that of iron, brass
or copper)
• low melting point
• high thermal and electrical conductivity (surpassed
only by silver and copper)
• moderately high coefficient of expansion
• readily combines with oxygen to form aluminum
oxide, a transparent film that makes it corrosion
resistant
• is readily attacked by alkalis, hydrochloric acid and
other dilute acids.
• is subject to galvanic action and should therefore be
electrically insulated from direct contact with metals
other than zinc, cadmium, magnesium and nonmagnetic
stainless steel.
• is easily worked: can be hot or cold rolled, extruded,
forged, pressed, drawn, molded, stamped, bent and
shaped.
• can be riveted, bolted, welded, brazed and soldered.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM

In architectural work practically all fabricated forms of

aluminum are used:
- rod
- bar
- extrusion
- casting
- sheet
- strip, etc.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM

Extrusion is the process

of shaping material by
forcing it to flow through a
shaped opening in a die.

Extruded material
emerges as an elongated
piece with the same
profile as the die opening.

However, these products are not fabricated from pure

aluminum but in alloy combination with iron, silicon,
copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc, chromium
and nickel in small quantities to give strength and other
desirable characteristics but often reduces its corrosion
resistance.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM

“Alclad” is a term applied to

certain aluminum products,
refers to the protective coating
(cladding) applied, primarily for
corrosion resistance, to thin
sheets of an alloy whose
corrosion resistance has been
decreased by the constituents
added to give strength and
other characteristics.

Cladding improves the

appearance of the alloy. This
thin, integral cladding usually
consists of pure aluminum,
magnesium silicide, or zinc
alloys, with or without
manganese.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:
• ALUMINUM SHEET AND
STRIP, used for roofing,
flashing, gutter, etc

• ALUMINUM FOIL - rolled to a thickness of 0.005”

(above 0.005” it is technically considered to be
sheet), used mainly for thermal insulation and vapor
barriers.
It may serve also as a surface finish material when
laminated to various sheet and board materials. In
this form it also supplies additional insulation value
to the sheet or board.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:
• CORRUGATED ALUMINUM. This is rigidized
sheet fabricated of special aluminum alloys
specifically developed for this purpose. It usually
consists of an aluminum alloy core of one type
clad with another, highly corrosion-resistant
aluminum roofing and siding
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:

➢ STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM.

When aluminum is used as a structural material,

important factors, arising from its physical and
chemical characteristics, are considered:
- Aluminum can be extruded; therefore a structural
shape can be produced economically to meet the
specified structural design requirements.
- Very corrosion resistant aluminum alloys are
available; requiring no painting and the thickness of
sections can be reduced since a safety margin is not
necessary to cover loss of strength due to corrosion.
- Aluminum is very lightweight material, hence
aluminum girders and columns show increased
efficiency with large bay spacing. However, because
the modulus of elasticity of aluminum alloys is lower
than steel, its means that buckling is a possibility and
should always be checked.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:
➢ ALUMINUM DOORS AND WINDOWS.
These are generally fabricated from
extrusions and rolled shapes.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:

➢ ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS

are pre-fabricated units, generally manufactured:

- using dimensions of modular and non-modular
window-width for building exterior, and
- in 600mm, 900mm, and 120mm widths for interior
partitions and dividers.

Panels for the exterior of buildings primarily consist of :

- an aluminum exterior facing which may be an
aluminum casting
- an extrusion or sheet material which has been
pressed, stamped or formed into specially design
shapes.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:

➢ ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS

A sandwich panel comprises a system of

construction called skin construction.

A cellular core of aluminum or other material has

a skin of aluminum applied and bonded to both
sides, thereby forming a unified whole in which all
the components work as one.
Floor Panel Wall Panel
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
a. Types of Aluminum:

➢ Ornamental aluminum. Many

kinds of rods, bars, pipes,
railings, fittings, and special
shapes are manufactured as
stock items for use in
ornamental design of railings,
grilles, screens, etc.

➢ Aluminum Mesh and

Wire Cloth are used for
fencing, particularly
chain link fencing and
insect screening.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
b. Types of Aluminum Finishes:

➢ Mechanical finishes - obtained by grinding

polishing, scratching, sandblasting, embossing, or
other treatment of the surface to achieve a desired
effect or to provide a base for other finishes.

➢ Chemical finishes - based on chemical reactions

with the aluminum surface to achieve one of the
following results:
(a) etching, cleaning, or polishing of the surface to
remove any oxide film or surface irregularity and
provide a design, a clean surface texture, or a
polished effect; and
(b) oxidizing the surface with aluminum or other
metallic oxides that protect the surface or serve as
a base for subsequent treatment, or both. Chemical
finishes permit only limited colors that are not as
satisfying as the color films obtained on
electrolytically-applied (anodized) oxide films.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
b. Types of Aluminum Finishes:

➢ Electrolytic finishes Commonly referred to as

anodized finishes, these finishes are based on
the specific ability of aluminum to develop a
protective coating of oxide on its surface.

The coating formed may be transparent or

opaque. It is hard, yet when colored finishes are
desired, it is porous enough to absorb dyes until
the final treatment which seals the surface.

Of the colors used in anodic treatments,

architectural gold has proven to be one of the
most stable from the standpoint of fade
resistance. Others are blue and, more recently,
brown and black
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.01 ALUMINUM
b. Types of Aluminum Finishes:

➢ Electroplating. Aluminum can be covered with a

protective or decorative film or another metal,
usually by electrodeposition. In the case of
copper and nickel, the coating should be
complete and unbroken; otherwise there will be
galvanic action which is destructive to aluminum.

➢ Porcelain or Vitreous Enamel. This finish forms a

hard, resistant surface. It is available in a broad
color range that creates a different feeling in that
colors are glassy, whereas anodic color is metallic
in nature.

➢ Paint. Paint, lacquer and enamel can be applied

as finishes to aluminum surfaces that have been
prepared by a suitable chemical treatment finish.
Lead base paints must not be used on aluminum.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.02 IRON
Pure iron is
• tough,
• malleable silvery-white
metal that is
• soft and ductile as copper
• it is easily magnetized
• is the most magnetically
permeable of the metals
• it oxidizes rapidly in air
and is readily attack by
most acids.
• can be hardened by
heating and sudden
cooling
• and made more pliable or more workable by heating
and slow cooling.
• At very low temperatures is very brittle
• at red heat it is soft, and
• at white heat it can be welded.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.02 IRON

As pure iron passes

through these
temperature ranges, it
undergoes changes in its
structure and properties
that are vitally important
in the preparation of
steel (an iron-
carbonalloy). Pig Iron

The commercial form in which iron is first prepared is

crude or pig iron. This impure form which contains 3% to
4% carbon and varying amount of phosphorous, silicon,
sulfur, and manganese, is the starting point from which all
other kinds of iron and iron alloys (or steel) are produced.

The key to the various types of iron and steel is the

carbon-iron relationship.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.02 IRON
a. Cast Iron:

• is an iron-carbon alloy that contains more than

1.7% carbon
• is poured while molten into forms
• it can be easily cast into any shape, but it is too
hard and brittle to be shaped by hammering,
rolling, or pressing.
• Cast iron is used in the architectural field mainly
for piping and fittings, ornamental ironwork,
hardware, as the base metal for porcelain
enameled plumbing fixtures, and for
miscellaneous casting such as floor and wall
brackets for railings, vents, circular stairs manhole
covers, and gratings.
1. TYPES OF METALS

1.02 IRON
a. Cast Iron:
• The types of cast iron generally used are gray cast
iron and malleable cast iron. Cast irons find their
largest use in heavy machinery and industry because
it has significant compressive strength and the ability
to absorb energy and stop vibration.
1. TYPES OF METALS

1.02 IRON
b. Wrought Iron:
• is almost pure iron with
less than 0.1% carbon,
usually not more than
0.05%.

• contains 2.5%, of slag (iron

silicate) in purely physical
association, not alloyed.

• Wrought iron is soft,

malleable, tough, fatigue-
resistant, and resistant to
progressive corrosion.

• It has good machinability and can be forged, bent,

rolled, drawn, and spun. It can be welded by any of
the commonly used procedures. Wrought iron is
available in the form of pipes, plates, sheets, special
shapes, and bars.
1. TYPES OF METALS

1.02 IRON
b. Wrought Iron:

• Wrought iron is now used in the architectural filed primarily

in the form of genuine wrought iron pipe, chain, sheet, and
ornamental ironwork. Wrought iron pipe is used extensively
for plumbing, heating, and air conditioning where a
corrosion-resistant, tough, durable material is required.

Because it is intrinsically related to classical architecture and

requires high skilled craftsmanship, wrought ironwork today
is used only in furniture, railing, fences, grilles, and small
decorative objects.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL
• The word “steel” refers usually to plain carbon steels
which is defined as alloys of iron and carbon which
do not contain more than 2% carbon and which are
made in malleable or ingot form.

• In the plain or straight carbon steels the iron is always

in excess of 95%.

• phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present,

the last three as impurities.

• Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may

also be present either as residual impurities or as
elements deliberately added in small quantities to
control the properties of the steel.

• Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and

welded, but not extruded.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

a. Wrought Carbon Steels:

➢ Structural steel. This is a medium carbon steel

with its carbon content controlled to give both
the strength and ductility necessary for its use.

Structural steel is
available in angles,
channels, I-beams, H
columns, T shapes, Z
shapes, plates,
round pipe columns,
sheet piling, open
web joists, and light
steel framing shapes.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

a. Wrought Carbon Steels:

➢ Reinforcement of concrete . Usually
deformed bars of varying grades and
diameters.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

a. Wrought Carbon Steels:

➢ Sheet and strip. Steel sheet is made from low

carbon steels generally containing about
0.15% carbon and not exceeding 0.25%
carbon. Strip by definition is sheet material
that is 12” or less wide. It is used in fabricated
form as decking galvanized sheet, expanded
metal, panels and sandwich panels, and as a
base metal for porcelain enamel
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

a. Wrought Carbon Steels:

➢ Corrugated steel. This is rigidized sheet

fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot-rolled steel
sheets which are either galvanized or covered
with some type of bituminous coating. If
galvanized, corrugated steel is silvery in color and
has a glittering frosted surface. It is generally
available in 18, 20, 22. 24, and 26 gauge sheet
and strip.
➢ Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth. They are used for
concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco,
and cement, fencing, insect screens.
➢ Steel Windows and Doors.

➢ Hardware such as nails, screws, rivets, etc

1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

b. Alloy Steels:
• steels to which manganese, silicon, aluminum,
titanium, and molybdenum have been added
insufficient quantity to produce properties
unobtainable in carbon steels in cast, rolled or
heat-treated form.
• The alloying elements are added to increase the
following properties:

✓ strength ✓ electrical conductivity or

✓ hardness resistivity.
✓ ease and depth of ✓ In structural applications
hardenability only the properties of
✓ performance at high or ✓ strength
low temperatures ✓ expansion
✓ electromagnetic ✓ resistance to corrosion
properties ✓ ductility, and
✓ wear resistance ✓ workability
✓ electrical conductivity or ✓ are of interest to the
resistivity. architect.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

b. Alloy Steels:

➢High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of trade

name steels with improved mechanical properties
and resistance to atmospheric corrosion, They are
being increasingly used as reinforcing for pre-
stressed concrete, high strength bolts, special
structural steels and cables for elevators, etc.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.03 STEEL

b. Alloy Steels:

➢ Stainless steels generally used in architecture are

highly alloyed steels that contain more than 10%
chromium. They are characterized by their resistance
to heat, oxidation and corrosion. They are used
where corrosion resistance, durability, and minimum
of maintenance is necessary principally for exterior
and interior wall finishes, doors, windows, trims,
railings, signs and letters, appliances, etc.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.04 COPPER

• is ductile, malleable, nonmagnetic metal with a

characteristic bright, reddish brown color.

• has the highest electrical and thermal

conductivity of any substances except silver.

• Copper useful alloys have enough strength for

minor structural work

• easily worked.

• It is attacked by alkalis and many of the common

acids.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.04 COPPER
• It is highly resistant to corrosion by air and salt
water.

• On exposure it soon reacts to form a surface

layer of an insoluble green slat which retards
further corrosion; this green color on copper is
known as its patina.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.04 COPPER
• Copper can be cast, drawn,
extruded, hot and cold
worked, spun, hammered,
punched, welded, brazed,
and soldered.

• The galvanic action of

copper must be considered
when copper is used in
architecture. When in
contact with many of the
common construction
materials and in the
presence of an electrolyte; it
will corrode these materials
near the area of contact.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.04 COPPER

• The copper itself, being cathode, will not corrode.

Therefore a careful check should be made of the
methods of attachment, support and securing into
place.

• As copper is one of
the best electrical
conductors, it finds
tremendous used in
the entire electrical
field, from very fine
wires to bus bars.

• Copper sheet and strip is used for roofing and

flashing.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.05 TIN

• is a soft, ductile,
malleable, bluish-white
metal.

• Because it is normally
covered with a thin film of
stannic oxide, it resists
corrosion by air,
moisture, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide (which
usually tarnishes and
corrodes other metals).

• will take a highly

reflective polish
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.05 TIN

• The main use of the tin is in metallic form of

either pure tin or tin-containing alloys for
protective coatings on stronger metals.

• Architectural uses of tin include bronzes,

brasses, terneplate, mirrors, gilding, solders,
hardware and fusible alloys.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.06 ZINC

• is medium hard, bluish-white metal

• is characterized by brittleness and low strength.

• is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.

• It is resistant to corrosion by water. On exposure to

air, a film of zinc carbonate or oxide forms which protects
zinc from further oxidation.
• The most important uses of zinc are
as protective coatings (galvanizing) on iron and steel
as die-casting metal, and
as an alloying element in brasses.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.06 ZINC

• Galvanizing is the process whereby a protective

coat of zinc is applied to steel and iron to steel
them against corrosion. The advantage of coating
them with zinc is that, should the iron or steel
become exposed through wear, aging or
discontinuities, galvanic reaction between the
coating and the base metal causes the zinc to
corrode and form compounds which cover and
continue to protect the iron and steel for as long as
any zinc remains.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.06 ZINC
• The most common
galvanized material used in
architecture is galvanized
iron (steel) sheet and strip.

• available flat or corrugated

with the surface plain or
refinished with other surface
materials.
• Galvanized sheets become defaced and discolored
when subjected to dampness and extremes of
temperature.

• If the sheets are piled flat in the open or tightly

bundled in a warehouse, the zinc coating can also be
damaged by the consequent absence of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between two sheets. This absence
prevents the formation of a protective film of zinc
carbonate; instead zinc hydroxide forms and destroys
the galvanizing.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.07 BRASS

• fundamentally an alloy of copper and zinc with

small quantities of other elements sometimes added
to give the special qualities.

• The copper-zinc proportions may vary from 95%

copper and 5% to 55% copper and 45% zinc.

• As a class, brass alloys are less hard and strong

than steels (iron-base alloys) but are superior in
workability and resistance to corrosion.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.07 BRASS

• All brasses react with other metals.

When brass is used in direct contact with
any other metal, a careful check should
be made of its position on the galvanic
series.

• Brass should not come into direct contact

with iron, steel or stainless, aluminum,
zinc or magnesium if there is an
electrolyte present or the possibility of
one forming at the point of contact.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.07 BRASS

• In architecture,
brasses are used for
doors, windows, door
and window frames,
and for ornamental
metalwork such as
railings, trims, grilles,
etc.

• They are also used

extensively for finish
hardware, plating of
hardware, and other
miscellaneous
accessories such as
screws, nuts and
bolts, anchors, etc.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.08 BRONZE

• True bronze is an alloy of copper and tin

which varies only slightly from 90% copper
and 10% tin composition.

• This bronze is a rich golden-brown metal

• originally worked by forging and particularly

suited for casting since it is corrosion
resistant,

• dense and hard enough to take an

impression of a mold of any delicacy
whatever.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.08 BRONZE

• The term “bronze” however, is

no longer used in this limited
sense. In commercial practice
the terms “brass” and “bronze”
may be used without much
regard for their original
meanings.

• The term “bronze” now usually

has a prefix and indicates
alloys of copper with silicon,
manganese, aluminum, and
other elements with or without
zinc, e.g. silicon bronze.

• A few brasses are known as

bronzes because they the
characteristic bronze color.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.08 BRONZE
• Of the three types of so-called
bronzes in architectural work,
only one is true bronze. This is
the statuary bronze, which
consist usually of 97% copper,
2% tin and 1% zinc.

• As for the others, architectural

bronze is really a leaded brass,
and commercial bronze is one
of the more commonly used
brasses (90% copper and 10%
zinc).

• The architectural uses of

bronze are confined to statuary
plaques, medallions and other
ornamentation, and
miscellaneous rough and finish
hardware.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.09 CHROMIUM
Chromium is a steel-white metal which
takes a brilliant polish and is harder than
cobalt or nickel. It is nonmagnetic at
ordinary temperatures but becomes
magnetic at 13F. It does not tarnish in
air, resists oxidizing agents, is soluble in
acids and strong alkalis.
The principal use of chromium is an
alloying ingredient in ferrous and
nonferrous metallurgy. Chromium
plating is one of the most commonly
encountered usage of this material in
architecture. It gives a thin, hard, bright,
wear resistant surface which sheds water
when highly polished. The metals that can
be plated with chromium include
aluminum, copper, iron, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, zinc and their alloys. The
chromium is electro deposited as a thin
layer of pure metal.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.10 NICKEL

Nickel is an inert silvery metal

that is resistant to strong alkalis
and to most acids. It resembles
iron in strength and toughness
and copper in its resistance to
oxidation and corrosion. Nickel
takes a high polish and can be
hot and cold rolled forged, bent,
extruded, spun, punched and
drawn.
When alloyed with other metals, nickel imparts its qualities of
strength, hardness, toughness, ductility, corrosion resistance,
and strength at high temperatures to the resulting material. The
major use of nickel therefore is in alloys. Another important
use of nickel is as protective or decorative coating for other
metals. It can be applied to the following base metals and their
alloys: aluminum, brass, copper, iron, magnesium, steel, tin, and
zinc.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.11 LEAD

Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest of

the common metals). It is extremely workable, has a good
corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap materials,
and is and is relatively impenetrable to radiation. The corrosion
resistance of lead arises from the fact that metallic lead does
not react with many compounds or solutions, and with certain
others it forms compounds which act as protective coatings
against further corrosion.
1. TYPES OF METALS
1.11 LEAD
Lead is available
(1) extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire, ribbon, etc.
(2) rolled into sheet, foil, strip,
(3) cast.

There are several grades of lea metal which corroding lead,

chemical lead and common desilverized lead are of interest
to the architect.

Corroding lead is used for fine white lead paints, red lead,
litharge (see PAINT).

Chemical lead and common desilverized are used for sheet,

pipe, powdered lead, ribbon lead and alloys.

Lead also finds many uses in rough hardware items such as

expansion shields for securing bolts, screws, and other
accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed nails,etc.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.01 SOLDERING
Soldering is a method to join metals, to
make electrical connections, to seal
joints hermetically them in with another,
lower melting metal or alloy called the
solder. Since the temperatures used are
comparatively low, there is no alloying
action between the solder and the
metals being joined, which are usually
stronger than the solder itself. Soldered
joints have very little tensile, shear or
impact strength; therefore this method
should not be used where a strong joint
is required.
Solders are mostly alloys of tin and lead in various proportions
with small percentages of other elements added to give special
characteristics. They can be divided into the following major
types: tin-lead, tin-lead-antimony, silver-lead. Tin-lead solder of
the 50% tin, 50% lead variety is the most commonly used general
purpose of solder. Some tin-lead are used for coating the metals
before soldering. This is known as pre-tinning.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.01 SOLDERING
a. Metal Bath Dip Solder:
Metal bath dip soldering is defined as a metal-joining
process where the workpieces to be joined are
immersed in a pot of molten solder. Because of the
relatively low melting temperature of the solder
(between 350 and 600 degrees F), only adhesion
between the solder and the workpieces results. A flux
or metal cleaner is used to prepare the workpiece for
bonding with the solder. Typically, dip soldering is an
automated process used extensively in the
electronics assembly industry.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.01 SOLDERING
b. Soldering Iron:
In this method the iron piece is preheated and
applied to the joint along with the solder and the
flux (the flux is a substance used in soldering to
clean the surfaces of the metals to be joined and to
aid fluidity); the heat from the iron forms the
soldered joint.
c. Torch:
The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame
and then the solder and flux are applied. This method
is limited to metals which can be heated without
altering their characteristics.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.01 SOLDERING

d. Sweat Method:
The heating of the metals to be joined causes the
solder to run into the joint. This is the method used for
joining copper tubing and fittings.

Fluxes for soldering are generally of three types:

✓ Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type and salt
type fluxes and include chlorides of zinc, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum and other metal.
Care should always be taken with the corrosive
fluxes. The residue must be quickly removed, as it is
not only corrosive to the metal being jointed, bit it is
also electrically conductive as a rule and therefore
cannot be used for most electrical work.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.01 SOLDERING

d. Sweat Method:
Fluxes:

✓ Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are used for

easily soldered metals such as copper, brass, lead,
and tin plate. Stearic acid is a typical neutral flux.

✓ Noncorrosive fluxes leaves residues which are

noncorrosive and nonconductive and therefore need
not removed. Rosin is the principal flux of this type.
Noncorrosive fluxes are weak their fluxing action and
their use is limited to the easily soldered base
metals.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.01 SOLDERING

d. Sweat Method:
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.02 BRAZING
Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating
temperatures are higher (but lower than in welding)
and in which stronger and higher-melting alloys are
used to fill the joints, which consequently are stronger
than ordinary soldered joints. The bond is obtained by
allying between the brazing material and the surface of
the joined metals.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.02 BRAZING

Brazing is generally used where the shape and position

of the joint or the composition of the metal or metals are
not adaptable to welding. In brazing the type of metal to
be joined, the brazing material, and their color are
equally important because galvanic action, strength of
the joint, matching of colors play a significant part in the
finished product.

Brazing materials fall into six major types:

✓ aluminum-silicon Each type is particularly suited
✓ copper-phosphorous to a certain group of metals.
✓ Silver The brazing materials are
✓ copper, and prepared by melting and
✓ copper-zinc, mixing together the metallic
magnesium, and ingredients to fixed and
heat-resistant alloys. controlled proportions.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.03 WELDING
Welding is the process by which two metals are so
joined that there is an actual union of the interatomic
bonds. This may be brought about by close contact,
heating, pressure, adding molten metal, or
combinations of these methods. The resulting are as
strong or stronger than the metals joined.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.03 WELDING

Welding may be divided into two general types:

➢ pressure welding in which pressure and heat make the

weld; and

➢ fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal make

the weld. In fusion welding the methods of heating are
gas flame and electric arc.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS
2.03 WELDING

➢ Two types of fusion welding:

• The gas flame now generally used is acetylene mixed
with oxygen. It will deliver about 5500˚F of heat which
is sufficient to melt the welding rod and the
surrounding metal and then fuse them together.
• In electric-arc method, when the welding rod (or
electrode) is brought near the joint of the metals to be
welded, an electric arc is to be formed which melts
and fuses the metal and the welding rod.
2. METHODS OF JOINING METALS

2.04 RIVETS
Rivets are devices used to join or fasten the metals. The
rivet, a metal cylinder or rod which has a head at one end,
is inserted through holes in the materials being joined, and
then the protruding end is flattened to tie the two pieces of
material together.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.01 STEEL BARS

Reinforcement for
concrete construction is
mostly in the form of
steel bars and rods of
round or square cross
section. The bars may
be plain or deformed
(with lugs or projections
for better bonding to
the concrete). They are
called billet-steel bars
or rail-steel bars.
Billet-steel bars are made by the open hearth furnace by the acid
Bessemer furnace and meet fixed chemical compositions. They
are rolled from billets directly reduced from ingots and come in
three grades: structural, intermediate, and hard. For architectural
purposes the intermediate grade is the most generally used. Rail-
steel bars are rolled from standard T-rails and come only in one
grade. Steel bars vary in size from ¼” to 1-1/4” and in lengths of
20 or 30 feet.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
3.02 WIRE FABRIC
Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is
widely used for the reinforcement of concrete
slabs and floors, as well as for stuccoed work.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.02 WIRE FABRIC

a. Welded Wire Fabric:
Welded-wire mesh, also
called welded-wire fabric,
used to reinforce concrete
slabs used in light
construction., consists of a
series wires welded
together to form a grid
pattern. It comes in various
sizes and spacings and
gauges, e.g. 4” x 4” – 6/6, 6” x 6” –8/8, etc. The first
pair of numbers refer to the spacing of the wires: the
second pair refers to the gauge of the longitudinal and
transverse wires respectively. Thus, for example, a 6”x
6” – 10/10 mesh (read it six six –ten ten) will be both
No. 10 gauge wires spaced 6” apart bothways (the
smaller the gauge number the heavier the wire).
Welded wire fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide,
150, 200, and 300 ft. long.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.02 WIRE FABRIC

b. Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric:
is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal
wires with cross wires or bond-wires running
diagonally across the fabric. The longitudinal
wires are spaced at 4” on centers and the cross
wires 4” or 8” apart.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.03 EXPANDED MESH

This is manufactured from solid steel sheets. To form the
expanded mesh, the sheet is first cut or pierced in
staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet is held by the
two sides parallel to the slots and stretched by pressure
until the desired openings or forms are obtained. Sheets
may also be stamped, perforated or deformed into an
open mesh. The forms into which sheet can be shaped
include diamond, crimp, herringbone and Z-rib, to name
only a few. Expanded mesh is therefore free from
mechanical and welded joints., e.g. STEELCRETE.
3. METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.04 LATHS
In addition to the various meshes mentioned above,
permanent centering or self-centering laths are produced
in many forms. These laths are furnished either in flat or
segmental sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs,
between which the metal is stamped, perforated or
deformed into an open mesh-work. These laths are
furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth mild
steel or in special copper-bearing or alloy steels, e.g.
“RIBPLEX”, “HYRIB”.
4. STORAGE & CARE FOR METAL
REINFORCEMENT
Metal reinforcement shall be stored in racks above the
ground and away from moisture and vegetation. If a
large quantity of reinforcement is stored at the site for an
extended period, it is well to build shed over the storage
racks.

A bright-red rust, such as forms in a few days on

reinforcement exposed to rain, is not in any way
detrimental. Actual rust scales, however, may indicate a
reduction in the effective cross section of the bar.

Deep scaling should be considered a sufficient reason

for condemning the use of reinforce unless it is first
cleaned of mill and rust scale and used as the equivalent
of a smaller size. All reinforcement should be kept free
from oil which will tend to reduce the bond between
concrete and steel.