18CVL38 (BMT)

MAHARAJA EDUCATION TRUST (R.
) MYSORE
MAHARAJA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
THANDAVAPURA
NH 766, NanjangudTaluk, Mysuru-
Mysuru 571 302
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Building Materials Testing

Laboratory (18CVL38)
III Semester B.E Civil Engineering
Name
USN
Semester
Academic Year
Department of Civil Engineering
VISION
To flourish as a centre of excellence which delivers civil engineers with quality

education, research and entrepreneurial persona.
MISSION
 To impart technical knowledge through learner-centric teaching methodologies.

 To establish hub of expertise in emerging areas of research and consultancy for
industrial and societal needs.
 To stimulate professional and entrepreneurial qualities by continual industry
academia interaction.
 To inculcate Communication skills, leadership qualities, moral and ethical values
among the students.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
At the end of the B.E Civil Engineering program, the students are expected to have
developed the following program specific outcomes. The graduates will be able
PSO1
To plan, prepare cost-estimates, execute and maintain cost effective and eco-friendly civil
engineering structures.
PSO2
To take up higher studies, employment, entrepreneurship, research and development for

sustainable civil society through continuous learning.
PSO3
To demonstrate leadership skills, professional integrity and appreciate ethical,

environmental and regulatory standards related to civil engineering projects.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
In support of the mission, within few years of graduation, the Civil Engineering
programme will enable its graduates:
PEO 1: To equip with advanced civil engineering practices and research to associate with
evolving technologies.
PEO 2: To exhibit technical and entrepreneurial skills to execute engineering projects

and solve multidisciplinary problems.
PEO 3: To express ethical approach and social awareness towards continuous

development and growth of society.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)
PO 1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO 2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO 3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO 4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide validconclusions.
PO 5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO 6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineeringpractice.
PO 7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainabledevelopment.
PO 8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO 9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO 10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO 11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one‟s own work, as
a memberand leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinaryenvironments.
PO 12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
SYLLABUS
B. E. CIVIL ENGINEERING
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) and Outcome Based Education (OBE)
SEMESTER - III
BUILDING MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY
Course Code 18CVL38 CIE Marks 40
Number of Lecture 03 (1 Hour Instruction+ SEE Marks 60
Hours/Week 2 Hours Laboratory)
RBT Levels L1, L2, L3 Exam Hours 03
Credits – 02
Course Learning Objectives: The objectives of this course is to make students to learn
1. Ability to apply knowledge of mathematics and engineering in calculating the mechanical
properties of structural materials.
2. Ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams in the area of materials testing.
3. Ability to use the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering.
4. Understanding of professional and ethical responsibility in the areas of material testing.
5. Ability to communicate effectively the mechanical properties of materials.
Experiments:
1. Tension test on mild steel and HYSD bars.
2. Compression test on mild steel, cast iron and wood.
3. Torsion test on mild steel circular sections.
4. Bending Test on Wood Under two point loading.
5. Shear Test on Mild steel- single and double shear.
6. Impact test on Mild Steel (Charpy & Izod).
7. Hardness tests on ferrous and non-ferrous metals- Brinell’s, Rockwell and Vicker’s.
8. Tests on Bricks, Tiles and Concrete Blocks.
9. Tests on Fine aggregates-Moisture content, Specific gravity, Bulk density, Sieve analysis and
Bulking.
10. Tests on Coarse aggregates-Absorption, Moisture content, specific gravity, Bulk density and
Sieve analysis.
11. Demonstration of Strain gauges and Strain indicators.
NOTE: All tests to be carried out as per relevant latest BIS Codes
Course Outcomes: After successful completion of the course, the students will be able
to:
1. Reproduce the basic knowledge of mathematics and engineering in finding the strength
in tension, compression, shear and torsion.
2. Identify, formulate and solve engineering problems of structural elements subjected to
flexure.
3. Evaluate the impact of engineering solutions on the society and also will be aware of
contemporary issues regarding failure of structures due to unsuitable materials.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Davis, Troxell and Hawk, “Testing of Engineering Materials”, International Student
Edition – McGraw Hill Book Co. New Delhi.
2. M L Gambhir and Neha Jamwal, “Building and construction materials-Testing and
quality control”, McGraw Hill education (India)Pvt. Ltd.,2014.
3. Fenner, “Mechanical Testing of Materials”, George Newnes Ltd. London.
4. Holes K A, “Experimental Strength of Materials”, English Universities Press Ltd.
London.
5. Suryanarayana A K, “Testing of Metallic Materials”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi.
6. Kukreja C B, Kishore K. and Ravi Chawla “Material Testing Laboratory Manual”,
Standard Publishers & Distributors 2006.
7. Relevant latest IS Codes.
Question paper pattern:
 Group experiments - Tension test, compression test, torsion test and bending test.
 Individual Experiments – Remaining tests.
 Two questions are to be set - One from group experiments and the other as
individual experiment.
 Instructions as printed on the cover page of answer script for split up of marks to
be strictly followed.
 All exercises are to be included for practical examination.
BUILDING MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY 18CVL38
CONTENTS
PAGE
DESCRIPTION
NO
Introduction to Basic Materials Testing laboratory 3

1. Tension Test on Mild Steel and HYSD bars. 7
2. Compression Test on Mild Steel, Cast Iron and Wood. 13
3. Torsion Test on Mild Steel circular sections. 18
4. Bending Test on Wood Under two point loading. 21
5. Shear Test on Mild steel-single and double shear. 29
6. Impact Test on Mild Steel (Charpy & Izod tests) 31
7. Hardness Tests on ferrous and non-ferrous metals 37
Brinell‟s, Rockwell and Vicker‟s hardness tests
8. Tests on Bricks, Tiles and Concrete blocks. 47
9. Tests on Fine aggregates - Moisture content, Specific Gravity, 59
Bulk density, Sieve Analysis and Bulking
10. Tests on Coarseaggregates - Absorption, Moisture content, 69
Specific Gravity, Bulk density and Sieve analysis
11. Demonstrations of Strain gauges and Strain indicators. 77
12. Definitions 79
13. Viva Questions 83
Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 1

General Instructions
1. Enter the lab 5 minutes earlier to the scheduled time with your lab
manual/observation book and completed record book of the previous
experiment.
2. Read the procedure of the experiment to be performed in advance and
come to the lab with certain initial preparation.
3. Students are expected to perform assigned experiment in each class and
complete it in all respects and take the signature of the concerned faculty
before leaving the lab.
4. After the completion of data recording, switch off the power supply used
and hand over the apparatus to the instructor/mechanic/helper before
leaving the lab.
5. Handle the instrument/equipment with care and maintain utmost
discipline and decorum in the lab. Do not try to repair any damaged
instrument or equipment.
6. Wearing lab uniform, college ID and shoes is a must while entering into
the lab.
7. Equipments should be operated only in the presence of lab in-
charge/instructor.
8. Report any broken plugs or exposed electrical wires, damage of the
equipment to the lab in-charge/instructor immediately.
9. Late entry to the lab and use of cell phones is strictly prohibited.

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

1. INTRODUCTION
The laboratory work carried out in engineering courses is designed,
a) To allow the student to verify for himself/herself that the work covered in theory classes is
applicable in practice.
b) To determine the values of engineering constants, and
c) To allow the student to become experienced in the use of scientific apparatus of varying degrees
completely.
In the Basic Materials Testing Laboratory, the mechanical properties of materials like Mild steel,
Cast iron, Brass, Aluminium and Timber are tested. The behavior of these materials when subjected to
Tension, Compression, Shear, Flexure, Torsion, Impact and Indentation is studied and also the properties
of construction materials like bricks, tiles, coarse aggregates and fine aggregates are studied to know its
suitability in construction.
2. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT
When an experiment is carried out, the required readings are noted down, results are calculated and a
complete report is prepared. This should take the following form:
a) Title and Date: The description title of the experiment, which should be kept as brief as
possible, should be written at the top along with the date on which the experiment was carried
out.
b) Objective: What is intended to be carried out, determined and verified must be stated clearly and
concisely.
c) Apparatus: The apparatus used should be described and a neat diagrammatic sketch should be
included.
d) Theory: Definitions of terms used must be given and relationships which are to be verified on
which the experimental results to be calculated must be stated. The terms and relationships
explained for one test can straight away be used for any subsequent test.
e) Procedure: This is the description of how the test is carried out. The passive voice is used,
statements like „we placed the beam on the knife edges and then I adjusted the dial gauge‟ should
be written as „The beam is placed on the knife edges and then the dial gauge is adjusted‟.
f) Results: All the observations should be neatly recorded and calculated results to be shown
clearly. A set of specimen calculations for a series of observations should be included where ever
applicable. Whenever possible, the observations should be expressed in graphical form and the
results are derived from these graphs. While tabulating the experimental data, the units in which
the quantities are measured must be clearly stated. Graphical points should be marked + or 0,

unless a line is nearly horizontal when X can be used as dots cannot be easily seen and are over
written if the graph passes through them.
g) Discussions & Conclusions: This is the most difficult and important part of the report. It consists
of analyzing the results obtained, verifying the theoretical relationships, checking the values of
different constants obtained etc.
3. TESTING MACHINES
For testing a given specimens in a particular manner of loading, it is usually much simpler to design a
machine for that purpose. But when it is required to test different shapes and sizes of specimens under
different types of loading, the testing machine becomes more complex in construction. It is now usual to
employ testing machines which are readily adoptable for tests in tension, compression, shear and
bending. Some machines are also provided with the means for conducting torsion tests and hardness
tests. Such machines are known as “Universal Testing Machines (UTM)”. The UTMs are intended for
use in laboratories where owing to cost and space restrictions, it is not possible to have a number of
separate machines.
4. METHODS OF APPLICATION OF LOADS
a) Weights: Weights of known magnitude can be used directly as a means of applying a tensile,
compressive or bending load on a specimen. The main disadvantage of this simple method of
applying loads is that for most materials the size of specimen cross section would be very small
to be truly representative. If larger specimens are used, the handling of larger weights required
for testing would be tedious, costly and sometimes impossible.
b) Weights and Levers: A horizontal lever with arms of different lengths is sometimes used for
applying loads. This method of load application is especially useful in cases where a constant
load is to be applied for a long period of time, as for example in creep test on concrete. If a
greater magnification of load is desired, a compound system of levers can be used.
c) Mechanical Gear Systems: The load can be applied by mechanical means through the use of
screw-gear mechanism. The power may be supplied either by hand or by an electronic motor.
d) Hydraulic Systems: A hydraulic system is often employed to move the cross head of a testing
machine. The hydraulic loading system depends on the movement of a piston or ram in a cylinder
by means of oil pressure. Oil is pumped into cylinder by a motor driven pump and valves are
used to regulate the rate of application of load.
5. MEASUREMENT OF DEFORMATION
Deformation such as extension, compression, deflection, etc. that are to be measured while conducting
experiments are of very small magnitude, especially in the elastic range. It would be impossible to
measure these deformations with any reasonable accuracy without magnifying them. In the laboratory,
strain gauges are employed to measure these deformations. These gauges measure deformation over a

particular length of the test specimen called gauge length. Many strain gauges such as mechanical strain
gauges, optical strain gauges, electrical strain gauges, etc are available. Of these, mechanical strain
gauges in which the deformations are magnified using the lever principle are commonly used in this
laboratory course.
6. INDIAN STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
In order that tests are carried in a correct and uniform manner in the various testing laboratories in India,
Bureau of Indian Standards has laid down certain specifications for number of these tests. These
specifications will help in standardizing the test procedures so that comparisons can be easily made.
7. ABOUT UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
The Universal Testing Machine consists of a testing unit and a control unit connected to each other by
means of a set of hydraulic pipes and an electric cable. The testing unit is equipped with a hydraulic
piston and a cylinder. To this piston two cross heads bottom and top cross heads are rigidly fixed. Two
vertical columns join the two cross-heads. There is one more cross head, known as adjustable cross-head
which is supported on two screwed spindles. The adjustable cross head can be raised up or lowered
down by the rotation of the screwed spindles. An electric motor housed in the testing unit transmits
power to the spindles to cause their rotation through a chain and a set of gears.
The control unit has an oil tank from which oil under pressure is delivered to the cylinder in the
testing unit by means of a hydraulic oil pump. The oil pump is driven by an electric motor housed in the
control unit. The rate at which oil is pumped can be controlled, which means that the rate of application
of load can be controlled. When oil under pressure enters the cylinder in the testing unit, it lifts the
piston up due to the upward force. Along with the piston, the bottom and top cross-heads also move up.
Since the adjustable cross-head will be stationary during the test a specimen held between the top cross-
head and adjustable cross-head will be pulled apart and hence will be subjected to tension. Specimens to
be tested for compression, shear and bending will be placed between the adjustable cross-head and
bottom cross-head.
The UTMs can generally be operated in two or more load ranges. The required load range for any
particular test is obtained by operating the lever providing in the control unit for this purpose. To
measure the magnitude of the force on the test specimen, oil under pressure from the cylinder is taken by
a hydraulic pipe to the torsion bar dynamometer through the measuring bar assembly. There are two or
more pipes through which oil can pass from the measuring range assembly. But it will pass only through
one at a time as per adjustment and will lift one of the three corresponding pistons of the dynamometer
acting eccentrically produces a twisting movement on the torsion bar.
Other provisions in these machines include i) a load maintainer or stabilizer for maintaining a
load or to increase or decrease the load by a specified amount, ii) an exhaust pump which sucks the
excessive oil from the cylinder and dynamometer and delivers it back to the oil tank, iii) an auto graph

recorder to get a plot of load against deformation, iv) bores in the top cross-head and adjustable cross-
head to receive different kinds of jaws to grip various shapes of specimens for tension test, (for
compression test, a compression plate will be fixed to the bottom surface of the adjustable cross-head for
adjusting the gap between the grips and holding the grip for adjusted gap) and vi) an ivory scale
measuring large deformations.
Modulus of Elasticity (E)
Sl No. Material E in SI Units ( N/mm2)

1 Steel 2.0 x 105
2 Brass 1.1 x 105
3 Aluminium 0.7 x 105
4 Cast Iron 1.0 x 105
5 Teak Wood 0.9 x 104
Modulus of Rigidity (G)
Sl No. Material G in SI Units ( N/mm2)

1 Steel 0.84 x 105
2 Brass 0.55 x 105
3 Aluminium 0.35 x 105
4 Cast Iron 0.45 x 105

Experiment 1
TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL AND HYSD BARS
OBJECTIVES
a) To study the behavior of mild steel test specimen & HYSD bars under the action of gradually
increasing tensile load applied up to failure.
b) To determine the values of Yield stress, Modulus of Elasticity, Percentage elongation, Percentage
reduction in area, Ultimate stress and Breaking stress.
PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE
While designing a structural component, selection of metals for different applications is based on salient
points such as limit of proportionality, elastic limit, yield strength, ultimate strength, and breaking
strength. Therefore, from this tension test above said values of salient points can be determined.
APPARATUS
Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Vernier Calipers, Scale and Gripping devices
THEORY
In engineering, tension test is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength of the
materials. In the tension test, a specimen is subjected to a continually increasing uniaxial tensile force
while simultaneous observations are made of the elongation of the specimen. A stress-strain curve is
plotted from the load-elongation measurements.
The parameters which are determined from the stress-strain curve of a material are the tensile
strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation and reduction of area. The first two are strength
parameters while the last two indicate ductility.
DEFINITIONS
Limit of proportionality (A):It is the limiting value on the stress strain curve up to which stress is
proportional to strain(i.e. the curve is linear).
Elastic limit:This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is stressed and then released
(unloaded), Strain disappears completely and the original shape of the specimen is regained.
Upper Yield Point (B):This is the point from which the stress starts reducing and the permanent
deformation increases. This phenomenon is called yielding of material.
Lower Yield Point (C):At this point the stress remains same but strain increases for some time.
Ultimate Stress (D):This is the maximum stress the material can develop. At this stage cross sectional
area at a particular section starts reducing very fast (fig.1). This is called neck formation.
Breaking Point (E):The stress at which finally the specimen breaks is called breaking point.
Hooke’s law:Within the proportional limit, the stress is proportional to the strain for an isotropic
material.

(a) Stress-strain curves for common materials
(b) Stress strain curve for mild steel

A - Proportional Limit C - Lower Yield Stress
A‟ – Elastic limit D -Ultimate Stress
B - Upper Yield Stress E -Breaking Stress
Figure 1.1: Linear stress - strain curve
Definitions of the terms used in this test are given below.
1. Gauge Length: The reference length over which elongation is measured.
2. Stress: When a material is subjected to action of forces, it develops resistance. The resistance per
unit area is called stress.
3. Linear Strain: Change in length to original length.
4. Yield Stress: Stress beyond which plastic (permanent) elongation occurs in the test specimen
without a corresponding increase in the load until the beginning of strain hardening point.
5. Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in a tension test divided by the original Area of
cross-section of the specimen. This is also termed as Ultimate strength.
6. Modulus of Elasticity (E): The ratio of axial stress to axial strain within proportional. This is
also termed as the Young‟s modulus.
7. Percentage Elongation: It is percentage increase in the permanent elongation of gauge length up
to breaking, expressed as a percentage of the original gauge length.

8. Percentage reduction in area: The change in cross-sectional area that has occurred at the neck
during the test, expressed as a percentage on the original area of cross-section.
Relevant Indian Standard: IS: 2751-1979 (Reaffirmed 1998)
Figure 1.2: Universal Testing Machine and Specimen

Lg = gauge length i.e. length of the specimen over which we want to determine the mechanical properties
are determined.
L= Total length of the specimen
Figure 1.3: Mode of Failure

PROCEDURE
1. The original dimensions of the specimen like diameter, gauge length, total length etc. are
measured.
2. The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing Machine between the fixed and movable
jaws.
3. The dial gauge is mounted on the machine at the appropriate positions if needed and adjusted to
zero.
4. The machine is switched on and the tensile load is applied gradually.
5. For every 5 KN of load, the readings of dial gauge is noted and tabulated.
6. The dial gauge is removed at slightly below the expected yield point load.
7. The load at yield point is removed, at the yield point the pointer on load scale will remain
stationary for small interval of time and blue needle will come back by 2 or 3 divisions that point
is lower yield point.
8. The specimen is loaded continuously up to the ultimate load (red needle will stop) where there is
formation of a neck in the specimen, which is to be noted.
9. With further loading the specimen breaks, and breaking load is noted. The specimen breaks in a
cup and cone format.
10. The specimen is removed and final dimensions are measured.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALUCLATIONS
1. Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm (optional)
2. Specimen Material = …………………
3. Initial length (Gauge length) (li)= …………..……..mm
4. Initial diameter (di) = …………..……..mm
5. Original C/S Area (Ai or Ao) = …………………. mm2
6. Yield Load (PY) =………………….. KN
Where „PY‟ is the load at yield point
7. Breaking Load (PB) =…………………..KN
Where „PB‟ is the load at breaking point
8. Ultimate Load (Pu) =………….............. KN
Where „Pu‟ is the maximum load applied.
9. Final length (lf) =…………………..mm
10. Final diameter (df) =………….............. mm
11. Final Area (Af) = =……………….….mm2

Tabular Column
Stress
Sl. Load P Strain
No. (KN)
Extension, ζ = P/Ai ε = (δl/li)
δl (mm) (N/mm2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Calculations:
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑁
𝑎) 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑖
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝛿𝑙
𝑏. 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 l𝑖
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁
𝑐. 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = = 𝑚𝑚2 (𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃 𝛿𝑙 𝑁
𝑑. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = / 𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑖 l𝑖
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑖 𝑁
𝑒. % 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 = × 100 = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑙𝑖
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑓 − 𝐴𝑖 𝑁
𝑓. % 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100 = × 100 = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑖
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑦 𝑁
𝑔. 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑛𝑡𝑕 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑢 𝑁
𝑕. 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑏 𝑁
𝑖. 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
Graph: Plot the graph for stress v/s strain from the values calculated using readings recorded.
Sketches: Sketch of the specimen indicating diameter, gauge length, and sketch of the UTM should be
written indicating the various parts of the equipments. Also, sketch the failure pattern of the specimen.
RESULTS
1. Working stress =
2. Young‟s Modulus of specimen =
3. Yield stress =
4. Ultimate stress =
5. Breaking stress =
6. % Reduction in Area =
7. % Elongation =
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. What is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile materials in tensile test?
2. Distinguish between
a) Yield point and yield strength b) Elastic limit and Proportional limit
NOTE: 1.Factor of Safety is taken between 2.0 – 2.5 for steel

Experiment no. 2
COMPRESSION TEST ON MILD STEEL, CAST IRON AND WOOD.
OBJECTIVES
To study the behavior of different materials under compression load and to determine:
(a) Young‟s Modulus.
(b) Ultimate stress.
(c) Breaking stress.
(d) Percentage reduction in length.
(e) Percentage increase in area.
PRINCIPLE
Ductile materials attain a Bulge or a Barrel shape after reaching the maximum compression load. No
fracture takes place and there is change in cross-section and compression value remains the same on
reaching the maximum load. For brittle materials, there will be no change in the cross-sections or height
of the specimen due to the compression load. On reaching the maximum compression load, the specimen
suddenly fractures as shown in the Fig.2.1. Here we are going to conduct a compression test on mild
steel which is a ductile material.
Figure 2.1 Failure Mechanism

APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Slide caliper, Dial gauge and Scale
THEORY
The compression test is just opposite to tension test, with regard to direction of application of load.
However, there are certain practical difficulties which may induce error in this test. They are:
Difficulty in applying truly axial load.
There is always a tendency of the specimen to bend (buckle) in addition to Contraction.
To avoid these errors, usually the specimen for this test shall be short in length (not more than 2 times
the least lateral dimension)

In a compression test, stress – strain curve is drawn. Metals whose modulus of elasticity
obtained from tensile test will have approximately the same modulus of elasticity value as in tension test.
The curve, for ductile materials, continues almost without limit as there is no fracture of the material due
to its ductility and cross sectional area increases continuously with increase in load. The specimen will
shorten and bulge out. Compression test is mainly used for testing brittle materials such as cast iron,
concrete etc. Brittle materials commonly fail along a diagonal plane due to shearing.
Figure 2.2: Failure of Material Figure 2.3: Stress Strain Curve for Brittle and Ductile
Materials
PROCEDURE
1. The original dimensions of the specimen like diameter, gauge length, etc. is to be measured.
2. The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing machine between the fixed and movable jaws.
3. The load range in the machine is adjusted to its maximum capacity.
4. The dial gauge is mounted on the machine at the appropriate position if needed and adjusted to
zero.
5. The machine is switched on and the compressive load is applied gradually.
6. For every 10 KN of load, the readings of dial gauge is noted and tabulated.
7. Dial gauge is removed at slightly below the expected load at yield point.
8. Record the load at yield point, at the yield point the pointer on load scale will remain stationary
for small interval of time and blue needle will come back by 1 or 2 divisions that point is lower
yield point.
9. The specimen is loaded continuously up to the ultimate load (red needle will stops) which is to be
noted.
10. The specimen is removed and its final dimensions are measured.

OBSERVATIONS & CALUCLATIONS

a) Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm (optional)
b) Specimen Material = …………………
c) Initial length (li) = …………..….. mm
d) Initial diameter (di) = …………..….. mm
e) Original C/S Area (Ai ) =……………….mm2
f) Ultimate Load (pu ) =………….........KN
Where „pu‟ is the maximum load applied.
g) Final length (lf) =……………….mm
h) Final diameter (df) =…………..…..mm
i) Final Area (A f) =………………mm2
Tabular Column
Stress
Sl. Load P Contraction δl Strain
P/Ai
No. (KN) (mm) (δl/li)
(N/mm2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Stress
Sl. Load P Contraction δl Strain
P/Ai
No. (KN) (mm) (δl/li)
(N/mm2)
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

Calculations
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑁
𝑎. 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑖
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝛿𝑙
𝑏. 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 l𝑖
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁
𝑐. 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = = 𝑚𝑚2 (𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑙𝑖 − 𝑙𝑓
𝑑. % 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = × 100 = × 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑙𝑖
=
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑒. % 𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100 = × 100
= 𝑁
𝑚𝑚2
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑢 𝑁
𝑓. 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
SKETCH
Sketch the specimen and their dimensions. Also failure patterns of the specimen should be
written.
Graph: PlotStress v/s Strain Curve.
RESULTS
1. Modulus of elasticity =
2. Maximum Compressive strength or ultimate stress =
3. Percentage Decrease in length =
4. Percentage Increase in area =
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the behavior of ductile material and brittle material under compression?
2. Why a short specimen should be used in compression test?
3. The plane of failure in brittle material subjected to compression is at about 45o, state the reason.
4. Name the devices used to measure deformation in tension and compression tests.
5. State the reason a) Tension test is preferred to compression test for determining the modulus of
elasticity.

Experiment 3
TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL CIRCULAR SECTIONS
OBJECTIVES
To study the behavior of mild steel when subjected to a gradually increasing torque and to determine:
a) Modulus of rigidity of the material
b) Yield point in shear
c) Modulus of rupture (torsion)
APPARATUS
Torsion testing machine, Troptometer, Micrometer, scale
THEORY
A circular bar, when subjected to torque will be twisted; shearing stresses are developed in any cross-
section of the bar whose value increases linearly from zero at the center to a maximum at the outer
periphery. The relation between the applied torque, the developed stress and the angular twist is given by
T fs C
the equation, , where T is the applied torque, J is the Polar Moment of Inertia of the
J r L
cross-section of the bar, fs is the magnitude of shear stress at radius r, C is the modulus of rigidity and
is the angle of twist over a length L of the bar.
Therefore the modulus of rigidity can be computed from the equation, 𝑐 = 𝑇 𝜃 × 𝐿 5 , T/θ is the slope
of the graph of the torque v/s twist. The yield point of shear stress is calculated from the equation f =
(T/J) x R where T is the torque at the yield point and R is the outer radius. Modulus of rupture is the
𝑇𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 ×𝑅
stress failure and computed from the formula𝑓𝑠 = .
𝑗
Relevant Indian Standard: Method of simple torsion testing of wire IS-1717:1985
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter and length of the specimen accurately using Vernier Calipers.
2. Fix the specimen in the grips and clamps provided in the machine.
3. Operate the driving mechanism either by hand or motor to apply the torque.
4. Take the readings of torque at regular intervals of twist simultaneously until the specimen breaks.
5. Plot the graph of torque v/s angle of twist. Slope of the graph gives the torsional stiffness.


Tabular Column
Angle of Twist in Angle of Twist in Torque in No. of Torque in Remarks
Degrees Radians Divisions Kg-cms
Calculations and Results:

1. Polar Moment of Inertia =
mm4
2. Yield stress =
N/ mm2
3. Modulus of rupture (torsion) =
N/ mm2
4. Slope of torque v/s twist =
Nm/rad
5. Modulus of rigidity =
gPa
The shearing stress can be calculated by the following formula:

16 T
S , for cylindrical bars
d3
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. What is a shaft? Give practical Examples.
2. How angle of twist is measured in a torsion test.
3. What mechanical property of material is determined from torsion test and how?
4. Define torsion rigidity, polar moment of inertia and rigidity modulus.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
BENDING TEST ON WOOD UNDER TWO POINT LOADING

OBJECTIVES
a) To study the behavior of the wood specimen subjected to gradually increasing two point equal
loads each at 1/3rd of the span from both supports.
b) To verify the simple bending theory.
c) To find the modulus of elasticity.
d) To determine the modulus of rupture of wood.
APPARATUS
Universal testing machine, dial indicators, Scale, Vernier caliper
THEORY
When a simple supported beam is subjected to two equal loads of (W/2) at each of 1/3 rd span points, the
middle third portion is subjected to pure bending moment equal to Wl/6 and deflection at mid span and
under the loads are given by
3𝑊𝐿3 5𝑊𝑙 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑙𝑦
296𝐸𝐼 324𝐸𝐼
The relation between the applied bending moment „M‟ and the developed bending stresses „f‟ or „σ‟ at
any cross-section is given by the equation,
𝑀 𝑓 𝐸
𝐼= 𝑦= 𝑅
where „I‟ is the moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis, „y‟ is the distance of the
fiber from the neutral axis, „E‟ is the modulus of elasticity and „R‟ is the radius of curvature, knowing
the deflection Δc experimentally, the modulus of elasticity can be found. Alternatively, knowing the
value of E, theoretical value of Δc can be computed and compared with the value obtained from the
experiment to verify the bending theory.
Modulus of rupture is the value of the bending stress (f) computed from the formula
𝑀 𝑓
𝐼= 𝑦
Where, Mf corresponds to the bending moment which causes fracture in the specimen. Since the formula
employed is valid within the elastic limit only, it is not applicable at failure moment which is beyond the
elastic limit. Hence the stress so obtained is called „modulus of rupture‟ and is useful only for
comparison purposes.

PROCEDURE
1. The cross-sectional dimensions of the specimen are measured from which the moment of inertia
about the neutral axis can be computed.
2. The specimen is placed on the roller supports which have been fixed on the lower cross-head of
the UTM and the span is measured and noted.
3. Dial indicators are fixed to record the value of the deflection at the required points.
4. The load is gradually increased and the values of the deflection are noted at regular load
increments.
5. The timber specimen fractures at a certain load. Note down the load at fracture.

Type of material: Wood
1. Dimensions of the specimen
Least count of the Vernier calipers = mm
Span of the beam = mm
Trial no. Breadth b in mm Depth d in mm
I-DIRN II-DIRN Average I-DIRN II-DIRN Average
2. Load-Deflection observations
Least count of the dial indicator = mm
Total load Dial indicator Dial indicator at 1/3rd span points Theoretical deflection
(kg) readings at mid (div) at 1/3rd span point (div)
span (div) Point 1 Point 2 Average
Note: for theoretical deflection at 1/3rd span point; use E value computed using central deflection.

Calculations
1. Moment of inertia about the neutral axis = mm4
2. Stress at yield point = N/ mm2
3. Slope of load-deflection plot = N/ mm
4. Modulus of elasticity of the material = MPa
5. Slope of the plot theoretical deflection v/s actual deflection (1/3rd point) =
RESULTS
1. Moment of inertia about the neutral axis = mm4
2. Stress at yield point = N/ mm2
3. Slope of load-deflection plot = N/ mm
4. Modulus of elasticity of the material = MPa
5. Slope of the plot theoretical deflection v/s actual deflection (1/3rd point) =
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define a) Elastic limit, b) Flexural Rigidity
c) Proportionality limits d) Modulus of rupture as applied to bending test.
2. Define a) Section modulus b) Moment of resistance
c) Tensile failure as applied to bending test.
3. Why two-point symmetrical loading is preferred in bending tests.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4A
BENDING TEST ON WOOD UNDER TWO POINTLOADING.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct bending test for the given specimen and to determine the following:
a) Modulus of elasticity
b) Modulus of Rupture or flexure modulus (maximum bending stress at failure) using bending
equation.
PRINCIPLE
A Bending test may be performed on an actual beam by using the three point loading system. The
bending fixture is supported on the platform of the hydraulic cylinder of the universal testing machine.
The loading knife edge is held in the mid-span of the beam. At a particular load, the deflection at the
centre of the beam is determined by using a dial gauge.
The deflection at the beam centre is given by
𝑝𝑙 3 𝑙3 𝑝
𝛿= 𝐸=
48𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼 𝛿
Knowing W, l, and I it is possible to obtain the modulus of elasticity (E) of the beam material.
APPARATUS
Universal Testing machine, Dial gauge, Vernier caliper and scale.
THEORY
Application of a simple concentrated load at centre in the case of Bending associated with shear.
Application of two concentrated loads will lead to pure bending without shear. Beams are usually
subjected to bending moment and shearing forces which vary from section to section. Bending moment
at a section in a beam is the moment that is trying to bend it and is obtained as the algebraic sum of the
moments about the section of all the forces acting on the beam either to the left or to the right of the
section.
Figure 4A.1: Bending profile of wood

𝑓
𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀 𝐼 = 𝑦=
𝐸
𝑅

PROCEDURE
1. The dimensions of the specimen are noted.
2. The specimen is placed on the supports of the universal testing machine.
3. Dial gauge is mounted on the UTM at the appropriate position and adjusted to read zero.
4. The UTM is adjusted to have the suitable load range.
5. The machine is switched on and bending load is applied gradually.
6. For every 0.5 KN increment in load, the corresponding dial gauge reading is noted.
7. The load is applied until the specimen breaks and the breaking load is noted.
8. Using the load-deflection values obtained, a P-δ graph is drawn as shown. The slope of the graph is
P/δ value.
TABULAR COLUMN
δ = Least Count
Sl. Load P Dial Gauge Deflection δ
x Dial Gauge
No (KN) Reading (mm)
Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
OBSERVATIONS
1. Material =
2. Span length (l) = mm
3. Breadth (b) = mm
4. Height (h) = mm
5. Cross sectional area at centre= b x h= mm2
6. Load at fracture, Pf = KN

CALCULATIONS
bh3
1. Moment of Inertia, I = = … … … …. mm4
12
𝐼 bh2
2. 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, , 𝑍 = = = … … … . . mm3
𝑌 6
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
3. 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕, = = ………
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿
𝑃𝑙 3
4. 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛, 𝛿 = = … … ..
48𝐸𝐼
𝑙3
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐸 = × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕)
48𝐼
𝑃𝑓 𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑀 = = … … … … . . 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚
4
Where,
M = Bending moment in N – mm
I = Moment of Inertia in mm4
σb = Bending Stress in N/mm2 (MPa)
y = Distance of fiber from neutral axis in mm.
E = Young‟s modulus in N / mm2 (MPa)
𝑀𝑦 𝑁
5. 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = = ……..
𝐼 𝑚𝑚2
𝑕
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑦 = = … … … . 𝑚𝑚
2
3𝑃𝑓 𝑙 𝑁
6. 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = 2
= …………
2𝑏𝑕 𝑚𝑚2
𝑜𝑟
𝑀 𝑁
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = = …………
𝑍 𝑚𝑚2
Where Pf = load at rupture
Z = section modulus = (bh3/6)
Graph: Load v /s Deflection
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Modulus of Rupture =
Modulus of elasticity =

SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define
a) Elastic limit, b) Flexural Rigidity
c) Proportionality limits d) Modulus of rupture as applied to bending test.
2. Define
a) Section modulus b) Moment of resistance
c)Tensile failure as applied to bending test.
3. Why two-point symmetrical loading is preferred in bending tests.

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL – SINGLE AND DOUBLE SHEAR

OBJECTIVES
To determine the Ultimate Shear Strength of the given material in Single shear and Double shear.
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Vernier Calipers, Shear attachments, Micrometer, Scale
THEORY
Shear stress is caused by forces which act parallel to an area of cross-section and tend to produce sliding
of one area over another area below it.
If there is only one cross-section which resists the failure, the material is said to be in Single
Shear and the average ultimate strength in Single Shear will be equal to the failure load divided by the
area of cross-section. If two areas resist the failure, then the material is said to be in double Shear and the
average ultimate strength in Double Shear will be equal to the failure load divided by twice the area of
cross-section
Relevant Indian Standards
1. Method of test for shear strength of metals IS: 5242-1979
2. Method of testing small clear specimens of timber IS: 1708(Part-II)-1986
PROCEDURE
1. The average diameter of the given specimen is measured.
2. For single shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig (a) and apply the load gradually. Note the
fracture load.
3. For double shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig (b) and apply the load gradually. Note the
fracture load
Least count of Vernier Calipers = mm
Tabular Column
Type of Type of Dia (d) Area ‘A’ Ultimate Ultimate Shear
Material Shear (mm) (mm2) Load (N) Strength (N/mm2)
Single
Double

Calculations
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃1) 𝑁
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = = …………
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑚2
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃1) 𝑁
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = = ………… (𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟)
2 × 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑚2
Sketches: Sketch the specimen in Single and Double Shear
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between Single shear and Double shear.
2. Why modulus of rigidity is not determined by shear test.

EXPERIMENT NO.6
IMPACT TEST ON MILD STEEL (CHARPY & IZOD)

OBJECTIVES
To determine the impact strength of given specimen and to study the behavior of materials under
dynamic loadings.
APPARATUS
Pendulum type Impact Testing Machine, Vernier Calipers and scale.
THEORY
The ordinary tensile and bending tests are not the true criteria of the impact qualities of a material. In all
cases in which a material is subjected to shock or impact, impact tests should be conducted upon samples
under similar conditions.
1. Charpy Impact Test
In this impact test, a specially prepared notched specimen placed horizontally with the notch facing away
from hammer is fractured by a single blow from a heavy hammer, and energy required to break the
specimen is a measure of resistance to Impact. The impact force is produced by swinging an impact
weight (hammer) from a height. Release of the weight from the height swings the weight through an arc
of a circle, which strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch. Here it is interesting to note that height
through which the hammer drops determines the velocity. Height and mass of the hammer combined
determine the energy. Energy used to break the specimen is measured from the scale given. This is
called fracture energy. The difference between potential energies before and after the impact gives the
fracture energy. In the test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale. This energy value
called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured, per unit area of the notch.
Specification
Specimen size= 55x10x10
Type of notch = U - Notch
Depth of notch= 5mm
2. Izod Test
The Indian standard method of Izod impact test consists of breaking a specimen by one blow from a
swinging hammer, under specified conditions. A notched test-piece, placed vertically with the bottom of
the notch in the same plane as the upper faces of the hammer grips and the notch facing the hammer. The
blow is struck at a fixed position on the face of the specimen having the notch. The energy absorbed is
read from the circular scale.

Notch
Slot or groove of specified characteristics intentionally cut in a test piece so as to concentrate the
stress,and forcing the rupture along that plane.
Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracture is called toughness. It is
usually measured by the energy absorbed in impact test like Charpy and Izod tests. The area under the
stress -strain curve in a tensile test is also a measure of toughness and as such is proportional to the
combined effects of tensile strength and ductility.
The Izod impact energy (I) i.e, the energy required to break the specimen is obtained directly
from the test.
Specification
Specimen size= 75x10x10
Type of notch = V- Notch
Angle of notch= 45
Depth of notch= 2mm
3. Determination of Error due to Friction
The impact testing machine involves a pendulum (hammer) swinging in vertical plane about a horizontal
shaft housed in bearings. These bearings exert a frictional resistance to the swing of the hammer. To
estimate the loss due to friction, the error-test is carried out as follows.
The swinging hammer is adjusted to the specified position on the testing machine. The pendulum
consists of a pointer, which moves with it. The pendulum is left hanging free verticallyat rest position.
The dummy pointer is adjusted to 300 joules dial reading for charpy test (164 joules for Izod test). The
hammer is now raised till it gets latched in the load carrier. The hammer is released to swing freely and it
carries the dummy pointer in the direction of the swing to a particular reading on the dial. If this reading
is zero, the machine is in order. Otherwise the reading indicates the energy loss due to friction, which is
to be accounted for in the calculations.
A standard test piece of overall length of 55mm and a square cross-section of 10mm side with a
central U-notch 5mm deep is employed to the charpy impact test. It is placed in the impact testing
machine horizontally as a simply supported beam with a span of 40mm. The notch is adjusted to be at
the centre and such that it is on the tension side. The hammer is lifted to have an initial potential energy
of 300 joules, it is released without any shock and is allowed to strike the specimen and swing to the
other side. After it has reached the maximum height on the other side and is in the process of swinging
back, it is brought to rest by the application of brakes or manually. The reading indicated by the pointer
is recorded.

Figure 6.1: Charpy Impact Testing Equipment
Figure 6.2: Specimen for Charpy Test
Figure 6.3: Izod Impact Testing Equipment

Figure6.4: Position of Specimen for Izod Test

1. Method of Charpy impact test (U-notch) for steel:IS:1499-1977
2. Method of Izod impact test for steel:IS:1598-1977
3. Method for beam impact (V-notch) on steel:IS:1757-1988
PROCEDURE
For Izod Impact Test
1. The depth below the notch and breadth of the specimen is measured (i.e „b‟ and„d‟). Determine
the effective cross section below the notch.
2. Fix the striker(hammer) in its respective position; place the test specimen vertical as shown in
figure.
3. Align the centre at the specimen notch with respect to centre of support by means of setting
gauge.
4. Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to 170J.
5. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched in its position at 1400 from its vertical axis.
6. Allow the pendulum to swing freely and break the specimen.
7. After rupture apply the brake to the pendulum slowly by operating brake lever.
8. Note down the reading at observed energy directly on the dial as indicated by the indicating
pointer.
9. Before proceeding for next test, remove the broken piece of the tested specimen and bring
indicating pointer, striker to its original position at 170J.

For Charpy Test

1. The depth below the notch and breadth of the specimen is measured (i.e „b‟ and „d‟). Determine
the effective cross section below the notch.
2. Fix the charpy striker (hammer) in its respective position; place the charpy test specimen on
supports.
3. Align the centre of the specimen notch with respect to centre of support by means of setting
gauge.
4. Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to 300J.
5. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched in its position at 1400 from its vertical axis.
6. Allow the pendulum to swing freely and break the specimen.
7. After rupture apply the break to the pendulum slowly by operating break lever.
8. Note down the reading at observed energy directly on the dial as indicated by the indicating
pointer.
9. Before proceeding for next test, remove the broken piece of the tested specimen and bring
indicating pointer, striker to its original position at 300J.
Tabular Column
a) Charpy Test:
Sl. Initial Final charpy Impact charpy Impact
No Specimen Trials Reading Reading Value K=K1- Strength I=K/A
. K1 in J K2 in J K2 in J in J/Cm2
1. M.S 1
2. M.S 2
b) Izod Test:
Initial Final Izod Impact Izod Impact
Sl.
Specimen Trials Reading Reading Value K=K1- Strength I=K/A
No.
K1 in J K2 in J K2 in J in J/Cm2
1. M.S 1
2. M.S 2

RESULTS
For Izod Test:
Average impact value of Mild Steel = Joules
Average impact strength = Joules/cm2
For Charpy Test:
Average impact value of Mild Steel = Joules
Average impact strength = Joules/cm2
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Give three examples of any machine parts or structural members subjected to impact loading.
2. Distinguish between Charpy and Izod tests.
3. Why is a notch provided in the specimen for impact test?
DISCUSSIONS & CONCLUSIONS
Significance of notch in impact test specimen:
1. The stress acting in the material is raised to a peak value at the base of the notch, determined by
elastic stress concentration factor.
2. The yield stress of the material is raised by the action of elastic and plastic constraints.
Combination of these effects makes brittle fracture. The part played by stress concentration is to raise
the stress at the root of the notch and provide the large stress necessary to force fracture.

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
HARDNESS TEST ON FERROUS AND NON –FERROUS METALS

7 (A). BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVES
To determine the indentation hardness of mild steel, cast iron, brass, aluminum, spring steel, etc. using
Brinell hardness testing machine.
PRINCIPLE
Brinell hardness number (BHN) is obtained by the ratio of the calculated load and the spherical area of
the Indentation or Impression made on the specimen by the corresponding Indentor Ball.
PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE
Hardness is the property of a material by which it offers resistance to scratch or indentation. It is the
most important property, as the material is subjected to friction and scratch during its practical use. By
this experiment we can determine the Hardness of the given material
APPARATUS
Brinell’shardness Testing Machine
In this machine, the load is applied by a lever mounted on knife edges and carrying a hanger for
suspending the required load. The supporting table where the specimen is placed can be raised or
lowered by a steel screw by operating a large hand lever. The indenter used is a hardened steel ball
which will have a diameter of 10mm, 5mm or 2.5mm.
The microscope is used to read the diameter of indention has a 25-fold magnification. The spacing
between successive graduations of the scale is 0.5mm and a micrometer is arranged sideways which
gives readings in 0.01mm. The eye-piece of the reading micrometer may be turned by 90 °, so that
impressions of ball can be measured in two perpendicular directions.
THEORY
The property of hardness of a metal is usually associated with its resistance to scratching, wear,
indentation or deformation. In the Brinell hardness test, which measures resistance to indentation, a ball
having a diameter „D‟ is pressed on the material to be tested under a load „P‟. The load is maintained for
10 to 15 seconds. The diameter „d‟ of the produced impression is measured.
The Brinell hardness number BHN is defined as the ratio of test load to the curved surface areaof
indentation.
Specification
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F) on to a surface of
test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal of the load (P).
1. For Brinell hardness test for metallic materials IS:1500-1983

PROCEDURE
1. Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading position.
2. Select the suitable indenter& weights according to the scale.
3. Place specimen on testing table platform.
4. Turn the hand wheel to raise the specimen until it makes contact with indenter and continue
turning till the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations. Then it stops at zero and
then continue turning slowly till the small pointer reaches the red spot at „3‟, this is automatic
zero setting dial gauge.
5. Turn the lever position „A‟ to „B‟ i.e. from unloading to loading position. So that the total load
will act.
6. When the longer pointer of the dial gauge reaches steady position, take back the lever to the
unloading position „A‟. [Avoid sudden release at the lever]
7. Remove the specimen from the platform and note down the diameter of the indentation using
Brinell microscope.
8. Using appropriate formula calculate BHN.
9. Similarly, repeat the step from 1-8 for different trials and for different metals.
Type of Indentor Total load(P) Kg-F Suitable for
Non ferrous soft metals, Soft iron, steel

Ball Indentor 2.5mm dia 187.5
castings, Cast iron, malleable iron.
Light alloys casting, forging alloys, die
Ball Indentor 5mm dia 250
casting alloys.
OBSERVATIONS & CALUCLATIONS

Indentor Total Diameter of
Average
Sl.No Specimen Diameter(D) load(P) Indentation(d) in mm BHN
dia
In mm Kg-F 1 2 3
01 Mild steel
02 Brass
03 Copper
04 Aluminium

Calculations
2𝑃
𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐵𝐻𝑁) =
𝜋𝐷[𝐷 − 𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 ]
Where, D = Diameter of ball indentor in mm d= Diameter of Indentation in mm

P= Load applied in Kgf d=MSR+ (CVSD×LC)
Least Count of Brinell Microscope=0.01mm
MSR= Main Scale Reading.
CVSD=Coinciding vernier scale division.
RESULTS
Brinell hardness number of given specimen is
1. Mild steel =
2. Brass =
3. Copper =
4. Aluminium =
CONCLUSION
Based on BHN for Mild Steel, the Relation between the tensile strength and Hardness Number is given
as follows,
Tensile Strength of Mild Steel = K*BHN for MS
Where K= A constant between 3.4 and 3.9 for many types of steel.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Very hard material cannot be tested in Brinell hardness testing machine-state the reasons.
2. How do you select the load for Brinell hardness test in case of following materials?
Aluminium, Brass, Mild steel, Cast iron and Copper.
3. What are the values of P for steel and aluminium for conducting the Brinell hardness test using a
10mm diameter ball indenter?

7(B) ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

OBJECTIVES
To find the Rockwell hardness number of mild steel, cast iron, brass, aluminum, spring steel.
PRINCIPLE
A standard load (Based on type of material) is applied through a standard indenter (cone or ball indenter)
for a standard duration of time. The hardness number is directly obtained by reading dial on the machine.
APPARATUS
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
The Rockwell hardness testing machine essentially consists of a supporting table for placing the
specimen, a hand wheel to raise or lower the supporting table, a Rockwell ball indenter which is a
hardened steel ball 1/16” in diameter, a Rockwell cone indenter which is a diamond cone of 120 apex
angle, load stages adjusted by means of push button switches, a light signal to indicate the application of
the minor load of 10kg, a clamping sleeve to hold the specimen firmly, a button for applying the major
load, a hand lever to release the load and a dial gauge which directly gives the Rockwell hardness
number. The dial gauge has sets of graduations B and C, corresponding to the ball type indenter and the
cone type indenter.
THEORY
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent indentation under static or
dynamic load. When a material is required to be usedpractically under direct static or dynamic loads,
only indentation hardness test will be useful to find out resistance of the material to indentation.
Rockwell test was developed by the Wilson instrument co U.S.A in 1920. This test is an
indentation test used for smaller specimens and harder materials. In this test indenter is forced into the
surface of a test specimen in two operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an
indentation from the depth increased (d2) from the depth reached (d1) under a datum load due to an
additional load.
Measurement of indentation is made after removing the additional load. Indenter used is the cone
having the apex of angle 120 degrees made of black diamond.
Specification
Rockwell hardness tester gives the direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the
machine. The test specimen may be cylinder, cube, thick or thin metallic sheets.
Specifications are as follows.
1. Ability to determine hardness up to = 100 RHN
2. Maximum application of load = 150 Kgf
3. Method of load application = Lever type
4. least measuring hardness number= 1 RHN

d 2 d1 mm
RH = 100
0.002 mm
Rockwell hardness for the ball test is defined as
d 2 d1 mm
RH = 130
0.002 mm
Figure 7B.1: Rockwell hardness test equipment

1. For Rockwell hardness test for metallic materials IS:1586-1988
PROCEDURE
1. Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading position.
2. Select the suitable indenter& weights according to the scale.
3. Place the specimen on testing table platform.
4. Turn the hand wheel to raise a specimen until it makes contact with indenterand continue turning
till the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations. Then it stops at zero.Continue
turning slowly till the small pointer reaches the red spot at „3‟, this is automatic zero setting dial
gauge.
5. Turn the lever position „A‟ to „B‟ i.e. from unloading to loading position, So that the total load
will act.
6. When the longer pointer of the dial gauge reaches steady position, take back the lever to the
unloading position „A‟. [Avoid sudden release at the lever]
7. Now note down the reading in the last dial indicator by notifying the large pointer
8. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen.
9. Similarly repeat the steps from 1-8 for different trials and for different metals.


Observation
Type of specimen Type of Indenter Scale Total load(P) Kg-F
Hard Metals Diamond cone C (Black graduations) 150
Soft Metals Ball (1/16”) B (Red graduations ) 100
Tabular Column
Sl. Type of RHN Average
Specimen
No Indenter 1 2 3 RHN
01 Mild steel Ball (1/16”)
02 Brass Ball (1/16”)
03 Copper Ball (1/16”)
04 Aluminium Ball (1/16”)
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Rockwell hardness Number of given specimen is
1. Hardened steel =
2. Mild steel =
3. Brass =
4. Copper =
5. Aluminium =
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of applying minor load in case of Rockwell Hardness test?
2. What are the types of indenters used in hardness tests?

7(C) VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

OBJECTIVES
To find the Vickers hardness number of mild steel, cast iron, brass, aluminium, spring steel.
PRINCIPLE
The required load as calculated by P/D2 ratio is applied on the specimen for a standard time of 8-10
seconds and BHN is calculated by the ratio of load and the spherical area of indentation. The diameter of
the indentation is measured on the focusing screen of the machine.
APPARATUS
Vickers Hardness Testing Machine: This machine is used for finding Vickers hardness (VH) as well
as Brinell hardness (BH) using a steel ball of 2.5mm diameter as indenter. It essentially consists of
1. Load stages adjusted by means of push button switches.
2. Supporting table (platform) for placing the specimen, the height of which can be altered by
operating a hand wheel.
3. Clamping sleeve which is meant for clamping the specimen against the supporting table.
4. A penetrator which is regular pyramid having a square base and a smoothed-off point made of
diamond. The angle between the opposite faces of the pyramid is 136 .
5. An oil brake intended for uniformly applying the test load.
6. A controlling current key for application of load.
7. A hand lever for releasing the load.
8. A device for projecting the impression which can be magnified 70-fold or 140-fold.
9. Attachment for measuring the impression by means of a scale and micrometer. Under 70 fold
magnification, the distance, a long and a short mark of the scale is equal to 0.1mm. 10 divisions
of the Vernier scale also correspond to 0.1mm and the micrometer gives readings in 0.001mm.
THEORY
Very Hard materials (e.g. Mild steel, case hardened steel, etc,) can be tested by the Vicker's method. If
the moderately hard materials like Brass, Copper and Aluminium are tested in this machine, the indenter
makes a deep impression. Hence, a proper indentation cannot be made on the specimen and a correct
value of the hardness cannot be obtained for these materials by V. H. Test
This test is similar to Brinell hardness test similar relationship and eliminates most of the errors.
A regular pyramid having a square base and smoothened off diamond point is pressed in the material to
be tested under a load „F‟. The produced impression is projected onto a focusing screen and the
diagonals of the impression are measured by means of the measuring equipment.
Due to small impressions, it is very suitable for testing polished and hardened material surfaces. This test
is rapid and accurate.

An indenter in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 between
opposite faces, when forced into the meter under a load P applied for 10 to 15 seconds, causes an
indentation which has a square base. If„d‟ is the diagonal of the indentation left on the surface of the test
piece after the removal of the load, then the Vickers hardness VH is the quotient of the test load P(kg)
and sloping area (sq mm) of indentation.
Load P
VH 2
1.854 P / d 2 (Approximately)
Sloping area of indentation d sin 136 / 2
2
Figure 7C.1: Vickers hardness test equipment

1. For Vickers hardness test for metallic materials IS:1501(Part- I & II) -1984
2. For Vickers hardness test for metallic materials IS:1501(Part- III) -1987
Specification
1 Maximum application of load = 10 kgf
2 Method of load application = Push button
3 Least measuring indentation length= 0.001mm

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the surface of the specimen
2. Fix the indenter in the hardness tester and switch on the power supply.
3. Place the specimen with cleaned surface facing the indenter on the anvil at work table.
4. Focus the work piece surface for clean visibility by rotating the hand wheel at the work table
upwards and downwards.
5. Select the load specified (P) push button available on the right side at the hardness tester.
6. Actuate the electric push button (Green Button) at the front for loading, the loading lever starts
moving upwards and reaches the study position.
7. Now release the loading lever slowly and bring it to the downward position.
8. For major reading, adjust the display at the indentation made by the indenter to coincide with the
micrometer on the display screen.
9. For major (minor) reading adjust the movable side at the micrometer and note down the total
reading.
10. The measurement is to be made for two opposite corners of the diagonal indentation denoted as (l).
11. Repeat the above procedure for different material.

Type of indenter = Diamond cone
Tabular Column
Load Length of Indentation in VHN=
Average
Sl.No Specimen Applied in mm(l)
Length in mm
Kgf 1 2 3 1.854P/d2
1 Mild steel
2 Brass
3 Copper
4 Aluminium
Hardened
5
Steel

1.854 P
2
d
Vicker‟s Hardness Number (VHN) = 1.854 x P
WhereD square.
P= Load applied in Kg
d= Average length of the diagonal in mm
Least count of microscope=0.001mm
1st scale each division =0.1mm
2nd scale each division =0.01
3rd scale each division =0.001mm
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Vicker‟s hardness Number of given specimen is
1. Mild steel =
2. Brass =
3. Copper =
4. Aluminium =
5. Hardened Steel =

EXPERIMENT NO.8
TESTS ON BRICKS, TILES AND CONCRETE BLOCKS
OBJECTIVES
To find the following properties of bricks
a) Dimensions and its Tolerance
b) Compressive strength
c) Water Absorption
d) Efflorescence
APPARATUS: Scale, Balance, CTM/UTM, etc.
8(A) DIMENSION AND ITS TOLERANCE TEST
Objective: To determine the accuracy of the dimensions of the bricks.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 1077-1992
Procedure
1. Take twenty bricks out of the given sample.
2. Remove loose particles of clay and small projections from the bricks.
3. Arrange them on a level surface in contact with each other and in a straight line.
4. Measure the overall length of the bricks having size 19cm x 9cm x 9cm or 19cm x 9cm x 7.5cm
laid by means of a steel tape.
5. The dimensions of the 20 bricks should be within the following limits.
Dimensions: The standard modular size of common building bricks shall be as follows:
Length (L), mm Width (W), mm Height (H), mm
190 90 90
190 90 40
The following non-modular sizes of the bricks may also be used.
Length (L), mm Width (W), mm Height (H), mm
230 110 70
230 110 30
Tolerances: The dimensions of bricks shall be within the following limits per 20 bricks:
a) For modular size
Length 372 to 388 cm (380 ± 8cm)
Width 176 to 184 cm (180 ± 4cm)
Height 176 to 184 cm (180 ± 4cm)
(For 90mm high bricks)
76 to 84cm (80 ± 4cm)


b) For Non-modular size
Length 452 to 468 cm (460 ± 8cm)
Width 224 to 216 cm (220 ± 4cm)
Height 144 to 136 cm (140 ± 4cm)
64 to 56cm (60 ± 4cm)

8(B). COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHTEST

OBJECTIVE: This test is performed to determine the crushing strength of burnt clay building bricks.
THEORY: Bricks are mostly subjected to compression and rarely to tension. The usual crushing
strength of common hand moulded well burnt bricks is between 5 and 10 N/mm2 varying according to
the nature of preparation of the clay.
SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY: Compressive strength of the brick is useful in designing the masonry
Structures.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 3495 part I-1992
Figure 8B.1: Compressive Testing Machine

PROCEDURE
1. Take 5 bricks out of the sample at random, remove unevenness observed in the bed faces to
provide two smooth and parallel faces by grinding
2. The bricks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
3. The bricks are then taken out of water and surplus water on the surfaces is wiped off with
cotton or a moist cloth.
4. The frog of the brick is flushed level with cement mortar 1:3 and the brick is stored under
damp jute bags for 24hrs followed by its immersion in water at room temperature for three
days.
5. The specimen is placed in the compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal and
mortar filled face being upwards between 2 plywood sheets each of 3-mm thickness and
carefully centered between plates of the testing machine
6. Loads are applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute till failure and note the
maximum load at the failure.
7. Take the average value of the compressive strengths of the three bricks.

8. The maximum load at failure divided by the average area of bed gives the compressive
strength.
Tabular Column
Dimensions of Brick Compressive
Sl Name of Compressive
Strength Remarks
No. Brick Length Width Height load in kN 2
(N/mm )
1
2
3
Result: compressive strength of brick is=……………….. N/mm2

8(C). WATER ABSORPTION TEST

OBJECTIVE: To determine water absorption of burnt clay building bricks.
APPARATUS:A sensitive balance capable of weighing within 0.1% of the mass of the specimen and
Ventilated oven.
THEORY: Bricks for external use must be capable of preventing rain water from passing through them
to the inside of walls of reasonable thickness.
SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY: Absorption of water by bricks is one of the important parameter in
the acceptance of brick for construction of buildings and other structures.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 3495 part2-1992
Figure 8C.1: Brick Immersed in Water

PROCEDURE
1. Select three bricks at random out of the given sample.
2. Dry the bricks in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105o ± 5oC.
3. The weight (W1) of the brick is recorded after cooling them to room temperature.
4. The bricks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27o ± 2oC for 24 hours.
5. Remove the bricks from water and wipe off its surface with a damp cloth.
6. Weigh the brick within three minutes after its removal from water. Let its weight be W2 Kg.
7.Calculate the Water Absorption Capacity of bricks.
8.Take the average value of the Water Absorption capacities of the five bricks.
9. Water Absorption shall not be more than 20 percent by weight upto class 12.5 and 15 percent by
weight for higher classes.
𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = × 100
𝑊1
OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Observations 1 2 3 4 5
1 Weight of dry bricks ( W1kg )
2 Wet Weight of Bricks ( W2 kg )
Water absorption
Result: Water absorption capacity of brick is =………………..

8(D). EFFLORESCENCE TEST

OBJECTIVE: This test is performed to know the presence of any alkaline matter in the bricks.
RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS: As per IS: 3495 part3-1992
PROCEDURE
1. Take five bricks at random from the given sample.
2. Place the bricks in the dish containing sufficient distilled water to completely saturate the
specimens. The dish shall be made of glass, porcelain or glazed stoneware and size 180mm x
180mm x 40mm depth for square shaped and 200mm dia x 40mm depth for cylindrical shape.
3. The depth of immersion in water should be 25mm.
4. Place the whole arrangement in a well ventilated room at temperature of 20 to 30 oC until all the
water in the dish is absorbed and the surplus water evaporates.
5. Cover the dish containing the brick with suitable glass cylinder so that excessive evaporation
from the dish may not occur.
6. Again pour 25mm depth water in the dish and allow it to evaporate as before.
7. The liability to efflorescence shall be reported as „nil‟, „slight‟, „moderate‟, „heavy‟ and „serious‟
in accordance with the following definitions.
Sl No. Report Observation

1. Nil When there is no perceptible deposit of efflorescence.
2. Slight When not more than 10 percent of the exposed area of the brick is covered
with a thin deposit of slats.
3. Moderat When there is a heavier deposit than under „slight‟ and covering up to 50
e percent of the exposed area of the brick surface but unaccompanied by
powdering or flaking of the surface.
4. Heavy When there is a heavy deposit of salts covering 50 percent or more of the
exposed area of the brick surface but unaccompanied by powdering or
flaking of the surface
5. Serious When there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or
flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Result: The given brick is ………………..efflorescence

TESTS ON TILES
OBJECTIVES
To find the following properties of Tiles
a) Water Absorption
b) Flexural Strength
8(E).WATER ABSORPTION TEST
Objective: To determine water absorption of tiles.
Apparatus: Ventilated oven, weighing balance.
Theory: Tiles used either for flooring or roofing should not absorb water beyond certain limit.
Scope & Applicability: Absorption of water is an important acceptance test for tiles.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 13711 -1993
Procedure
1. Take 3 tiles and immerse it in water for 24hrs.
2. Remove the tiles from water and wipe the surface with a dry cloth & weigh each tile. Let this
weight be „A‟.
3. Dry these tiles by keeping them in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 100- 110o c till they
attain a constant weight. This generally happens in 24 hrs. Remove the tiles from the oven and
cool them to room temperature. Take the weight of each tile. Let this weight be „B‟.
4. Compute the water absorption for each tile and also the average percentage water absorption.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION’S
Weight of Oven Dried Tile Water Absorption
Sample No. Weight of Wet Tile (A)
(B) (A-B/B) X 100
1
2
3
Results: Average Water Absorption of tile is =

8(F).FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

OBJECTIVE: To determine Flexural strength of tiles.
APPARATUS: The apparatus shall consist of two parallel self-aligning cylindrical steel bearers, with
the bearing surface rounded to 40mm diameter so placed that the distance between the centers could be
altered. The load is applied through a third steel bearer of similar shape placed midway between and
parallel to supports. The length of all the bearers shall exceed the maximum width of the tile under test.
The loading device may consist of a bucket connected either directly or through levers to the loading
arms.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 654 -1992.
PROCEDURE
1. Take 3 tiles and immerse it in water for 24hrs at 27oc.
2. Support the tile in wet condition evenly flatwise on the bearers set with a span of 25cm and
resting on the bottom surface.
3. Apply the load in the direction perpendicular to the span, at a uniform rate of 450 N/mm to 550
N/min by allowing led shots to flow in to the bucket.
4. Take the weight of the lead shots after the tile breaks. That is the breaking load,W.
5. The individual breaking load for each of the 3 tiles separately in the wet condition shall be
recorded.
6. Modulus of rupture and its average is calculated.
𝑀
Modulus of rupture,𝑓 = ∗𝑦
𝐼
𝑤𝑙 𝑏𝑡 3 𝑡
𝑀= , 𝐼= , 𝑦=
4 12 2
𝑤𝑙 12 𝑡
∴𝑓= ∗ ∗
4 𝑏𝑡 3 2
3 𝑤𝑙
∴𝑓= ∗ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
2 𝑏𝑡 2

Table: Classification of roofing Tiles.
Results:The flexural strength of tile is = ………………N/mm2

TEST ON CONCRETE BLOCKS

OBJECTIVES
To find the following properties of Tiles
a) Water Absorption
b) Compressive Strength
8(G).WATER ABSORPTION TEST
Objective: To determine water absorption of concrete block.
Apparatus: Ventilated oven, weighing balance.
Theory:Concrete Blocks for external use must be capable of preventing rain water from passing through
them to the inside of walls of reasonable thickness. Concrete blocks used for construction should not
absorb water more than 10 percent of its weight.
Scope & Applicability: Absorption of water by concrete blocks is one of the important parameter in the
acceptance of block for construction of buildings and other structures.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 2185(part 1) -2005
Procedure
1. Take 3 blocks and immerse it in water for 24hrs.
2. Remove the blocks from water and wipe the surface with a dry cloth & weigh each block. Let
this weight be „A‟.
3. Dry these blocks by keeping them in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 100- 115o c till they
attain a constant weight. This generally happens within 24 hrs. Remove the blocks from the oven
and cool them to room temperature. Take the weight of each block. Let this weight be „B‟.
4. Compute the water absorption for eachblock and also the average percentage water absorption.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION’S
Weight of Wet Block Weight of Oven Dried Block Water Absorption
Sample No.
(A) (B) (A-B/B) X 100
1
2
3
Results: Average Water Absorption of concrete block is =

(H).COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

OBJECTIVE: This test is performed to determine the crushing strength of concrete block.
THEORY: Concrete blocks are mostly subjected to compression and rarely to tension. The usual
crushing strength of concrete block is between 3.5 and 15 N/mm2 varying according to the grade of
concrete block.
The nominal dimensions of concrete block shall be as follows:
Length: 400, 500 or 600 mm.
Height: 200 or 100 mm.
Width: 50,75, 100, 150,200, 250 or300 mm.
SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY: Compressive strength of the brick is useful in designing the masonry
Structures.
Relevant Indian Standards: As per IS: 2185(part 1) -2005
Figure 8H.1: Compressive Testing Machine

PROCEDURE
1. Take 8 blocks out of the sample at random, remove unevenness observed in the bed faces to
provide two smooth and parallel faces by grinding
2. The blocks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
3. The blocks are then taken out of water and surplus water on the surfaces is wiped off with
cotton or a moist cloth.
4. The specimen is placed in the compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal and
between 2 plywood sheets each of 3-mm thickness and carefully centered between plates of
the testing machine
5. Loads are applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute till failure and note the
maximum load at the failure.
6. Take the average value of the compressive strengths of the three blocks.

7. The maximum load at failure divided by the average area of bed gives the compressive
strength.
Tabular Column
Dimensions of Block Compressive
Sl Name of Compressive
Strength Remarks
No. Block Length Width Height load in kN 2
(N/mm )
1
2
3
Result: compressive strength of block is=……………….. N/mm2

EXPERIMENT NO .9
TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATES
9(A). DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the moisture content of fine aggregate.
APPARATUS: Suitable air tight container, Weighing balance, oven and desiccators.
THEORY: Determination of moisture content in aggregate is of vital importance in the control of
quality of concrete. The aggregate will absorb a certain quantity of water depending on its porosity. The
water content is expressed in terms of the weight of the dry aggregate.
Relevant Indian Standards: IS: 2386 Part III
PROCEDURE;
1) Weigh a clean metallic container (W1) with both container and lid.
2) Keep the wet sample in the clean metallic container with lid and weigh (W2).
3) Put the container with the wet sample in a thermostatically controlled oven for about 24 hrs under
a temperature between 105°C and 110°C, so that complete drying is assured.
4) Cool the container with the dried sample in a desiccators.
5) Then weigh the container with the dry sample (W3).
6) Repeat the steps from 1 to 5 for at least 3 times on identical sample and calculate the average
moisture content.
Observations
W1 = Weight of container + lid = _______________
W2 = Weight of container + lid + wet sample = _______________
W3 = Weight of container + lid + dry sample = _______________
Typical calculations
𝑊2 − 𝑊3
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100
𝑊3 − 𝑊1
Results
Average Moisture Content of fine aggregate is = _____________________%

9(B) DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific gravity of fine aggregate using Pycnometer.
APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT: Pycnometer, Sensitive balance with 0.001g accuracy, Glass rod, Heat
source, Oven.
Relevant Indian Standards: As Per IS: 2386 Part III
THEORETICAL DISCUSSIONS: Specific gravity of soil is an important parameter used in
calculating void ratio, degree of saturation, unit weight & other properties of soil. Specific gravity of soil
solids is determined by 50 ml density bottle in the case of fine grained soils & 500 ml or 1000 ml
Pycnometer in the case of coarse grained soils.
Figure 9B.1: Pycnometer

PROCEDURE:
1) Weigh the dry and empty Pycnometer (W1).
2) Take 3.5 kg of oven dry sample passing through 10mm sieve.
3) Take fine aggregate about 1/3rd of the height in the Pycnometer & weigh (W2).
4) Add some distilled water in it & mix it thoroughly with glass rod. Add some more water & stir it.
Then fill the Pycnometer by water up to the brim. Dry the Pycnometer from outside with a cloth
& weigh (W3).
5) Empty the Pycnometer, clean it thoroughly & fill it with distilled water upto the brim & weigh.
(W4).
6) Repeat the steps from 2 to 4 for two more readings and find the average specific gravity.
LIMITATIONS: In case of swelling clays, kerosene should be used instead of water & the Specific
gravity can be found using the following formula:-
𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
(𝑊4 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2 )
Typical Values of Specific Gravity of Soil Particles

SL.No Soil type Value of G
1 Sand 2.64-2.67
2 Silt 2.68-2.70
3 Clay 2.70-2.80
4 Soil containing mica or iron 2.85-2.90
5 Organic soils 1.26-2.20
Tabular Format
Sl.No. Observations 1 2 3
1 Weight of pycnometer ( W1gm )
2 Weight of Pycnometer + Dry FA ( W2 gm )
3 Weight of Pycnometer + Water + FA ( W3 gm )
4 Weight of Pycnometer + Water ( W4 gm )
5 Specific Gravity
6 Average Specific gravity
Specimen Calculations
𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
(𝑊4 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2 )
RESULTS
Average Specific Gravity of fine aggregate is =_____________________

9(C). DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY OF FINE AGGREGATE

OBJECTIVE
To determine the bulk density and percentage voids of aggregate.
APPARATUS
a) Balance -A balance with sensitive to 0.5% of the weight of the sample to be weighed.
b) Cylindrical Metal Measure- The measure shall be of 3, 15 or 30 liters capacity and shall comply
with the requirements given below.
Size of largest particle Nominal capacity
4.75mm and under 3 liters
Over 4.75 mm to 40mm 15 liters
Over 40mm 30 liters
c) Tamping Rod- A straight metal tamping rod of cylindrical cross section 16 mm in diameters 60
cm long, rounded at one end.
d) Calibration
The measure shall be calibrated by determine the weight of water at 27°C required to fill it such that no
meniscus is present above the rim of the container. The capacity in liters shall be obtained by dividing
the weight of water in kg required to fill the container at 27°C by the weight of water in one liter at
27°C.
Figure 9C.1: Cylindrical Metal Measure

PROCEDURE
1. Take the empty weight of Calibrating cylinder (W).
2. Fill the measure with fine aggregate sample for about one third height and tamp evenly with 25
strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod.
3. Add a similar quantity of aggregate as second layer and tamp it evenly with 25 strokes.
4. Fill the cylinder with a third layer of aggregate up to over flowing and tamp it with 25 strokes
5. Strike off the surplus aggregate using the tamping rod as a straight edge & take the weight (W1)

6. Empty the measure and fill it again to over flowing by means of a shovel, the aggregate being
discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of the measure.
7. Level the surface of the measure and weight it (W2).
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Empty weight of metal measure (W) =
Weight of measure + weight of compacted fine aggregate (W1) =
Weight of measure + weight of loosely filled fine aggregate (W2) =
Diameter of metal measure =
Height of metal measure =
Volume of Metal measure (v) =
Bulk density of compacted fine aggregate = (W1-W) / V
Bulk density of loosely packed fine aggregates= (W2-W) / V
Percentage of voids= (Gs - γ) x100/ Gs
Where Gs = Specific gravity of aggregate
γ = Bulk density of aggregate in kg / liter
RESULTS
Bulk density of compacted fine aggregate = kg / liter
Bulk density of loosely packed fine aggregates = kg / liter
Percentage of voids of fine aggregate =

9(D) SIEVE ANALYSIS AND FINENESS MODULUS

OBJECTIVE
To determine the fineness modulus and sieve analysis of given fine aggregates.
APPARATUS
Indian Standards Test Sieves: fine wire cloth nos. 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300 µm,
150µm and square hole perforated plates refer to IS:460-1978, weighting balance(sensitive to 1/1000th
weight of the test sample), sieve shaker, trays, rice plates, drying oven(to operate between 100 to 110 °C.
THEORY: IS: 383-1963 defines the Fine aggregates as the aggregate most of which will pass 4.75mm
IS sieve. The fine aggregate is often termed as a sand size aggregate. The sand is generally considered to
have a lower size limit of 0.07mm. The material between 0.06mm and 0.002mm is classified as silt and
still smaller particles are termed as clay.
The fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness, giving some idea of the mean size of the
particles present in the entire body of the aggregate.
Relevant Indian Standards: As Per IS: 2386 Part I
Figure 9D.1: Sieve Shaking Machine

Procedure
1. Take 1Kg of sand from a laboratory sample of 10 Kg by quartering and break clay lumps, if any, in a
clean dry rice plate.
2. Arrange the sieves in order of IS sieve nos: 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 µm, 300 µm and 150µm
keeping sieve nos. 4.75mm at the top and 150 µm at the bottom. Fix them in the sieve shaking
machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the top.
3. Keep the sample in the top sieve; carry out sieving in the set of sieves as arranged before for not less
than 10minutes.
4. Find the mass retained on each sieve.

5. Fineness modulus is an empirical factor which is obtained by dividing the cumulative sum of the
percentage of aggregate retained on each IS sieves taken in order by 100.
Mass of Fine aggregate = Kg
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative

SL Mass retained mass retained Percentage Percentage
Sieve No.
No. Retained Passing
gm
gm (F)
1 4.75 mm
2 2.36 mm
3 1.18 mm
4 600 µm
5 300 µm
6 150 µm
7 Pan
∑𝐹
Fineness Modulus =
100
DISCUSSIONS
The main object of this test is to determine the relative amount of various sizes of particles present in the
aggregates. The object of finding fineness modulus is to grade the given aggregate for the most
economical mix for the required strength and workability with minimum quantity of cement. For
aggregates commonly used, the fineness modulus of fine aggregate varies between 2.0 and 3.5; for
coarse aggregate between 5.5 and 8.0. A grading curve is drawn IS sieve size v/s percent passing on a
semi-log sheet. If the test sample gives higher fineness modulus, the mix will be harsh and if on the other
hand gives a lower fineness modulus, it results in an uneconomical mix.

Table: Grading of Fine Aggregate as Per IS 383-1970

SL Sieve No. Percentage Passing
No. GRADING GRADING GRADING GRADING
ZONE I ZONE II ZONE III ZONE IV
1 4.75 mm 100 100 100 100
2 2.36 mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
3 1.18 mm 60-95 75-100 75-100 95-100
4 600 µm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
5 300 µm 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
6 150 µm 5-20 5-30 12-40 15-50
7 Pan 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

9(E). BULKING OF SAND

OBJECTIVE
To study bulking of sand under varying percentage of moisture content.
THEORY
The free moisture content (surface moisture content) in fine aggregate results in bulking of volume. Free
moisture forms a film around each particle. This film of moisture exerts what is known as surface
tension which keeps the neighboring particle away from it. Therefore no point of contact is possible
between the particles. This causes bulking. The bulking increases with the increase in moisture content
upto a certain limit and beyond that the increase in moisture content results in the decrease of volume. At
a moisture content representing saturation point, the fine aggregate shows no more bulking. The volume
of saturated sand is that of dry sand.
APPARATUS
250 ml measuring cylinder, weighing balance etc.,
PROCEDURE
1. Take 500ml (V1) of oven dry aggregate.
2. Add 2% (by weight of dry sand) of water and mix well.
3. Pour the sand sample into the 1000 ml measuring cylinder and consolidate by shaking.
Level the surface and read the volume in ml (V2).
4. Take out the whole quantity of sand and continue the experiment by adding 2% water more each
time and note the corresponding volume of sand (V2, V3,….) until the sand volume starts
decreasing.
5. Beyond this point, add 4% more water each time until the sample become fully saturated and
volume decreases no more.
6. Note down the surface level of inundated sand. This is same as the volume of oven dry soil.
Figure 9E.1: Cylindrical Measuring Jar

CALCULATIONS
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 100
𝑉1
GRAPH
A graph drawn between % water content along X-axis and % bulking along Y- axis. From the graph,
pick out maximum % of bulking occurred, % of water content at maximum bulking , % of water content
When bulking is zero and % of bulking for the initial water content (W) of the sample.
RESULTS
Max % of bulking occurred =
% of water content at maximum bulking =
% of water content when bulking is zero =
% of bulking for the initial water content (W) of the sample =
DISCUSSIONS
It is seen that bulking increases with increasing water content upto a certain point where it is maximum
and then it begins to decrease until when the sand in inundated, bulking is practically nil. With ordinary
sands the bulking usually varies between 15 and 30 percent. If, therefore in volume batching no
allowance is made for bulking, the mix will be richer than specified.
Example: when the sand has bulked by 15 percent the mix 1:2:4 by volume batching will correspond to
1:1.74:4.
2
Note: For 15 percent bulking the ratio 1:2:4 will correspond to = 1 : : 4 i.e., 1:1.74:4
15
1
100
2
For 30 percent bulking the ratio 1:2:4 will correspond to = 1 : : 4 i.e., 1:1.54:4
30
1
100

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
TESTS ON COARSE AGGREGATES
10(A). SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE
OBJECTIVE
a) To measure quality of the material.
b) To determine the water absorption of aggregates.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of the following
1. A balance of capacity not less than 3kg with 0.5gm accuracy, and of such a type so as to permit
weighing of the sample container when suspended in water.
2. A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature at 100-110° C.
3. A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of convenient size with
thin wire hangers not thicker than 1mm for suspending it from the balance.
4. A container for filling water and suspending the basket.
5. An airtight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.
6. A shallow tray of area not less than 650cm2.
7. Two absorbent clothes, each not less than 75cmx45cm.
Figure 10.1: Wire Basket and Test Setup of Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate
THEORY: Specific gravity of a coarse aggregate is defined as the ratio of the mass aggregate of equal
volume of coarse aggregate and water at constant temperature. Specific gravity of an aggregate gives
valuable information on its quality and properties.
It is also important in determination of moisture content and in many concrete mix design
calculations of volume yield of concrete. The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a

measure of strength or quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker
than those with higher specific gravity values.
PROCEDURE
1. 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and placed in wire basket
and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22°- 32° C and a cover of at least 5cm of
water above the top of basket.
2. Immediately after immersion, the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting the basket 25
mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop at the rate of about one drop per second for 25
times. The basket and aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24 hour
afterwards.
3. The sample along with the basketis weighed while suspended in water. The weight while suspended
in water is noted =W1g.
4. The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for a few minutes, after
which the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned
to the tank of water jolted 25 times and weighed in water=W2g.
5. The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture could be
removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in single
layer and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry. The
surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g
6. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature of 110° C
for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight container and weighted=W4 g.
𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
OBSERVATIONS
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket, W1 = gm
Weight of basket suspended in water, W2 = gm
Weight of saturated aggregate in water, W1 – W2 = gm
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air, W3 = gm
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate, W3–(W1–W2) = gm
Weight of oven dry aggregate, W4 = gm
𝑊3
1. 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(𝑊3 − (𝑊1 − 𝑊2 ))

𝑊4
2. 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(𝑊4 − (𝑊1 − 𝑊2 ))
𝑤3 − 𝑤4
3. 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑤4
RESULT
(1) Specific gravity =
(2) Apparent specific gravity =
(3) Water Absorption =
Recommended Value
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should be indicated. ISI specifies
three methods of testing for the determination of the specific gravity of aggregates, according to the size
of the aggregates. The three size ranges used are aggregates larger than 10 mm, 40 mm and smaller than
10 mm. The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from 2.5 to 3.0
with an average of about 2.68. Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high
strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a sample road aggregate without finding the
mechanical properties such as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values. Water absorption shall
not be more than 0.6 per unit by weight.
DISCUSSIONS
The specific gravity of an aggregate sample is the ratio between the mass in air and mass of an equal
volume of water. For accurate results in laboratory the allowance is made for the volume of voids
between the particles and for the water absorbed by them.
It is seen that higher the specific gravity of aggregate, harder and stronger it will be. Average
figures for the specific gravity of stone aggregate are as below:
Gravel = 2.6, Lime stone = 2.7, Granite = 2.75.

10(B).DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

OBJECTIVE: To determine moisture content of coarse aggregate.
APPARATUS
Suitable air tight container, Weighing balance, oven and desiccators.
PROCEDURE
1. Weigh a clean metallic container (W1) with identification mark.
2. Keep the wet specimen in a clean metallic container with lid and weigh (W2).
3. Put the container with the wet specimen in a thermostatically controlled oven for about 24 hrs under
a temperature between 105°C and 110°C, so that complete drying is assured.
4. Cool the container with the dried sample in a desiccator.
5. Then weigh the container with the dry aggregate (W3).
6. Repeat the steps from 1 to 5 for at least 3 times on identical sample and calculate the average
moisture content.
OBSERVATIONS
W1 = Weight of container + lid = _______________
W2 = Weight of container + lid + wet sample = _______________
W3 = Weight of container + lid + dry sample = _______________
CALCULATIONS
𝑊2 − 𝑊3
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100
𝑊3 − 𝑊2
RESULTS
Average Moisture Content = _____________________%
DISCUSSIONS
The displacement method gives the moisture content as a percentage by mass of saturated surface dry
sample, not a dry sample and results given by displacement method will not be same as those given by
drying method. If accurate results are to be obtained, it is essential that the sample should be poured into
water and not water into sample.

10(C). FINENESS MODULUS AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

OBJECTIVE
To determine the fineness modulus and grain size distribution of given coarse aggregate.
THEORY: IS: 383-1963 defines the Coarse aggregate as aggregate most of which is retained on
4.75mm IS sieve. The fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness, giving some idea of the mean
size of the particles present in the entire body of the aggregate.
APPARATUS
IS test sieves: fine wire cloth nos. 80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm and 4.75mm refer to IS:460-1978, and
square hole perforated plates weighting balance(sensitive to 1/1000th of the test specimen), sieve shaker,
trays, rice plates, drying oven(to operate from 100 to 110°C)
PROCEDURE
1. Take 5Kg of coarse aggregate of nominal size 20mm from a sample of 50Kg by quartering.
2. Carry out sieving by hand. Shake each sieve in order: 80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm over a
clean dry tray for a period of not less than 2 minutes. The shaking is done with a varied motion:
backwards and forwards, left to right, circular, clockwise and anti-clockwise and with frequent
jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the sieve surface in frequent changing directions.
3. Find the mass of aggregate retained on each sieve taken in order.
4. Fineness modulus is an empirical factor which is obtained by dividing the cumulative sum of the
percentage of aggregate retained on each IS sieves taken in order by 100.
Mass of tray =W
Mass of tray + Coarse aggregate = (W+10) Kg
Cumulative
Mass Cumulative Cumulative
SL percentage
Sieve No. retained Mass retained Percentage
No. retained
gm gm passing
(C)
1 80 mm
2 40 mm
3 20 mm
4 10 mm
5 4.75 mm
6 Pan

C 500
Fineness modulus of Coarse Aggregate =
100
DISCUSSIONS
The main object of this test is to determine the relative amount of various sizes of particles
present in the aggregates. The object of finding fineness modulus is to grade the given aggregate for the
most economical mix of concrete for the required strength and workability with minimum quantity of
cement. For aggregates commonly used, the fineness modulus of fine aggregate varies from 2.0 and 3.5;
for coarse aggregate from 5.5 and 8.0. A grading curve is drawn IS sieve size v/s percent passing on
semi-log sheet. If the test aggregates gives higher fineness modulus, the mix will be harsh and if on the
other hand gives a lower fineness modulus, it results in an uneconomical mix.

10(D). DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY OF COARSE AGGREGATE

OBJECTIVE
To determine the bulk density and percentage voids of aggregate.
APPARATUS
a) Balance -A balance sensitive to 0.5% of the weight of the sample to be weighed.
b) Cylindrical Metal Measure- The measure shall be of 3,15 or 30 liters capacity and shall comply
with the requirements given below.
Size of Largest Particle Nominal Capacity
4.75mm and under 3 liters
Over 4.75 mm to 40mm 15 liters
Over 40mm 30 liters
c) Tamping Rod- A straight metal tamping rod of 16 mm in diameters 60 cm long, rounded at one
end.
d) Calibration
The measure shall be calibrated by determine the weight of water at 27°C required to fill it such that no
meniscus is present above the rim of the container. The capacity in liters shall be obtained by dividing
the weight of water in kg required to fill the container at 27 °C by the weight of water in one liter at
27°C which is 0.1 kg.
Figure 10D.1: Cylindrical Metal Measure

PROCEDURE
1. Take the empty weight of Calibrating cylinder (W).
2. Fill the measure with coarse aggregate sample for about one third height and tamp evenly with 25
strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod
3. Add a similar quantity of aggregate as second layer and tamp it evenly with 25 strokes.
4. Fill the cylinder with a third layer of aggregate up to over flowing and tamp it with 25 strokes
5. Strike off the surplus aggregate using the tamping rod as a straight edge & take the weight (W1)
6. Empty the measure and fill it again to over flowing by means of a shovel, the aggregate being
discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of the measure.
7. Level the surface of the measure and weight it (W2).

Observations and Calculations

Empty weight of metal measure (W) =
Weight of measure + weight of compacted coarse aggregate (W1) =
Weight of measure + weight of loosely filled coarse aggregate (W2) =
Diameter of metal measure =
Height of metal measure =
Volume of Metal measure (v) =
Bulk density of compacted coarse aggregate = (W1-W) / V
Bulk density of loosely packed aggregates= (W2-W) / V
Percentage of voids= (Gs - γ) x100/ Gs
Where Gs = Specific gravity of aggregate
γ = Bulk density of aggregate in kg / liter
RESULTS
Bulk density of compacted coarse aggregate =
Bulk density of loosely packed coarse aggregates =
Percentage of voids of coarse aggregate =
DISCUSSIONS
The bulk density is the mass of the material in a given volume. It is affected by several factors and varies
with specific gravity, shape, size and grading of the aggregate.

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
STRAIN GAUGES
Strain gauges are mostly used to measure strains on the free surface of a body. Strain gauges are
essentially devices that sense the change in length, magnify it and indicate it in some form. They can be
classified broadly into five groups on the basis of the physical principle employed for the magnification
of change in length:
1. Mechanical 2. Optical 3. Electrical
4. Pneumatic 5. Acoustical
Further each strain gauge is sub divided into two types:
1. Bonded strain gauge 2. Unbounded strain gauge
In bonded strain gauge a grill of fine wire is cemented to a thin paper sheet. In unbounded strain
gauge a resistance wire is wound around the structure under study.
Properties of Good Strain Gauge
1. The gauge factor should be high to get more resolution.
2. The wires used in the strain gauge should have high resistance.
3. The wires have low temperature co-efficient of resistance.
4. The wires should not have any hysteresis in its response.
5. The wires should have a linear relationship between strain and resistance.
Mechanical Strain Gauge
These mechanical devices are generally known as extensometers and are to measure strain under static
or gradually varying loading conditions. An extensometer is usually provided with two knife edges
which are clamped firmly in contact with the test component at a specific distance or gauge length apart.
When the test component is strained, the two knife edges undergo a small relative displacement. This is
amplified through a mechanical linkage and the magnified displacement or strain is displayed on a
calibrated scale.
Optical Gauges
Mechanical Optical Gauges
In mechanical-optical gauges a combination of mechanical & optical levers are used to amplify the
relative displacement between the knife edges. The moving knife is pivoted so that it rotates while
undergoing displacement.
Electrical Gauges
In an electrical strain gauge a change in length or strain produces a change in some electrical property.
The greatest advantage common to all electrical gauges is the ease with which the electrical signal can
be displayed, recorded or conditioned as required. Three types of electrical gauges are in use: (i)
Inductance gauges, (ii) Capacitance gauges & (iii) Electrical resistance gauges. Well over 90 percent of

the strain gauges used in practice are of the electrical-resistance type and a large proportion of these are
foil gauges.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
A material is that out of which anything is done. It is the stuff of which something is made. It comprises
a wide range of metals and non-metals, which must be operated up on to form the finished product.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The term property indicates that defines a specific characteristic of a material. It provides a basis for
predicting its behavior under various conditions like forces, temperatures, pressures, etc.
1. Physical Properties: Shape, size, finish, colour, specific gravity, density, porosity, structure, etc
2. Mechanical Properties: Strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, creep, brittleness,
hardness, toughness, resilience, impact, fatigue, bending, malleability.
3. Thermal Properties: Specific heat, heat of transformation, thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, thermal stresses, thermal fatigue, thermal shock, latent heat of fusion, melting point
etc.
4. Chemical Properties: Corrosion resistance, atomic weight, equivalent weight, valency, molecular
weight, acidity, alkalinity, atomic number, chemical composition.
5. Optical Properties: Colour, diffraction, fluorescence, reflectivity, hysterisis, luminescence,
refractive index, etc.
TESTS ON MATREIALS
1. Destructive tests: After being destructively tested, the component or specimen either breaks or
remains no longer useful for further use.
Ex: Tensile test, Compression test, Torsion test, Shear test, fatigue test.
2. Non- Destructive tests: A component does not break and even after being tested so, it can be used
for the purpose for which it was made.
Ex: Radiography test, ultrasonic inspection, dye-penetrate test, magnetic particle test, etc.

DEFINITIONS
1. Stress: The force per unit area of resistance offered by a body against deformation is called the stress.
2. Tensile Stress: Stress induced in the uniform cross sectional area „A‟ subjected to equal and opposite
collinear forces „P‟ resulting in the elongation of the member.
3. Compressive Stress: When two equal and opposite collinear are applied to a member resulting in the
reduction in the length of the member, then the stress induced is called compressive stress.
4. Strain: It is defined as change in length per unit length, also termed as linear strain.
Strain = (elongation / original length of specimen)
5. Yield Stress: Stress at which considerable elongation first occurs in the test piece without increase in the load.
6. Direct Stress: The resistance developed in a material due to the action of direct load or axial load passing
through the centroidal axis of the section is termed as direct stress.
7. Shear Stress: The stress caused by forces which are parallel to an area of cross section and tend to produce
sliding of one position over another is termed as shear stress.
8. Young’s Modulus: It is defined as ratio of linear stress to the linear strain or the ratio of normal stress to the
axial strain within elastic limit.
9. Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular direct stress of equal intensity, the
ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as Bulk modulus.
10. Lateral Strain: It is the ratio of change in lateral dimension to original is called lateral strain.
11. Volumetric Strain: It is the ratio of change in volume to original volume is called volumetric strain.
12. Elasticity constants: they are the properties of materials such as young‟s modulus, rigidity modulus, Bulk
modulus and Poisson‟s ratio.
a. Young‟s Modulus = Linear Stress / Linear Strain
b. Bulk Modulus = K = (Volumetric stress / Volumetric strain)
c. Poisson‟s ratio = (Lateral stress / Longitudinal strain)
d. Rigidity Modulus: (Shearing stress / Shearing strain)
13. Elastic Length: It is the maximum load attained within the elastic limit divided by the cross sectional area of
the specimen.
14. Deflection: a beam when loaded gets deflected. The axis of the loaded beam bends in a curve known as the
elastic curve. The deflection at any point on the axis of the beam is the vertical distance between its position
before the load and after loading.
15. Ultimate stress: The maximum load to which a bar is subjected to in a test divided by its original cross-
sectional area gives a nominal stress which is known as ultimate stress.
16. Breaking Stress: The stress corresponding to fracture load is called breaking stress.
17. Factor of Safety: The ratio of ultimate strength to allowable stress is called factor of safety.
18. Ductile material: It is an important property of the material that enables it to be drawn into a wire.
19. Brittle material: A material is said to be brittle if it undergoes only small permanent deformation prior to
fracture.
20. Malleability: It is the property of the material that enables it to get rolled into structural shapes and sheets.

21. Shearing Force: The algebraic sum of all the vertical force to one side of the section in a beam is called its
shearing force.
22. Tangential Stress: Tensile stress induced in the wall along the circumference of the cylinder is known as
tangential stress.
23. Longitudinal Stress: If the ends of the cylinder are closed, then the pressure at the ends will lead to stress in
the walls in the direction parallel to longitudinal axis of the cylinder and this stress is termed as longitudinal
stress.
24. Resultant Stress: The resultant of normal and tangential stress acting on any plane is called resultant stress.
25. Complementary Stress: The stress which acts right angles to the original active stress is called
complementary stress.
26. Hooke’s Law: Within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.
27. Elastic Limit: It is the limit of stress upto which the material will behave elastically (and regains its original
shape on removal of load).
28. Proportional Limit: It is the limit of stress upto which the stress of the material is proportional to strain.
29. Yield Point: It is the strain at which the elastic nature is completely lost and the materials develops permanent
deformation.
30. Yield Limit: It is the limit of stress at which considerable elongation first occurs in the test piece without
increase in the load.
31. Ductility: It is indicated by the amount of deformation that is possible until fracture.
32. Toughness: It is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.
33. Elasticity: It is the property by which a body returns to its original shape after the removal of external load.
34. Gauge length: It is the failure length of the parallel portion of the specimen over which extensions are
measured.
35. Resilience: The strain energy stored in a body due to external loading within the elastic limit is known as
resilience and the maximum energy which can be stored in a body upto the elastic limit is called as proof
resilience.
36. Plasticity: It is the property of material by which no strain disappears when it is relieved from the stress.
37. Proof stress: It is the stress at which the stress-strain diagram departs by a specified percentage of gauge
length from the produced straight line of proportionality (0.2%).
38. Brittleness: A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to smaller section. Here,
failure takes place with small deformation.
TENSILE TEST
In this, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of the specimen and pulling it apart. Here, the
specimen elongates in a direction parallel to the applied load. It is most commonly made and one of the simplest
test among the mechanical tests. The versatility of the test lies in the fact that it permits both strength and ductile
properties to be measured. In conducting the test, a specimen of the steel is subjected to an increasing tensile pull
until it fractures.

COMPRESSION TEST
It is similar to tension test, expect that the loading is in opposite direction, i.e., compressive load which produce
crushing action. It is used for testing brittle materials such as stone, concrete, cast iron, glass etc. The result of this
is so affected by the frictional force occurring at the ends of the specimen.
For ductile material such as mild steel or copper, lateral distortion takes place due to the influence of the
friction at the load faces; the cross-section becomes greatest at the center, the specimen taking up a barrel shape.
Failure finally occurs by cracks appearing on the surface and spreading inwards.
For brittle material the behavior is quite different from that of ductile material. But there is definite load at
which specimen breaks. Materials fails by shearing along thee plane inclined at 50 o deg and to the longitudinal
axis.
HARDNESS TEST
Hardness is the resistance of the metal to the penetration of another harder body which does not receive a
permanent set. It is the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion cutting or penetration.
It consists of measuring the resistance to plastic deformation of layers of metal near the surface of the
specimen. In the process of the hardness determination, when the metal is intended by a special tip (ball indenter),
the tip first overcomes the resistance of the metal to elastic deformation and then a small amount of plastic
deformation.
Scope
Hardness number cannot be utilized directly in design or analysis but it is used to grade the available
materials, according to hardness and indicate utility for certain use.
Uses
1. Similar materials may be graded according to hardness.
2. Quality of the material or products may be checked or controlled.
3. By establishing a co-relation between hardness and some other desired property like tensile strength, etc.
4. Used to test the result of heat treatment like case hardening etc.
TYPES OF HARDNESS MEASUREMENTS
1. Scratch hardness
2. Indentation hardness
3. Rebound or Dynamic hardness
Scratch hardness is of primary interest to mineralogists. With this measure of hardness various materials and
other are rated on their ability to scratch one another. It is measured according to the Mohr‟s scale.
Indentation hardness test is performed by impressing into the specimen, which is resting on a rigid platform,
an indenter of fixed and known geometry, under a known static load applied by means of lever system. Depending
upon the test, the hardness is expressed by a number that is either inversely proportional to the depth of
indentation for a specified load and indenter or proportional to a mean load over the area of indentation.
In rebound hardness measurements, the indenter is usually dropped onto the metal surface, and the hardness
is expressed as the energy of impact. The shore Scleroscope measures the hardness in terms of the height of the
rebound of the indenter.

Rockwell Hardness Test

In this the hardness of a material is determined by the depth of indentation of a diamond cone or small steel ball.
This is conducted in a specially designed machine that applies load through a system of weights and levers. This
test utilizes the depth on indentation under constant load as a measure of hardness. Minor load minimizes the
amount of surface penetration needed and reduces the tendency for sinking in by the indenter. The dial is reversed
so that a high hardness, which corresponds to a small penetration, results in high hardness number.
Brinell Hardness Test
It is oldest and most used type. This is static test using relatively large indenters.
Advantages of Rockwell Hardness Test over Brinell hardness Test:
1. Due to the application of minor load to the penetrator, any effects due to surface imperfections are eliminated.
2. Unskilled labour can operate.
3.The dial indicator eliminates the necessity for a microscope for measuring the indentation and so that the test
can be done quickly and more accurately.
4.On account of small impression made, the test is suitable for the majority of finished components.
Note: 75HB 10/500/30 indicates a Brinell hardness of 75 measured with a ball of 10mm diameter and load of
500kg applied for 30seconds.
IMPACT TEST
The principal measurement is the energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. After breaking the test bar, the
pendulum rebounds to a height which decreases as the energy absorbed in fracture increases. The energy absorbed
in fracture, usually expressed in joules, is read directly from calibrated graduated scale on the machine.
Scope
1. Useful in designing those components of machine which are subjected to a sudden applied loads.
2. It gives necessary energy required to rupture the specimen.
3. For evaluating the uniformity of properties in similarly heat treated steels.
4. Gives guidance to the sensitivity of the material to notch propagation, or the resistance of the material to the
propagation of the crack, once it is formed.
SHEAR TEST
A type of forces which tends or causes two continuous parts of the body to slide relative to each other in a
direction parallel to their plane of contact is called shear force.
The stress required to produce fracture in the plane of cross-section acted on by the shear force is called
shear strength.
A shearing force acts parallel to a plane whereas the tensile and compressive forces act normal to a plane.
There are two main types of shear stresses used in the laboratory.
1. Direct or transverse stress- stress encountered in rivets, bolts and beams.
2.Pure or tensional stress- stress encountered in a shaft subjected to pure torsion.
i) Direct shear tests are conducted to obtain a measure of shear strength and pure shear tests are employed to
evaluate the basic shear properties of a material.
ii)For direct shear stress of metal, a bar is usually sheared in some device that clamps a portion of the specimen
while the remaining portion is subjected to a load by means of suitable dies. If the force is resisted by failure

through one plane and single area, then the material is said to be single shear. If two areas resist the fracture, then
the material is said to be in double shear.
Viva Questions.
Define
1) Homogeneity: Material should be of same type and uniformly distributed throughout the body.
2) Arthotropy: Materials have different properties in different directions, e.g. orthotropic Plates.
3) Isotropy: Properties is same or identical at all points in the body of the material.
4) Anisotropy: Properties will not be identical at all points in the body of the material.
5) Elasticity: It is the property by which the deformations caused in a body by external force disappears on
removal of the forces. The resulting forces are with in the elastic limit. It is determined from the tension test in
graph.
6) Plasticity: It is the property by which the deformation caused in a body by external forces do not disappear on
removal of forces. We say there is permanent set in material. In a tension test, the material enters the plastic region
after the elastic region is passed .
7) Ductility: Property by with the materials can be drawn into thin wires. The percentage elongation or
contraction gives a measure of Ductility. In this case, large deformations occur before rupture.
8) Brittleness: If the Fracture in a material occurs when the stress exceeds the elastic limit. Tendency to break
under Impact loads. It is opposite to ductility.
9) Tenacity: The property of a material to resist tension or tensile stress is called Tenacity.
10) Malleability: It is the property by which the material can be beaten into sheets. E.g. Gold. Gold is the most
malleable metal.
11) Rigidity: Sometimes, some materials are rigid against shear deformation. i e. they resist the deformations
caused due to shear. Such property of the materials is termed as rigidity.
12) Toughness: The property of a material to-resist fracture under suddenly applied loads is termed as Toughness.
To some extent, toughness is related to impact resistance.
13) Modulus of Toughness: It is the work-done on the body in loading up to rupture point per unit volume or it is
the area enclosed between stress-strain diagram up to rupture point (see. Graph 2 )
14) Resilience: It is the work done on the body in loading it up to elastic limit per unit volume or it is the strain
energy stored at elastic limit per unit volume. It is given by the area of the stress-strain diagram upto elastic limit
(ref Graph 2). It is also termed as "Modulus of Resilience".

Modulus of resilience = shaded area in graph 2
15) Proof resilience or Torsional strain energy: It is the torsional S.E stored at elastic limit per unit volume It is
given by the area of the torque-twist diagram upto elastic limit.
(Approximately, the triangular area as shown in the figure).
It is equal to = ½ TӨ where T is the torque in N. m upto elastic limit and Ө is the angle of twist in radians.
16) Stress: When a material is subjected to the action of forces, it develops internal resistance, this
Resistance Per unit area is called the stress.
Stress= Load N/mm2
area
17) Strain: It is defined as ratio of change in length to original length.
Strain= Change in dimension
Original dimension

Unit: Dimensionless.
18) Proof Stress: It is the stress at which if the material is unloaded, there will be specified percentage of strain
permanently left in it. When a stress-strain curve for a brittle material subjected to tension is drawn, it indicates
from a graph that for such a material there is no definite yield point. Then to locate the approximate position of
yield or elastic limit, stress in-percentage are plotted along y-axis and x-axis. From 0.2 % strain a line is drawn
(Shown dotted) parallel to the straight line portion of graph. From the point where this line cuts the curve, the
corresponding stress value is measured. This value of stress is known as 0.2 % proof stress and the corresponding
strain is termed as .0.2 % proof strain.
19) Yield stress: Stress at which considerable elongation first occurs in the test piece without increase in the load.
Unit: same as in stress.
20) Ultimate stress: (or Tensile Strength) : The maximum load reached in a tension test divided by the original
area of cross-section. This is also termed as maximum stress.
21) Direct stress: The resistance developed in a material due to the action of direct load or axial load passing
through the centroidal axis of the section- is termed as direct stress.
22) Shear stress: The stress caused by forces which act paralel to an area of cross section and tends to produce
sliding of one portion past another is termed as shear stress.
23) Bending stess: It is the stress due to the applied external bending moment on the structure.
24) Principal stress: The maximum and minimum direct or the normal stress acting in a body without shear
stresses are termed as principal stresses. This can be determined either analytically or graphically ( by Mohr's
graphical method).
25) Young's Modulus of Elasticity: It is defined as the ratio of linear stress to the linear strain or the Ratio of
normal stress to the axial strain, within elastic limit. (From graph). The Young's Modulus is calculated by taking
the corresponding value of stress and strain at elastic limit from the stress-strain graph. (Unit N/mm2)
26) Tangent Modulus / Secant Modulus: It is the slope of the stress / strain diagram at any specified point. This
is used where the stress-strain diagram is not a straight line even in the initial stage. Slope of the tangent (tan Ө) =
Stress/strain at any specified point. This is named as tangent modulus. The slope of the line joining the origin of
co-ordinate axis to any point on curve (p) in a load deformation curve in a compression test is called secant
Modulus.

27) Modulus of Rigidity: It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain. Unit is N/mm2
28) Modulus of Rupture: It is the value of bending stress computed from the formulacorresponds to the bending
movement which causes fracture of the specimen.
29) Poisson's ratio: The ratio of Lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is termed as the Poisson‟s ratio. It is
dimensionless. For most of the materials Poisson's ratio is 0.3
30) Hooke's Law: within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain up to elastic limit.
31) Stiffness: The term stiffness is an indication of deformation of the body under load (load per unit
deformation). It is measured by the ratio of stress & strain. If the stress is directly proportional to the strain, the
stiffness is constant.
32) Stress Hardening: When a material is subjected to repeated cycle of stresses below fatigue limit it will
exhibit higher static strength than when it is subsequently subjected to static tests. This is termed as stress
hardening.
33) Strain Hardening: It is a phenomenon in which the mechanical properties of a material suddenly changes
when the material changes from elastic to in-elastic range.
34) Elasticity constants: They are the properties of materials such as Young‟s Modulus, Rigidity modulus, Bulk
Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
35) Bulk modulus (K): It is the ratio of identical pressure acting in three mutually perpendicular directions to
corresponding volumetric strain.
36) Deflection: A beam when loaded gets deflected. The axis of the loaded beam bends in a curve known as the
elastic curve or deflection curve. The deflection at any point on the axis of the beam is the vertical distance
between its position before the load and after loading.
37) Strength: It is the maximum resistance of a material to type of loading. E.g. Flexural strength compression
strength, impact strength etc.,

38) What is the usual range of carbon content in cast iron, wrought iron and Mild steel? What is its effect
on yield and weight strengths?
In M.S. carbon content is 0.3 %
In C.I - 0.25 to 0.8 %
In W.I -0.2%
Effect of carbon content op yield and weight strengths:
As the carbon content increases, the material becomes brittle.
39) Sketch the typical failures in a tension &compression test on a ductile material and brittle material.
40) State the reason tension test is preferred to compression test for determining the modulus of elasticity.
1. In tension test, the gauge length is quite large. Therefore strains induced is over a larger gauge length. In
compression test compression specimens are short. Measurement of G.L is quite difficult. Hence the evaluation of
strains is also difficult. Therefore E cannot be found out exactly in a compression test.
2. In tension test in the stress-strain curve, the elastic point is quite well defined. Therefore Young's modulus
can be exactly found out which is the ratio of stress-strain up to elastic limit. In compression test, the elastic limit
is not well defined, as seen from graph of stress V/S strain fora material subjected to compression. Therefore
evaluation of E is not accurate in a compression test as in a tension test.
41) What is Static loading and Dynamic loading as applied to hardness test?
Static loading: They are the normally applied loads. They are the standardized loads for theParticular type of
specimen. The loads are applied gradually, the initial load being applied first and then the total load is finally
being applied.
Dynamic loading: Application of suddenly applied loads on the surface of specimen to determine the hardness of
metals is called dynamic loading.
42) Very hard materials cannot be tested in Brinell hardness testing machine. State the reason.

For very hard materials like case hardened steel, spring steel, etc., the indentation made on The specimen in
B.H. test is very small, because the standard ball diameter is small equal to 2.5mm and intensity of load applied is
very small. As the B.H. number is a function of the spherical area of indentation and load, if the indentation area is
small, it greatly affects the hardness value of the material. Hence, for very hard material B.H. test is not suitable.
43) Whatis the purpose of applying the minor load in case of RockwellHardness test?
We should have a datum load (or a reference load) before applying the major load on the surface of specimen so
that a proper and clear indentation is made on the surface of specimen. The datum or the reference load that is
applied on specimen is called the minor load which is normally 10 Kg in Rockwell Hardness test. After the
application of minor load the total major load is applied on the specimen.
44) What physical property is determined from impact test? What is its significance?
The physical property determined from impact test is the resistance of a material due to suddenly applied loads or
prepared clutches. Ex. Helipad, i.e. a helicopter landing suddenly on the Landing pad causing sudden impact,
impact of a drop hammer, etc.,
45)What are the types of impact tests?
Two types:
a) Izod impact test: Specimen is placed as a cantilever. The type of notch will be „V‟ type. The notch is facing the
direction of striker of hammer.
b) Charpy Impact test Specimen is placed as a simply supported beam. The type of notch is „U‟ type. The notch
will be facing on the opposite direction of striker of hammer.
46) What is meant by Notch Sensitivity? Or what is the effect of notching on test specimens.
In order to induce a fracture to occur in a ductile material under a single blow in a impact test, the specimen is
generally notched. The use of notch tends to reduce the ductility causing a brittle type of fracture or the tendency
of a ductile material to act like a brittle material, when broken in the form of a notched specimen is called Notch
Sensitivity.
47. Define bulk density and specific gravity. Which one is most oftenly used in concrete calculations in the
field?
48. What is the range of values of specific gravity of ordinary aggregates like gravel and crushed granite?
49. What are light weight aggregates and where do you use them?
50. Why is the knowledge of water absorption of fine aggregate essential?
51. Define bulking of aggregates and discuss its significance.
52. Discuss the relative bulking tendencies of coarse sand.
53. Why the bulking takes place only in sand and why not in coarse aggregate? Is this test actually needed
in field? If so explain why?
54. If no allowance is made for bulking of sand, how is it going to affect the mix proportions?
55. How does specific gravity vary with hardness of stone?

56. Give the average figures for specific gravity of the aggregate:
a) Gravel, b) limestone, c) granite.
57. What is meant by unit mass or bulk density?
58. What is the maximum unit mass value?
59. How does unit mass differ from specific gravity?
60. Define moisture content?
61. Where do we need the knowledge of moisture content?
62. Define specific gravity of aggregates.
63. When do we need the value of specific gravity of fine aggregate?
64. Define & explain the method of determining fineness modulus.
65. By referring to IS: 383-1970, state whether the sample of aggregates conforms to standards or not.
66. If the sample does not conform to the standards, what are the measures by which it can be brought to
the required specifications?
67. Discuss the importance of water absorption test in bricks.
68. Name the characteristics of good bricks.
69. State the maximum limit on water absorption of building bricks.
70. What is the standard size and weight of building brick?
71. What are the standard sizes of building tiles?
72. What is a modular brick?
73. Why bricks are tested for compressive strength?
74. State I.S specifications for compressive strength for the bricks?
75. What are tiles and name some of their types used in india?
76. Why do you sprinkle water on bricks before actual use?
77. Compare hand moulded and machine moulded bricks.
78. Should we test the bricks in tension?

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MAHARAJA EDUCATION TRUST (R.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Building Materials Testing

To flourish as a centre of excellence which delivers civil engineers with quality

 To impart technical knowledge through learner-centric teaching methodologies.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

To take up higher studies, employment, entrepreneurship, research and development for

To demonstrate leadership skills, professional integrity and appreciate ethical,

PEO 2: To exhibit technical and entrepreneurial skills to execute engineering projects

PEO 3: To express ethical approach and social awareness towards continuous

PO 1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

Introduction to Basic Materials Testing laboratory 3

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 1

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 2

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 3

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Sl No. Material E in SI Units ( N/mm2)

Modulus of Rigidity (G)

Sl No. Material G in SI Units ( N/mm2)

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 6

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 7

(a) Stress-strain curves for common materials

(b) Stress strain curve for mild steel

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 8

Figure 1.2: Universal Testing Machine and Specimen

Figure 1.3: Mode of Failure

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 9

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 10

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Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 12

Figure 2.1 Failure Mechanism

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OBSERVATIONS & CALUCLATIONS

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Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 17

Relevant Indian Standard: Method of simple torsion testing of wire IS-1717:1985

Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 18

OBSERVATIONS AND CALUCLATIONS

Calculations and Results:

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BENDING TEST ON WOOD UNDER TWO POINT LOADING

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALUCLATIONS

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Dept .of Civil Engineering, MIT THANDAVAPURA. 23

BENDING TEST ON WOOD UNDER TWO POINTLOADING.

Figure 4A.1: Bending profile of wood

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3. Why two-point symmetrical loading is preferred in bending tests.

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SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL – SINGLE AND DOUBLE SHEAR

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