Skin

The skin or the integument is the outer covering of the body which is the largest organ of the human
body occupying 15% of their weight.

Functions-

1. Protection: a. Prevent excessive water loss through evaporation. B. Prevent entry of pathogens. C.
To protect the underlying tissues from mechanical shock. D. To protect the body against excessive
UV light.

2. Sensation: It is a sense organ that helps us to feel different senses like pain, touch, heat, etc.

3. Temperature regulation: It prevents the loss of heat in cold weather and facilitates the loss of heat
in hot weather.

4. Storage of food: It reserves food in the form of fat layers in special cells

5. Excretion: Assists in excreting water, salt, and urea through sweating but cannot be considered as
an excretory organ since it helps in sweating to regulate the body temperature.

6. Vitamin D synthesis: When exposed to sunshine, it synthesizes vitamin D

7. Grip: Puckered skin helps in increasing the grip to hold things.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of the skin is made up of stratified epithelium arranged in layers. It is devoid of
blood vessels. Has three sublayers-
Cornified layer (stratum corneum): Outermost layer is made up of flattened dead cells made out of
fibrous proteins called keratin. It is rough and resists mechanical damage, bacterial infection, and
loss of water by evaporation.

Granular middle layer: Thin middle layer is made of 2 or 3 flattened cells. It gives way to the
outermost layer.

Malpighian layer (stratum Malpighi or germinative layer): The innermost layer in which cells actively
divide and multiply and press and shift outward to replace worn-out cells of the cornified layer. The
colour of the skin is imparted by melanin which is present in this layer. Melanin acts as an umbrella
and protects the skin from the sun’s harmful UV rays, which can cause skin cancer.

Leukoderma or vitiligo: When melanin is lost from smaller patches on the body.
Albinism is an inherited disease where skin pigmentation is lost throughout and appears pinkish due
to the underlying blood capillaries.
Dermis

The middle thick, tough, and flexible layer of the skin. Made up of collagen and elastic fibres which
provide strength and elasticity to the skin. It consists of blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands,
etc. The outer region is branched into numerous small projections called papillae which contain
blood vessels and nerve endings that help in sensing different senses and help the blind read via
sensation. The layers beneath the dermis contain adipose tissue or fat cells. Insulates the skin, acts
as a shock absorber, and acts as a reserve for fats.

Hair: Hair shaft is the part projecting from the skin which may extend slightly below the epidermis
and lies obliquely. The hair root is the part embedded in the dermis while the hair bulb is the lowest
part of the hair root which contains the hair papillae with capillary blood supply. The hair follicle is
the structure enclosing the hair root which is composed of an epithelial and connective tissue
sheath. The bulb and follicle are responsible for the growth of the hair. The erector muscle helps in
piloerection or goose flesh. The duration of the scalp is 2-5 years and of the eyebrows is 3-5 months.
Hair also helps in providing a sensation of touch as nerve fibres extend to their bases.

Nails are hardened keratinous structures that grow as dead cells from the nail root. Consists of three
parts—nail plate (outermost, hard, keratinous, and dead cells), nail bed (lies below the nail plate),
and matrix (the white half-moon-like structure that produces new cells on maturation and pushes
out the older cell towards the tip of the nail, thereby facilitating in nail growth).

Sebaceous glands: They secrete oily secretions to make the outer surface of the skin waterproof,
make it oily, make it flexible, and help in preventing the loss of water via evaporation. Pimples are
sebum accumulation in the skin which causes bacterial growth due to its nutritiveness and finally
leads to an infection. Acne occurs when sebaceous glands get inflamed due to hormonal influence.
Blackheads occur when an open pore gets clogged with sebum which gets oxidized.

Sweat glands: They are coiled tubes consisting of a secretory part that absorbs the fluid from
surrounding cells and blood capillaries of the dermis and passes it through the sweat duct, and the
excretory part that runs upwards to open on the surface. Sweat pores are outer openings on the
skin. Sweat contains 99 water, 0.2-0.5 salts, and 008 urea.

Mammary glands or milk glands: Modified sweat glands which consist of breasts with a cone-shaped
central projection called a nipple into which 15-20 ducts open. Prolactin hormones - pregnancy.
Meibomian gland: Modified sebaceous glands opening on the margin of the eyelid to prevent
overflow of tears and to lubricate the lid margins.
Ceruminous gland: Modified sebaceous gland present in the auditory canal which secretes cerumen
or earwax to lubricate the eardrum and to keep it dust free.

Mammals and birds are warm-blooded/ homeothermal or endothermic animals, which can maintain
a constant body temperature, irrespective of the surrounding temperature which is not the case in
cold-blooded/ poikiothermal or ectothermic animals. Thus, cold-blooded animals want to escape
extreme conditions and thus they hibernate or aestivate (in frogs).

37 C in the mouth, 1 C higher in the rectum, and 1 C lower in the armpit. The range is 35-40 C. The
body temperature is lowest in the morning and highest in the late afternoon.

Sources of heat production: a. Chemical reactions take place in all body cells, especially the oxidation
of glucose in the liver. b. Vigorous activity of muscles. c. Ingestion of hot foods and beverages.
Sources of heat loss a. Skin: About 85% of body heat is lost through the skin by convection,
conduction, radiation, and evaporation of sweat. b. Lungs: Heat is lost from the body when we
expire or give out air. Some heat is also lost during the vaporization of water from the lungs. c. Urine
and faeces: Elimination of these substances takes place at body temperature. d. Foods: Heat is also
lost when cold food, water, or cold beverages are consumed.

Temperature Regulation: The hypothalamus, a portion of the forebrain, is the principal heat-
regulating center of the body. It acts like a thermostat. When the body tends to cool below the
normal temperature, it switches on or speeds up the heat-producing process. When the body tends
to get overheated, it accelerates the cooling process and switches off the heat-producing process.