FUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 4

1
Syllabus

1. Principles of Mathematical Logic and Set Theory.

2. Real Numbers and Topology on ℝ and ℝ𝑛 .
3. Sequences.
4. Functions.
5. Derivation.

2
Additional Resources
▪ Lamar University – Calculus I (here)
▪ Lamar University – Calculus II (here)
▪ Desmos – for graphs of real functions (here)
▪ Geogebra – for graphs of real functions of two variables (here)

3
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable
4.5 – Limits of function
4.6 - Continuity

4
Function: definition
▪ A rule 𝑓 that assigns to each member of a nonempty set 𝐷 a
unique member of a set 𝑌 is a function from 𝐷 to 𝑌.
▪ We write the relationship between a member 𝑥 of 𝐷 and the
member 𝑦 of 𝑌 that 𝑓 assigns to 𝑥 as 𝒚 = 𝑓 𝒙 .

𝑓∶𝐷 →𝑌
𝑥⟼𝑦=𝑓 𝑥

5
Function: definition
𝑓∶𝐷 →𝑌
𝑥⟼𝑦=𝑓 𝑥

▪ The set 𝐷 is the domain of 𝑓 , denoted by 𝐷𝑓 .

▪ The set 𝑌 is the codomain of 𝑓, the possible values of 𝑓.
▪ 𝑓 attains 𝑦0 ∈ 𝑌 if there is an input value 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷 such that 𝑦0 = 𝑓 𝑥0 .
▪ 𝑦0 is in this case called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 = 𝑓 𝑥0 .
▪ 𝑦0 is also called the image of 𝑥0 through 𝑓 or its output value.
▪ The set of all values attained by 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓, denoted by 𝑅𝑓 .

6
Function: definition
▪ When defining a function, it is crucial to specify its domain, its
codomain and the rule (expression) that assigns to each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 its
corresponding (and unique) 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝑓∶𝐷 →𝑌
𝑥⟼𝑦=𝑓 𝑥

7
Functions: example 1
▪ Let 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑣𝑎 𝑆𝐵𝐸 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 .
▪ Let 𝑌 = 𝑦 ∈ ℤ ∶ 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 20 .
▪ Let 𝑓 be the function that assigns to a Nova
SBE student its Calculus 1 grade:
𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶1_𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑦
What is the domain, the codomain and the
range of 𝑓?

8
Functions: example 2
▪ Let 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑣𝑎 𝑆𝐵𝐸 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
▪ Let 𝑌 = 𝑦 ∈ ℝ: 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 250 (in cm)
▪ Let 𝑍 = 𝑧 ∈ ℝ: 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 250 (in Kg)
▪ Let 𝑓 be the function that assigns to a Nova SBE
student its height and weight:
𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑓 𝑥 = ℎ, 𝑤
What is the domain, the codomain and the range
of 𝑓?

9
 Functions from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚.
Scalar and vector fields
𝑛=1
real-valued function of a real variable 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓(𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒)
𝑚=1

𝑛=1
vector-valued function of a real variable (𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑚>1

𝑛>1 real-valued function of a vector variable

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑓(𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙, 𝐿𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟)
𝑚=1 (scalar field)
vector-valued function of a vector (𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝑛>1
variable = 𝑓(𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐴𝑔𝑒)
𝑚>1
(vector field)

10
Functions from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚.
Scalar and vector fields
How do we classify each of these functions?

11
Component functions
Suppose that 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , … , 𝑔𝑛 are real-valued functions defined on a
subset 𝑇 of ℝ𝑚 , and define the vector-valued function 𝐺 on 𝑇 by
𝐺 𝑼 = 𝑔1 𝑼 , 𝑔2 𝑼 , … , 𝑔𝑛 𝑼 𝑼∈𝑇
Then, 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , … , 𝑔𝑛 are the component functions of
𝐺 = 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , … , 𝑔𝑛
Example: Let 𝑓: ℝ2 → ℝ2 defined by 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦, 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .
Then, 𝑓1 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 and 𝑓2 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

12
Domain of a function
▪ Subset of elements of ℝ𝑛 which can be seen as arguments/inputs
of a function and for which the expression makes sense.
1
𝑓: ℝ\ 4 → ℝ , 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−4
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 − 4 ≠ 0 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 4 = ℝ\ 4

𝑓 𝒙 = 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 1 − 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − ⋯ − 𝑥𝑛 1/2

𝐷𝑓 = 𝒙 ∈ ℝ𝑛 ∶ 𝒙 ≤ 1

13
Domain of a function
▪ If a function is defined by a formula without specification of its
domain, it is to be understood that its domain is the largest subset
of ℝ𝑛 for which the formula defines a valid output.
▪ This is sometimes called the maximal domain.
▪ Check out this video for some examples (ignore everything other
than the domain).

14
Domain of a vector-valued function of a
real variable
▪ The domain of a vector-valued function of a real variable is the
intersection of the domains of the component functions.
Example: the domain of a function 𝑓 defined by
𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑥 − 1
is: 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 > 0 ∧ 𝑥 > 1 = 1, +∞

15
Domain of a function
▪ Find the (maximal) domain of each of the functions defined by the
expressions:

if
if

16
Range of a real-valued function
▪ Subset of elements of the codomain which can be seen as
images/output values of a certain argument / input value or vector.
▪ It is the set of all the function values 𝑓(𝒙) that the function attains.
𝑓: ℝ\ −1 → ℝ
4
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+1

𝑅𝑓 = ℝ\ 0

17
Range of a vector-valued function
▪ The range of a vector-valued function is a subset of the cartesian
product of the individual ranges of each component function.
𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 ⊂ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ𝑚
𝑅𝑓 ⊂ 𝑅1 × 𝑅2 × ⋯ × 𝑅𝑚
Example: 𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 ⊂ ℝ → ℝ2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 2 , 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑎, 2𝑎 ∶ 𝑎 ≥ 0

18
Range of a function
▪ Find the range of each of the following functions:

19
When are two functions identical?
▪ Two functions are identical when both their graphs overlap each
other completely, that is, when…
◦ their expressions are the same for every element in the domain
◦ they have the same domain

20
Exercises
Check if the following pairs of functions
correspond to identical functions:
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 2 − 1 − ln 𝑥 − 1 and
𝑔 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
b) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥+2𝑦
, 𝑥𝑦 and
𝑥 𝑦
𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = − , 𝑥 𝑦
2 2

21
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable
4.5 – Limits of functions
4.6 - Continuity

22
Real-valued functions of a real variable
▪ Real functions with one variable are represented in the plane (two
dimensions)
▪ The graph of each function is obtained by representing on the
plane all the points (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), where 𝑥 belongs to the domain of the
function.

23
Real-valued functions of a vector variable
▪ Real functions with two variable are
represented in the space (three
dimensions)
▪ The graph of each function is obtained by
representing on the space all the points
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), where (𝑥, 𝑦) belongs to the
domain of the function.

24
Level curves of scalar fields
▪ The level curves of the function 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 are two-dimensional
curves we get by setting 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is any number.
▪ The level set is the set of level curves we obtain when considering
different values for 𝑘, that is:

𝐿𝑘 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∶ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘

▪ Example here , another video example here!

25
Exercises
▪ Identify the level curves of each of the
following functions, and sketch a few of
them:
a) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦
2𝑥
b) 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

26
Function transformations

2
2
𝑓 𝑥 =| 𝑥−2 − 2|
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−2 −2 2
𝑓 𝑥 = |𝑥| − 2 −2

27
Function transformations

2 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−2 −2 −𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥 − 2 +2 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 − 2 2
−2

28
Function transformations: translation

29
Function transformations: translation

30
Function transformations: dilation
𝑎>1

0<𝑎<1

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Function transformations: dilation

𝑎>1 0<𝑎<1

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Function transformations: summary

33
Exercise
Starting from the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , do and
describe the successive transformations in
order to arrive at the graph of

𝑦 = −2 𝑥 − 3 2 +3

34
Exercise
1 Consider the function 𝑓 2
represented by the graph:
It is known that 𝑅𝑓 = [−2, +∞ [

What is the range of the function

with expression
𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 + 2 + 1
Represent the graph of function
ℎ(𝑥) = −2𝑓(𝑥 − 1) + 3
35
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable.
4.5 – Limits of functions
4.6 - Continuity

36
Composite function of real functions
▪ Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions such that 𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ𝑝 and
𝑔: 𝐷𝑔 ⊆ ℝ𝑝 → ℝ𝑚 .
▪ If 𝐷𝑓 has a nonempty subset 𝑇 such that 𝑓 𝒙 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 whenever
𝒙 ∈ 𝑇 , then the composite function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is defined on 𝑇 by
𝑔∘𝑓 : 𝐷 𝑔∘𝑓 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ 𝑚
𝑔∘𝑓 𝒙 =𝑔 𝑓 𝒙 , and
𝐷 𝑔∘𝑓 = 𝒙 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∧ 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔

37
Exercise
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = ln(𝑥) and g 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1.
Characterize, if possible, both 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and
𝑔∘𝑓 .
Is the composition of functions
commutative?

38
Exercise
Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 and g 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 , 𝑡 2 .
Characterize, if possible, both 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and
𝑔∘𝑓 .
Is the composition of functions
commutative?

39
Injective (or one-to-one) functions
▪ Let 𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 → 𝐶𝐷𝑓 , 𝐷𝑓 , 𝐶𝐷𝑓 ⊂ ℝ.

▪ We say that 𝑓 is one-to-one (or injective) if for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ,

𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓 𝑥2 implies that 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
(that is, distinct elements of 𝐷𝑓 have distinct elements on 𝑅𝑓 ).

40
Exercises
1. Show that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 is
injective.
2. Show that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 is
not injective.

41
Surjective (or onto) functions
▪ Let 𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 → 𝐶𝐷𝑓 , 𝐷𝑓 , 𝐶𝐷𝑓 ⊂ ℝ.

We say that 𝑓 is onto (or surjective) if its range coincides with its
codomain, that is, is, every element of the codomain is the function
value of some element 𝑥:

∀ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶𝐷𝑓 ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∶ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

42
Bijective functions
𝑓 is a bijection if it is both
▪ one-to-one (injective)
▪ onto (surjective).

43
Exercises
Consider the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ+ defined
1+𝑥
1+𝑥
by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 =𝑒 2 .
2

Show that 𝑓 is bijective.

44
Inverse Function
▪ If 𝑓 is bijective we can define its inverse function.
▪ Let 𝑓 −1 represent the inverse function of 𝑓, that is, the function that
associates to each element 𝐲 ∈ 𝑅𝑓 the element 𝒙 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 that gave rise to
𝒚 through 𝑓.
▪ Note that 𝑓 −1 is such that 𝑓 𝑓 −1 𝑦 = 𝑦 and 𝑓 −1 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥.

45
Inverse Function
1. Characterize the inverse function of
𝑘(𝑥) = ln( 3𝑥 + 6).
2. Characterize the inverse function of
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = (𝑢, 𝑣).

46
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable
4.5 – Limits of functions
4.6 - Continuity

47
Odd functions and Even functions
𝑓 IS EVEN IF 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(−𝑥) 𝑓 IS ODD IF 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)

48
Exercises: even and odd functions
Determine whether the following function
is even, odd or neither:
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 𝑥
3
2. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −𝑥
+𝑥

49
Decreasing Functions
▪ A real function of a real variable 𝑓 is
decreasing in [𝑎 ; 𝑏] if and only if whatever
the points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎 ; 𝑏], we have that:
𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2

▪ Generally we say that 𝑓 is decreasing if it

is a decreasing function in all its domain.

50
Increasing Functions
▪ A real function of a real variable 𝑓 is
increasing in [𝑎 ; 𝑏] if and only if whatever
the points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎 ; 𝑏], we have that:
𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 .

▪ Generally we say that 𝑓 is increasing if it

is an increasing function in all its domain.

51
Strictly decreasing and strictly increasing
▪ If the we have 𝑓 𝑥1 > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , 𝑓 is said to be
strictly decreasing.
▪ If the we have 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , 𝑓 is said to be
strictly increasing.

52
Monotonic functions
If a function is increasing or decreasing, the function is said to be
monotonic.
If a function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing, the function is
said to be strictly monotonic.

Exercise:
is function 𝑔 strictly decreasing in its domain?
Is function 𝑔 monotonic?

53
Exercise: True or False
1. Being strictly increasing is a sufficient
condition for a function to be increasing.

2. Not being decreasing is a necessary condition

for a function not to be strictly decreasing.

3. A function can be simultaneously increasing

and decreasing in its domain.

54
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable
4.5 – Limits of functions
4.6 - Continuity

55
Exercise
lim 𝑓 (𝑥) =?
𝑥→𝑥0

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) =?
𝑥→𝑥1

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) =?
𝑥→𝑥2

𝑓 lim 𝑓 (𝑥) =?
𝑥→0

56
 𝑓

Exercise 2
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ?
𝑥→−4
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ?
𝑥→1
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ?
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ?
𝑥→6

57
 Exercise 3
𝑔: ℝ → ℝ ∶ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
ℎ =𝑔∘𝑓
𝑓
1. 𝐷ℎ = ? , 𝑅ℎ = ?

2. lim ℎ 𝑥 = ?
𝑥→6

3. lim 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =?
𝑥→6

4. 𝑔 lim 𝑓 𝑥 =?
𝑥→6

5. lim 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 =?
𝑥→ 6

6. 𝑓 lim 𝑔 𝑥 =?
𝑥→ 6
58
Examples
𝑥+1
1. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−3
2𝑥𝑦
2. lim
(𝑥,𝑦)→(1,1) 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
3. lim
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥+𝑦

59
Definition of limit at a certain point
Let 𝑓 be a real function, defined on a neighbourhood of an
accumulation point 𝑥0 , 𝑁(𝑥0 ), but not necessarily at 𝑥0 .
We say that b is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 converges to 𝑥0 , if:

b
for every neighbourhood 𝑁1 𝑏
there is some neighbourhood 𝑁2 𝑥0
such that
𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁1 𝑏 whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁2 𝑥0
𝑥0 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥0 .

60
Definition of limit at a certain point
Therefore, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = b means that
𝑥→𝑥0
For every 𝛿 > 0 there is an 𝜀 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑏 < 𝛿 whenever 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀
Or using a more symbolic notation:

∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝜀 > 0 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∧ 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏 < 𝛿

▪ In the following examples, the domain of 𝑓 is clear, hence we will omit
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 on the definition.

61
Definition of limit at a certain point
Let 𝑓 be the function defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2.
Let us prove, using the definition, that the limit of the function at point 1 is 4.
∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝜀 > 0 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 − 1 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 4 < 𝛿
𝑓(𝑥) − 4 < 𝛿 ⇔ 2𝑥 + 2 − 4 < 𝛿 ⇔ 2𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 ⇔

𝛿
⇔ 2(𝑥 − 1) < 𝛿 ⇔ 2 𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿 ⇔ 𝑥 − 1 <
2

𝛿
𝜀=
2

62
Definition of limit at a certain point
𝑦

𝑓
𝛿 𝑏

𝑥0
𝑥

𝜀
∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝜀 > 0 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏 < 𝛿

63
Definition of limit at a certain point
𝑦
𝑓
𝜹 𝜺
𝛿 4 0.2 0.1

0.002 0.001

1 𝑥

𝛿 The outputs of the inputs that are inside a neighbourhood 𝜀 = 0.1

𝜀= of 𝑥 = 1, will be in a neighbourhood 𝛿 = 0.2 of 𝑦 = 4.
2

64
Exercises
Show, using the definition of limit, that:
𝑥 2 −4
1. lim =4
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

2. lim 𝑥 2 = 1
𝑥→1

𝑥2𝑦
3. lim =0
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

65
Useful inequalities…

66
Limits of functions: special cases (1)
Example 2 : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4

Let us prove using the definition that 𝑓 𝑥 → 5 as 𝑥 → 3.

∀𝛿 > 0, ? ∃𝜀 > 0 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 5 < 𝛿
𝑓(𝑥) − 5 = 𝑥 2 − 4 − 5 = 𝑥 2 − 9 < 𝛿 ⇔
⇔ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) < 𝛿

Now what?

67
Limits of functions: special cases (1)
⇔ 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 <𝛿
Consider that the maximum value we allow for 𝛿 is 1, that is, 𝜀 ≤ 1.
Then 𝑥 − 3 < 𝜀 ≤ 1, that is, 𝑥 − 3 < 1, or 2 < 𝑥 < 4.
If we bound above 𝑥 + 3 by 7, we get:

𝛿
𝑥−3 < ⇒ 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 <𝛿
7
𝛿
𝜀 is the minimum between 1 and .
7

68
Limits of functions: special cases (2)
Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦 − 1 2

Show that lim 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0

𝑥,𝑦 → 1,1

69
One-sided limits
▪ We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches the left-hand limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0
from the left, and write lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 , if 𝑓 is defined on some open
𝑥→𝑥0
interval 𝑎, 𝑥0 and, for some 𝛿 > 0, there is an 𝜀 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝛿 whenever 𝑥0 − 𝜀 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 .
▪ We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches the right-hand limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0
from the right, and write lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 , if 𝑓 is defined on some open
𝑥→𝑥0
interval 𝑥0 , 𝑏 and, for some 𝛿 > 0, there is an 𝜀 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝛿 whenever 𝑥0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝜀.

70
One-sided limits
Theorem: a function 𝑓 defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑥0 has a limit
at 𝑥0 if and only if it has left- and right-hand limits at 𝑥0 , and they
are equal, that is,

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 ⇔ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = L

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

71
One-sided limits
𝑥
Compute lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

72
Limit along a path
▪ When investigating whether a
function has a limit at a point 𝒂, no
restriction can be made on the way in
which 𝒙 approaches 𝑎, except that 𝑥
must be in 𝐷𝑓 .

73
Limit along a path
▪ To show that a limit exists we would
technically need to check an infinite
number of paths and verify that the
function is approaching the same
value regardless of the path we are
using to approach the point.

74
Limit along a path: directional limits
▪ A directional limit of a function 𝑓 from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚 when the
arguments approach 𝒙𝟎 is a limit of 𝑓 when the arguments
approach 𝒙𝟎 along a straight line.

𝑥𝑦
Exercise: Find, if it exists, lim .
(𝑥,𝑦)→ 0,0 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

75
Iterated limits
▪ An iterated limit of a function from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚 when the arguments
approach 𝒂 is the value or vector to which the images are getting
closer as each of the entries of the arguments is approaching the
correspondent entry of 𝒂.
𝑥−1
Find, if it exists, lim .
𝑥,𝑦 → 1,−1 𝑥+𝑦

76
Iterated limits
▪ An iterated limit of a function from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚 when the arguments
approach 𝒂 is the value or vector to which the images are getting
closer as each of the entries of the arguments is approaching the
correspondent entry of 𝒂.
1
Find, if it exists, lim 𝑥 sin
𝑥,𝑦 → 0,0 𝑦

77
Limit along a non-linear path
▪ A function 𝑓 from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑚 can also approach 𝒙𝟎 along a path
that is not a straight line, for example, along the path where 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

𝑥2𝑦
Exercise: Find, if it exists, lim .
(𝑥,𝑦)→ 0,0 𝑦+𝑥 2 2

78
Summary
▪ If all existing iterated limits and all limits along paths tried are 𝒃,
then the limit may be 𝒃 or may not exist (because it is impossible to
check all paths).
▪ If at least one limit along a path does not exist, or at least two
methods lead to different limits, then the limit does not exist.
▪ If an iterated limit does not exist, the limit may still exist, because
iterated limits may correspond to paths which, according to the
domain, may not be followed.

79
Exercise
Find the limit of the function
𝑥4𝑦
𝑔: ℝ2 \ 0,0 → ℝ , 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1 +
𝑥 6 +𝑦 4

i. Iterated limits
ii. directional limits
iii. limit along the path 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

80
Properties of finite limits

81
Properties of finite limits

82
Properties of finite limits

83
Limits of composite functions
Solve the following exercises:

84
What if I don’t find a relation between 𝜀
and 𝛿?
▪ It can be that the limit really does not exist, or
▪ The method we used to prove the limit (finding an upper bound to
the distance) was not appropriate.
▪ Then, either we search for two trajectories with different limits, or
▪ We try to bound the expression above in another way, to find an appropriate
relationship between 𝜀 and 𝛿.

85
Infinite limit of a function at a point
We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches ∞ as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0 from the left, and
write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ if 𝑓 is defined on an interval 𝑎, 𝑥0 and, for each real
𝑥→𝑥0−
number 𝑀 > 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑀 if 𝑥0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 .

We say that 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑥0 from the right, and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ if 𝑓 is defined on an interval 𝑥0 , 𝑎 and, for each real
𝑥→𝑥0+
number 𝑁 < 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑁 if 𝑥0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 +𝛿.

86
Infinite limit of a function at a point
If at least one of the one-sided limits of an
accumulation point of the domain 𝑥0 is
infinite, we say that the function has a vertical
asymptote at 𝑥0 .
Vertical asymptotes are then found at
accumulation points of the domain, where
either the left or the right hand limit (or both)
tend to infinity (with whatever sign).
𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote to both
functions depicted on the right.

87
Finite limit of a function at ∞
Given 𝑓: 𝐷𝑓 → ℝ, where 𝐷𝑓 is not bounded above, we say that the
limit of 𝑓 at +∞ is 𝐿, and write lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿, if for every 𝜀 > 0
𝑥→+∞
there is some number 𝑀 > 0 such that 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀 whenever
𝑥 > 𝑀.

88
Finite limit of a function at ∞
▪ If the function has a finite limit 𝐿 when 𝑥
approaches ±∞, we say that the function
has an horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 𝐿.

▪ 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the

function depicted on the right.

89
Further properties of limits of functions
If lim 𝑓 𝒙 = +∞ and lim 𝑔 𝒙 = 𝐿 then:
𝑥→𝒙𝟎 𝑥→𝒙𝟎

▪ If 𝐿 ∈ ℝ or 𝐿 = +∞, lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = +∞
𝑥→𝑥0

▪ If 𝐿 > 0 or 𝐿 = +∞, lim 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = +∞

𝑥→𝑥0

▪ If 𝐿 < 0 or 𝐿 = −∞, lim 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = −∞

𝑥→𝑥0
𝑔 𝑥
▪ If 𝐿 ∈ ℝ , lim =0
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑓 𝑥

▪ lim 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ and lim ln 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

90
Syllabus
4 – Functions
4.1 – Definitions and basic concepts
4.2 – Graphs of functions and function transformations
4.3 – Operations on functions: Composite and Inverse functions
4.4 – Specific concepts for real functions of a real variable
4.5 – Limits of function
4.6 - Continuity

91
Continuity of a function
1. In which point(s)
i. there is a limit, but
ii. the function is not
continuous?
𝑓
2. Find a continuous extension of
𝑓 at the point 𝑥1 .

3. Is it possible do say that the

function 𝑓 is continuous?

92
Continuity of a function at a point
Before studying the continuity of a function at a point it is
necessary to know the nature of that point. Its nature will
determine how continuity will be studied.

CASE 1: the point is an accumulation point of the function’s domain

CASE 2: the point is an isolated point of the function’s domain

93
Continuity at an accumulation point of the
domain
▪ We say that a (real or vector-valued) function is continuous at 𝒙𝟎
when:
lim 𝑓 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝑥→𝒙𝟎

▪ The limit exists only if the limit exists according to every possible
trajectory (and no longer just the left-hand and right—hand limit).

94
Definition of continuity at an
accumulation point of the domain
▪ In general, we say that the function is continuous if it is continuous
at all the points of its domain.

▪ A function 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ𝑚 is continuous at 𝒙𝟎 if:

∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝜀 > 0: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∧ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) < 𝛿

95
Continuous function - example
▪ Let 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ be a real function of a real
variable defined by the expression:

𝑥2 − 1
, 𝑥≠1
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
2 , 𝑥=1
Show, using the definition, that 𝑓 is
continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

96
Definition of continuity at an isolated
point of the domain
▪ A function 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ𝑚 will always be continuous at the isolated
points of its domain.

∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝜀 > 0: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∧ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) < 𝛿

▪If we choose an n-ball of radius 𝛿 around 𝑓(𝑥0 ), 𝐵𝛿 (𝑓(𝑥0 )), it is always
possible to define an n-ball of radius 𝜀 around 𝒙𝟎 whose images belong
to 𝐵𝜀 (𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )). In this case:
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 0 < 𝜀 and 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 0 < 𝛿

97
Continuity of a function
The following statements are valid:
▪ Rational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions,
logarithmic functions, constant functions and roots of any index are
continuous function in their maximal domains;

▪ The sum, subtraction, product, ratio and the composition of

continuous functions gives rise to a continuous function in its
domain.

98
Continuity of a function
𝑥 1
Example: The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 + is a continuous function in all its domain:
ln 𝑥
1
▪ 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑥, and ln 𝑥, are continuous functions, because they are an exponential, a
𝑥
square root, a rational function and a logarithm function;
▪ the composite function 𝑒 𝑥 ∘ 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
is continuous, because it is the
composition of continuous functions;
1 1
▪ the composite function ∘ ln 𝑥 𝑥 = is also continuous;
𝑥 ln 𝑥
▪ since 𝑓 is the sum of two continuous functions, 𝑓 is continuous.

99
Continuity of composite functions
If 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝐶, 𝑔: 𝐶 → ℝ are continuous functions, and
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 and lim 𝑔 𝑦 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑦→𝑏

then lim 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿. In other words,

𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑔 𝑦
𝑥→𝑎 𝑦→𝑏

100
Continuity of composite functions
▪ The continuity of the functions involved in the composition is
important. If, for example, 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ with expression
0 , 𝑥≠0
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ
1 , 𝑥=0
If 𝑓 = 𝑔, then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ\ 0 , and

101
Continuous extension
▪ We can define a continuous extension of a function
𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ𝑚 to a point 𝒂 ∉ 𝐷𝑓 if and only if:
▪ 𝒂 is an accumulation point of the domain of 𝑓, and
▪ the limit lim 𝒇 𝒙 is finite.
𝒙→𝒂

𝒇 𝒙 𝑖𝑓 𝒙 ∈ 𝐷
▪ The new function is 𝑓ሚ = ൝ lim 𝒇 𝒙 𝑖𝑓 𝒙 = 𝒂
𝒙→𝒂

102
Continuous extension
▪ Show that you can define a continuous
extension to 𝑥 = 1 of:
𝑥 2 −1
𝑓: ℝ\ 1 → ℝ: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1

103
Properties of continuous functions

104
Properties of continuous functions

105
Properties of continuous functions

106
Extreme-Value (Weierstrass) Theorem
If a function is continuous in a bounded and closed interval of ℝ,
then it certainly attains a maximum and a minimum in that interval.
𝑦

max

min

𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

107
Intermediate Value (Bolzano) Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ be a continuous function in the closed interval
𝑎 , 𝑏 , where 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 𝑓 𝑏 .
Let 𝑘 be an arbitrary value between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) (or between 𝑓(𝑏)
and 𝑓(𝑎)).
Then, there is a point 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎 , 𝑏 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘.

▪ Corollary of the Bolzano Theorem

If 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏) < 0, then 𝑓 has at least one zero in 𝑎, 𝑏 .

108
Exercise
Let 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ be a continuous
function whose domain and range are
both [0,2].
Show that the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 has at
least one solution.

109