A.

The real numbers

Topology B. Norm and Distance
C. Topology in ℝ𝑛

1
Basic Properties of Real Numbers
Number Sets

ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ⊂ℂ

2
Positive Integer (Natural) Numbers
▪ Denoted by ℕ: 1, 2, 3, 4, … , n, …

▪ There is an infinite number of natural numbers, but it is a countable

infinite.

▪ We call cardinal number of a set to the number of elements of a given set

(for example: #𝐴 = 10)

3
Integer Numbers
▪ Denoted by ℤ.
..., -n, ...-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n...
▪ There is an infinite number of integer numbers, but this infinite is
still a countable infinite.
▪ The set of non-negative integers is denoted by ℕ0 .

4
Rational Numbers
▪ Denoted by ℚ.

▪ These numbers can be written as a fraction of two integer numbers:

𝑎
𝑥= , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ and 𝑏 ≠ 0.
𝑏

0 4 6 1
∈ℚ − ∈ℚ ∈ℚ ∈ℚ
8 7 2 3
▪ Integer numbers are also rational: they are the division of themselves by
1.

5
Rational Numbers
▪ There is an infinite number of rational numbers, but this infinite is still a
countable infinite.

▪ The rational numbers are such, that between any two rational numbers
we can always find another rational number).

▪ Not true for ℕ and ℤ ‼

6
 Irrational Numbers

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.... ....
1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
▪ Even thought the rational numbers are infinitely many, there are still “holes” on
the real line.
▪ These will be filled by the Irrational Numbers, denoted by (ℝ\ℚ).

7
Irrational Numbers
▪ Irrational numbers are all the numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction
of two integer numbers.

2 𝜋
▪ ≈ 0, 4714 and ≈ 0, 7854 are also on the real line!
3 4

▪ Irrational Numbers will fill all the blank spaces left by the rational numbers.
▪ Irrational Numbers are uncountably many!
▪ Exercise: prove that 2 is an irrational number. (Khan Academy).

8
Real Numbers
▪ The union between the sets of Rational and Irrational numbers is the set
of Real Numbers, represented by ℝ.

▪ If we represent all the rational and irrational numbers (that is, all the
Real numbers) on the real line, we obtain a continuum.

▪ The real numbers are also uncountably many (uncountably infinite)!

9
Real Numbers

▪ ℝ = ℚ ∪ ℝ\ℚ
ℝ

10
Topology
in ℝ

11
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 ∶ 𝑥𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

1,10 1,58 1,90 10

10 is an upper bound to the set because 10 ≥ 𝑥𝑖 , ∀𝑖 ∈ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

1.10 is a lower bound to the set because 1.10 ≤ 𝑥𝑖 , ∀𝑖 ∈ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

This set has BOTH upper bounds and lower bounds, hence…
→ BOUNDED SET

12
Upper and Lower Bounds. Bounded Sets
Let S be a non-empty subset of ℝ, 𝑆 ⊂ ℝ.

We say that u is an upper bound of S if and only if ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 we have that x ≤ u.

We say that l is a lower bound of S if and only if ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 we have that x ≥ l.

We say that S is a bounded set if and only if it has upper bounds and lower
bounds.

13
Upper and Lower Bounds. Bounded Sets
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 ∶ 𝑥𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

0,20 1,10 1,58 1,90 10 12

▪ If we can find an upper bound, there is an infinite number of upper bounds!!

▪ If we can find a lower bound, there is an infinite number of lower bounds!!!

14
 Upper and Lower Bounds. Bounded Sets
▪ Is ℝ a bounded set? What about the set 1,2,3 ?
▪ Is −∞, 6 a bounded set?

▪ An upper bound of a set is a number at least as large as any element of that set.
▪ A lower bound of a set is a number at least as small as any element of that set.
▪ If we can find an upper bound, there are infinitely many upper bounds.
▪ An upper bound may or may not be an element of the set.

15
The least upper bound (supremum)
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 ∶ 𝑥𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

Supremum

0,20 1,10 1,58 1,90 10 12

▪ The number 𝑢∗ is called the least upper bound or supremum of S, since:

▪ 𝑢∗ is an upper bound for A;
▪ 𝑢∗ ≤ 𝑢 for every upper bound 𝑢 of A.

▪ We write sup 𝐴 = 𝑢∗ . In this example, sup 𝐴 =1.90

16
The greatest lower bound (Infimum)
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖 ∶ 𝑥𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
INFIMUM !

0,20 1,10 1,58 1,90 10 12

▪ The number 𝑙 ∗ is called the greatest lower bound or infimum of S, since:

▪ 𝑙 ∗ is a lower bound for A;
▪ 𝑙 ∗ ≥ 𝑙 for every lower bound 𝑙 of A.

▪ We write in𝑓 𝐴 = 𝑙 ∗ . In this example, inf 𝐴 =1.58

17
Maximum and Minimum
▪ We call maximum of S to the supremum if and only if the supremum belongs
to the set.
▪ We call minimum of S to the infimum if and only if the infimum belongs to the
set.
▪ A set S does not have a maximum if one of these does not hold:
▪ the set does not have an upper bound
▪ the supremum (lowest upper bound) does not belong to the set
▪ A set S does not have a minimum if one of these does not hold:
▪ the set does not have a lower bound
▪ the infimum (greatest lower bound) does not belong to the set

18
Completeness Axiom
▪ Every nonempty set S of real numbers which is bounded above has a
supremum. That is, there is a real number B such that B = sup S.

▪ Every nonempty set S that is bounded below has an infimum. That is, there is
a real number L such that L = inf S.

▪ Remark: The same property is not valid on ℚ: if 𝐶 = − 2, 2 ∩ ℚ, the

supremum is 2, which does not belong to ℚ.

19
Exercises
1. Find the set of upper and lower bounds 2. TRUE OR FALSE?
of the following sets and identify their
supremum, infimum, maximum and
minimum (if they exist). a. S𝑢𝑝 0,1 = max −2,1
b. Inf]0,1[= min[0,1]
a. 𝐴 = 1,6 ∪ 10,20
c. S𝑢𝑝 2,10 ∩ ℝ ∖ ℚ =
1 3
b. 𝐵 = 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑛 ∧ 𝑥 ≤ 2 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ min 10,20

c. 𝐶 = 3, 9 ∩ ℚ

20
 A. The real numbers
B. Norm and Distance
Topology
C. Topology in ℝ𝑛

21
Norm: definition and properties
The norm of a vector is a non-negative real number that represents
its length. Every norm has the following properties, for all vectors 𝒙
and 𝒚 and all scalars 𝜆:
1. 𝑛 𝒙 > 0 if 𝒙 ≠ 𝑶 (positivity)
2. 𝑛 𝒙 = 0 if 𝒙 = 𝑶
3. 𝑛 𝜆𝒙 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝒙 (homogeneity)
4. 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝒚 ≤ 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝑛 𝒚 (triangle inequality)

22
Norm: example
Is the function 𝑛 ∶ ℝ2 ⟶ ℝ , 𝑛 𝒙 = 𝑛(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = |𝑥1 | + |𝑥2 | a
norm?

1. 𝑛 𝒙 > 0 if 𝒙 ≠ 𝑶 (positivity)
2. 𝑛 𝒙 = 0 if 𝒙 = 𝑶
3. 𝑛 𝜆𝒙 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝒙 (homogeneity)
4. 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝒚 ≤ 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝑛 𝒚 (triangle inequality)

23
 Norm: example
Is the function 𝑛 ∶ ℝ3 ⟶ ℝ , 𝑛(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 2
a norm?

1. 𝑛 𝒙 > 0 if 𝒙 ≠ 𝑂 (positivity)
2. 𝑛 𝒙 = 0 if 𝒙 = 𝑂
3. 𝑛 𝜆𝒙 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝒙 (homogeneity)
4. 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝒚 ≤ 𝑛 𝒙 + 𝑛 𝒚 (triangle inequality)

24
Euclidean Norm

𝑥 = 𝑥12 + 𝑥12 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛2

25
 𝑛
Distance in ℝ
The distance between two vectors 𝒙 and 𝒚 in ℝ𝑛 is a function
𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 : ℝ𝑛 × ℝ𝑛 → ℝ defined by 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝒚 .

It satisfies the following four properties:

▪ 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 ≥ 0
▪ 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 = 0 is equivalent to 𝒙 = 𝒚.
▪ 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝑑 𝒚, 𝒙 (symmetry)
▪ 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 ≤ 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒛 + 𝑑 𝒛, 𝒚 (triangle inequality)

26
 Euclidean Distance

𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 2 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 2

27
Example: Manhattan Distance
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 Manhattan
Distance

Euclidean
Distance

28
Norm and Distance
If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℜ𝑛

𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑦

29
 A. The real numbers
B. Norm and Distance
Topology
C. Topology in ℝ𝒏

30
Open Ball
Open ball in ℝ Open ball in ℝ2 Open ball in ℝ3

an open interval a circular disk A spherical solid

31
Open Ball

ℝ ℝ2 ℝ3

32
Neighbourhood
A neighbourhood of a point 𝑎 in ℝ𝑛 is any
subset of ℝ𝑛 containing a ball centred in 𝒂.

We write it as 𝑁𝜀 𝒂

33
Bounded Set
A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 is said to be bounded if there is an 𝑛-ball that
contains it.

r ∃𝑟 > 0 ∶ 𝐵𝑟 𝑎 ⊇ 𝑆
for some 𝑎 ∈ ℝ𝑛

34
Interior point of a set
Let S be a subset of ℝ𝑛 (𝑆 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 ). Let a be a point of ℝ𝑛 .
Point a is an interior point of 𝑆 if there exists a ball centred in 𝒂 fully
contained in S.
Hence, if 𝑆 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 and 𝐚 ∈ ℝ𝑛 , if there is one 𝜀 > 0 such that 𝐵𝜖 (𝒂) ⊆ 𝑆, we
say that point 𝒂 is an interior point of S.

The set of interior points of 𝑆 is the interior of 𝑆, denoted by 𝑖𝑛𝑡(𝑆).

35
 𝒂 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ⇔ ∃𝜀>0 ∶ 𝐵𝜀 (𝑎) ⊆ A

𝒂 ∈ 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒂 ∈ 𝒊𝒏𝒕(𝑨)

36
Exterior point of a set
Let 𝑆 be a subset of ℝ𝑛 . Let b be a point of ℝ𝑛 . Point b is an exterior point of
𝑆 if there exists a ball centred in b which does not intercept 𝑆.

Hence, if S ⊆ ℝ𝑛 and b ∈ ℝ𝑛 , if there is one 𝜀 > 0 such that 𝐵𝜖 𝒃 ∩ 𝑆 = ∅,

we say that point b is an exterior point of S.

A point b is an exterior point of S if it is an interior point of ℝ𝑛 \S = 𝑆 𝑐

The set of exterior points of 𝑆 is the exterior of 𝑆, denoted by 𝑒𝑥𝑡(𝑆).

37
𝒃 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ⇔ ∃𝜀>0 ∶ 𝐵𝜀 (𝑏) ⊆ ℝ𝑛 \A

𝒃 ∉ 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒃 ∈ 𝑒𝑥𝑡(𝐴)

38
Boundary or Frontier point of a set
Let 𝑆 be a subset of ℝ𝑛 . Let a be a point of ℝ𝑛 . Point a is a boundary point of 𝑆 if
any ball centred in a intercepts both 𝑆 and its complement 𝑆 𝑐 , where 𝑆 𝑐 = ℝ𝑛 \ S.
Hence, point a is a boundary point of 𝑆 if it is not an interior nor an exterior point
of 𝑆.

▪ Remark: point a may belong to 𝑆, but may also not belong to S!

The set of boundary points of S is the boundary of S, or frontier of S, denoted

by 𝜕𝑆 or front 𝑆 or fr 𝑆 .

39
 𝑐 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
⇔
∀𝜀>0 𝐵𝜀 (𝑐) ∩ A ≠ ∅ ∧ 𝐵𝜀 (𝑐) ∩ ℝ𝑛 \A ≠∅

REMARK: A boundary point does not necessarily lie in A !!

40
Examples
𝐴 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 ∪ 0

𝐵= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑦 > 0

𝐶= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0

41
Closure point of a set
Let 𝑆 be a subset of ℝ𝑛 . Let a be a point of ℝ𝑛 . Point a is a closure point of S
(also adherent point or point of closure) if and only if any 𝑛-ball centred in a has
points in S, that is:
∀𝜀 > 0, 𝐵𝜀 𝒂 ∩ 𝑆 ≠ ∅

The closure of 𝑆 results from the union of the interior of S with the boundary of S:
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠 𝑆 = 𝑆ҧ = 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆 ∪ 𝜕 𝑆

The set of adherent points of 𝑆 is the closure of 𝑆, denoted by 𝑆.ҧ

42
Open and Closed sets. Compact sets.
We say that 𝑆 is an open set if it We say that 𝑆 is a closed set if it
coincides with its interior: coincides with its closure:
𝑆 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆 S = 𝑆ҧ

A set is said to be compact if it is both closed and bounded.

43
Open and Closed sets
There are sets which are simultaneously open and closed (clopen sets). The
empty set and ℝ, for instance, are called “clopen sets”.

A=ℝ B=∅
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴 = ℝ int 𝐵 = ∅
ext 𝐴 = ∅ ext 𝐵 = ℝ
front 𝐴 = ∅ front 𝐵 = ∅
𝐴ҧ = ℝ 𝐵ത = ∅

44
Accumulation point of a set
Point a is an accumulation point of S ⊆ ℝ𝑛 if any 𝑛-ball of a has points of S
distinct from a, that is,
∀𝜀 > 0, 𝐵𝜀 a ∩ 𝑆 ∖ a ≠∅
Point a is an accumulation point of 𝑆 if there are infinitely many points of 𝑆
around it.
Remark: An accumulation point may be a member of S, but may also not be
a member of 𝑆.
The set of all accumulation points of 𝑆 is the derived set of S, denoted by 𝑆′.

45
Accumulation point of a set
𝐸= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 0 ∨ 𝑦 < ln 𝑥
𝐴 = 𝑥 ∈ ℚ: 𝑥 ∈ 2,4

2 4

Green ones are irrational numbers….

Is 3 an accumulation point? YES!
Is 5 an accumulation point? YES!

46
Isolated Points of a set
Point 𝐚 ⊆ 𝑆 is an isolated point of S if it is
not an accumulation point of S.

∃𝜀 > 0: 𝐵𝜀 𝑎 ∩ 𝑆 = 𝑎

47
Organizing the space
Set S

Int(S) Ext(S) 𝜕𝑆

Closure Point Can be Can’t be Can be

Accumulation Point Can be Can’t be Can be

Isolated Point Can’t be Can’t be Is

48
Examples
𝐴 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 ∪ 0

𝐵= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑦 > 0

𝑆= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0

49
Connected sets
A set S ⊆ ℝ𝑛 is said to be disconnected if it possible to represent 𝑆 as the
union of two or more disjoint non-empty sets such that neither contains a
limit point (accumulation point) of the other.

A set S ⊆ ℝ𝑛 is then disconnected if it is possible to represent it as the

union of two non-empty separated subsets, that is:

∃𝐴, 𝐵 ∶ 𝑆 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∧ 𝐴ҧ ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ ∧ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ത = ∅

50
Connected sets
𝑄= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ≤ 1 ∧ 𝑦 ≤ 1 ∨ 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝑦 − 1 2 <1

𝑅= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 𝑥 < 0 ∨ 𝑥 > 𝑦 2

51
Connected and path connected
Intuition: A set 𝑆 is called path-connected if any two points in 𝑆 can
be linked by a path taking values entirely inside 𝑆.
A set 𝑆 is called path-connected if for every two points 𝑥 and 𝑦 in 𝑆,
there is a continuous function 𝜑: [0,1] → 𝑋 such as 𝜑(0) = 𝑥 and
𝜑 1 = 𝑦. This function is called a path.

52
Connected and path connected
Theorem: if S ⊂ ℝ𝑛 is path-connected, then it is connected.

▪ Every path-connected set is connected,

▪ Not every connected set is path-connected.

53
 𝑛
Line segment in ℝ
Parametric equation of a line through two points 𝑋0 and 𝑋1 in ℝ𝑛 :
𝑋 = 𝑋0 + 𝑡 𝑋1 − 𝑋0 = 𝑡𝑋1 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑋0 −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞

The line segment from 𝑋0 to 𝑋1 consists of those points for which

0≤𝑡≤1

54
Convex Set
Definition: A set 𝐶 is convex if the line segment between any two
points in 𝐶 lies in 𝐶, i.e.
∀𝑥1, 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐶, ∀𝜃 ∈ 0, 1 ∶ 𝜃𝑥1 + (1 − 𝜃)𝑥2 ∈ 𝐶.

This set is connected, because it is path connected

(the path through I is contained in the set C).

This set is NOT CONVEX since the line joining points

A and B is not contained in the set C.

55
Convex Set
Definition: A set 𝐶 is convex if the line segment between any two
points in 𝐶 lies in 𝐶, i.e.
∀𝑥1, 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐶, ∀𝜃 ∈ 0, 1 ∶ 𝜃𝑥1 + (1 − 𝜃)𝑥2 ∈ 𝐶.

This set is connected, because it is path connected.

This set is convex since the line joining any two
points of the set is also contained in the set.

56
Examples

Example 1: 𝐴 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 ∪ 0
Example 2: 𝐵= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑦 > 0
Example 3: 𝑆= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 ∶ 𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0

57
Exercises
Let 𝐴 = 𝑥 ∈ ℚ ∶ 𝑥 + 4 < 3 ∪ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ\ℚ ∶ 𝑥 2 − 3 < 0

A. Find, if they exist, the supremum and the infimum of 𝐴.

B. Find the interior, exterior and boundary of 𝐴.
C. Is 𝐴 a closed set? Is it a compact set?
D. Find the derived set of 𝐴.

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Exercises
Let 𝐵 = { 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ3 ∶ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ≤ 1 ∧ 𝑦 = 𝑥}

A. Find the interior, exterior and boundary of 𝐵.

B. Is 𝐵 an open set? And a closed set? It is a compact set?

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