CHAPTER # 1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL THEORY

1. Introduction

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces
of nature for the benefit of humankind. Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their environment, often called systems, to
provide useful economic products for society. The twin goals of understanding and
controlling are complementary because effective systems control requires that the
systems be understood and modeled.
Control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and electrical
engineering. For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical, and
chemical components. Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of
business, social and political systems increases, the ability to control these systems
will also increase.

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2. Control System Structure

A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired system response. The components (process
to be controlled, controller or actuator) can be represented by a block, as shown in
Fig. 1.1.

Fig.1.1 Control system components

Control systems can be divided into two categories: the open-loop and the closed-
loop systems.
An open-loop system (Fig. 1.1) is a system whose input u(t) does not depend on the
output y(t). We can say u(t) is not a function of y(t).
In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes an
additional measure of the actual output to compare it with the desired output
response. The measure of the output is called the feedback signal as shown in Fig.
1.2. Therefore, a closed-loop system is a system whose input u(t) depends on the
output y(t). We can say u(t) is a function of y(t).

Fig. 1.2. Closed-loop control system

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A very simple introductory example of an open-loop system is that of driving the car
as shown in Fig. 1.3. Speed of the car is a function of the position of its accelerator.
The desired speed can be maintained (or desired change in speed can be achieved) by
controlling the force (input / command) on the accelerator pedal, which cause the
carburetor to open or close as to increase or decrease the rate of fuel flow to the
engine, bringing the engine-vehicle speed (output / controlled) to the desired value.

Another example is the clothes washing machine, shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Washing machine as an example of open-loop system

Here, the reference signal designates the various operating conditions that we set on
the ‘‘programmer,’’ such as water temperature, duration of various washing cycles,
duration of clothes wringing, etc. These operating conditions are carefully chosen so
as to achieve satisfactory clothes washing. The controller is the ‘‘programmer,’’
whose output is the control signal u(t). This control signal is the input to the washing
machine and forces the washing machine to execute the desired operations pre-
assigned in the reference signal. The output of the system y(t) is the ‘‘quality’’ of
washing, i.e., how well the clothes have been washed. It is well known that during the
operation of the washing machine, the output (i.e., whether the clothes are well
washed or not) it not taken into consideration. The washing machine performs only a
series of operations contained in u(t) without being influenced at all by y(t). It is clear

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that here u(t) is not a function of y(t) and, therefore, the washing machine is a typical
example of an open-loop system.
A very simple introductory example of a closed-loop system is that of the water
heater shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5. Water heater as an example of closed-loop system

Here, the system is the water heater and the output y(t) is the water temperature. The
reference signal r(t) designates the desired range of the water temperature. Let this
desired temperature lie in the range from 65 to 70ºC. In this example, the water is
heated by electric power, i.e., by a resistor that is supplied by an electric current. The
controller of the system is a thermostat, which works as a switch as follows: when the
temperature of the water reaches 70ºC, the switch opens and the electric supply is
interrupted. As a result, the water temperature starts falling and when it reaches 65ºC,
the switch closes and the electric supply is back on again. Subsequently, the water
temperature rises again to 70ºC, the switch opens again, and so on. This procedure is
continuously repeated, keeping the temperature of the water in the desired
temperature range.
Another example is tank level control shown in Fig. 1.6. This control system can
maintain the liquid level (h-controlled output) of the tank within accurate tolerance of
the desired liquid level (H reference input). The liquid level is sensed by a float
(feedback path element) which positions the slider arm B on a potentiometer. The
slider arm A of another potentiometer is positioned to H. When the liquid level rises
or falls, the potentiometers (error detectors) give an error voltage (error / actuator
signal) proportional to the change in the liquid level. The error voltage actuates the

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motor (plant) through a power amplifier (control elements) to decrease / increase the
opening of the valve V2 to restore the desired liquid level.

Fig. 1.6. Tank level control system

The general block diagram of a closed-loop control system is characterized by a

feedback loop as shown in Fig. 1.7. An error detector compares a signal obtained
through feedback elements (which is a function of the output response) with the
reference input. Any difference between these two signals produces an error or
actuating signal that actuate the control elements, which in turn alter the conditions in
the plant (controlled process) in such a manner to reduce the error.

Fig. 1.7. Closed-loop control system structure

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Due to the increasing complexity of the system under control and the interest in
achieving optimum performance, the importance of control system engineering has
grown in the past decade. Furthermore, as the systems become more complex, the
interrelationship of many controlled variables must be considered in the control
scheme. A block diagram depicting a multivariable control is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8. Multivariable closed-loop control system

3. Brief History Of Automatic Control

Control systems have been in existence since ancient times. A well-known ancient
automatic control system is the regulator of Heron of Alexandria as shown in Fig.
1.9. This control system was designed to open the doors of a temple automatically
when a fire was lit at the altar located outside the temple and to close the doors when
the fire was put out. In particular, the regulator operated in the following way: the
fire, acting as the input to the system, heated the air underneath the altar and the
warm (expanded) air pushed the water from the water container (pot 1) to the bucket
(pot 2). The position of the water container was fixed, while the bucket was hanging
from ropes wrapped around a mechanism (the door spindles) with a counterweight
W. When pot 2 was empty, this mechanism, under the pull of the counterweight W,
held the doors closed. When pot 2 was filled with adequate amount of water from pot
1, it moved downwards, while the counterweight W moved upwards. As a result of
the downward motion of pot 2, the door spindles turned and the doors opened. When
the fire was put out, water from pot 2 returned to pot 1, and the counterweight W

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moved downwards forcing the gates to close. Apparently, this control system was
used to impress believers, since it was not visible or known to the masses (it was
hidden underground).

Fig. 1.9 The regulator of Temple gate

The first historical feedback system, claimed by Russia, is the water-level float
regulator said to have been invented by I. Polzunov in 1765. The level regulator
system is shown in Fig. 1.10. The float detects the water level and controls the valve
that covers the water inlet in the boiler.

Fig. 1.10 Water level regulator

The use of control started to advance in the second half of the 18th century, due to
James Watt, who, in 1769, invented the first centrifugal speed regulator (Fig. 1.11)
which subsequently has been widely used in practice, most often for the control of
locomotives.

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 m

Fig. 1.11. James Watt speed regulator

In particular, this regulator was used to control the speed of the steam engine. This is
accomplished as follows: as the angular velocity of the steam engine increases, the
centrifugal force pushes the masses (m) upwards and the steam valve closes. As the
steam valve closes, the steam entering the engine from the boiler is reduced and the
steam engine’s angular velocity decreases, and vice versa: as the angular velocity of
the steam engine decreases, the masses (m) go down, the steam valve opens, the
amount of steam entering the engine increases, resulting in an increase of the angular
velocity. This way, one can regulate the speed of the engine.
Automatic control theory and its applications have developed rapidly in the last 60
years or so. The period 1930–1940 was important in the history of control, since
remarkable theoretical and practical results, such as those of Nyquist and Black, were
reported. During the following years and until about 1960, further significant research
and development was reported, due mainly to Ziegler and Nichols, Bode, Wiener and
Evans. All the results of the last century, and up to about 1960, constitute what has
been termed classical control. Progress from 1960 to date has been especially
impressive, from both the theoretical and the practical point of view. This last period
has been characterized as that of modern control, the most significant results of
which have been due to L. Zadeh, Kalman and many others.

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 Chapter # 2 modeling of physical systems

1. Introduction

This chapter presents mathematical modeling of mechanical systems, electrical

systems and electromechanical systems.
Mechanical systems can be either translational or rotational. Although the
fundamental relationships for both types are derived from Newton’s law, they are
different enough to warrant separate considerations.
Any physical system consists of mechanical elements. There are three types of basic
elements in such kind of systems:

Translational Motion Rotational Motion

 Mass elements  Moment of Inertia elements
 Linear Spring elements  Torsional Spring elements
 Linear Dampers elements  Torsional Damper elements

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Example of physical system that has rotary motion is the Antenna Azimuth Position
Control System shown in Figure below.

(a) Layout of the system

(b) schematic diagram of the system

(c) Block diagram of the system

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2. Mass / Inertia element
Newton’s law (translational motion): If a force (F) is acting on rigid body through the
center of mass (M) in a given direction, the acceleration (a) of the rigid body in the
same direction is directly proportional to the force acting on it and is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body. That is,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎) = 𝑂𝑅 𝐹 =𝑀×𝑎 =𝑀 =𝑀 2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Suppose that there are many forces acting on a body of mass, then

∑𝐹 = 𝑀 × 𝑎

Newton’s law (Rotational motion):

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑇) 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝛼) = 𝑂𝑅 𝑇 = 𝐽 × 𝛼 = 𝐽 =𝐽 2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 (𝐽) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Suppose that there are many torques acting on a rotating body of inertia, then

∑𝑇 = 𝐽 × 𝛼

3. Spring / Torsional Spring element

A linear spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by external force or
torque such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force or torque applied
to the element.
For translational motion shown in Fig. 1, the force that arises in the spring is
proportional to x and is given by:

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 F=kx
where x is the elongation of the spring and k is a proportionality constant called the
spring constant or (stiffness) and has units of [force/displacement]=[N/m] in SI
units.

Fig. 1, Linear Spring

If the spring is free to move at its 2nd end, then:

F = k x1 – k x2

Consider the torsional spring shown in Fig. 2, where one end is fixed and a torque T
is applied to the other end. The angular displacement of the free end is θ. The torque
T in the torsional spring is:
T=kθ
where θ is the angular displacement and k is the spring constant or (stiffness) for
torsional spring and has units of [Torque/angular displacement]=[N-m/rad] in SI
units.

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 Fig. 2, Torsional Spring
If the spring is free to move at its 2nd end, then:
T = k 1 – k 2

4. Damper (Dashpot)
A damper is a mechanical element that dissipates energy in the form of heat instead
of storing it. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of a translational damper, or a
dashpot that consists of a piston and an oil-filled cylinder. Any relative motion
between the piston rod and the cylinder is resisted by oil.

Fig. 4, Translational Damper

In the damper, the damping force F that arises in it is proportional to the velocity,
𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑥̇

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 𝑇 = 𝐵 𝜃̇

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Example (1):
Write the differential equations describing systems shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: a) parallel springs b) series springs

For system in Fig. 6. a)
𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥
For system in Fig. 6. b)
𝐹 = 𝑘2 (𝑥 − 𝑦) (𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑥)
0 = 𝑘1 𝑦 + 𝑘2 (𝑦 − 𝑥) (𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑦)
Example (2):
For the mechanical system shown in Fig. 7, draw the mechanical network and write
the D.E at each node.

Fig. 7, One-mass mechanical system

The mechanical network is:

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At node x1 :
f(t) = k (x1 – x2)
F(s) = k X1(s) – k X2(s)
At node x2 :
0  k ( x2  x1 )  Mx2  Bx2
0 = k X2(s) – k X1(s) – M S2X2(s) + B SX2(s)

Example (3):
Obtain the transfer functions X1(s)/F(s) of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8, Two-mass mechanical system

Mechanical network
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x1:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝑏(𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 2 ) + 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
Taking Laplace:
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑚1 𝑆 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑆𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑏𝑆𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑘1 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑘2 𝑋2 (𝑠)

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 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ] − 𝑋2 (𝑠)[𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 ] (1)
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x2:
0 = 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 + 𝑏(𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) + 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑘3 𝑥2
Taking Laplace:
0 = 𝑚2 𝑆 2 𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑆𝑋2 (𝑠) − 𝑏𝑆𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑋2 (𝑠) + 𝑘3 𝑋2 (𝑠) − 𝑘2 𝑋1 (𝑠)
0 = 𝑋2 (𝑠)[𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ] − 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 ] (2)
From Eqn. (2):
𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2
𝑋2 (𝑠) = 𝑋 (𝑠)
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 1
Substituting with the value of X2(s) in eqn. (1)
(𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ] − 𝑋 (𝑠)
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 1
(𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )(𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) − (𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑋1 (𝑠)
𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
Then
𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
=
𝐹(𝑠) (𝑚1 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )(𝑚2 𝑆 2 + 𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) − (𝑏𝑆 + 𝑘2 )2
Example (4):
For a car suspension shown in Fig. 8,

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 Fig.8, Car suspension system
The equation of motion for the suspension system is:

That can be rewrite as:

Taking Laplace:

Then the system T.F. is:

Example (5):

Fig. 9, Two-mass mechanical system

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Let v1, x1, v2 and x2 are the state variables
We know that:
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2
= 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x2:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀2 𝑥̈ 2 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀2 𝑣̇ 2 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
1 𝑘 𝑘
𝑣̇ 2 = 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑥2 + 𝑥
𝑀2 𝑀2 𝑀2 1
Writing the D.E. at the displacement x1:
0 = 𝑀1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝐵𝑥̇ 1 + 𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
𝐵 𝑘 𝑘
𝑣̇ 1 = − 𝑣1 − 𝑥1 + 𝑥
𝑀1 𝑀1 𝑀1 2
0 1 0 0
𝑥̇ 1 𝑘 𝐵𝑘 0
𝑥1
− − 0 0
𝑣̇ 𝑀1 𝑀1𝑀1 𝑣1
[ 1] = [𝑥 ] + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥̇ 2 0 0 1 2 1
𝑣̇ 2 𝑘 0 𝑘 𝑣2
0 − 0 [𝑀2 ]
[ 𝑀2 𝑀2 ]
𝑥1
𝑣
[𝑦] = [0 0 1 0] [𝑥1 ]
2
𝑣2
Example (5):
Find the T.F. 2(s)/T(s) for the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10, Rotational mechanical system

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 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐽1 𝜃̈1 + 𝐵1 𝜃̇1 + 𝑘(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
Taking Laplace:
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐽1 𝑆 2 𝜃1 (𝑠) + 𝐵1 𝑆𝜃1 (𝑠) + 𝑘𝜃1 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝜃1 (𝑠)[𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘] − 𝑘 𝜃2 (𝑠) (1)
Writing the D.E. at the angular displacement 2:
0 = 𝐽2 𝜃̈2 + 𝐵2 𝜃̇2 + 𝑘(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
Taking Laplace:
0 = 𝐽2 𝑆 2 𝜃2 (𝑠) + 𝐵2 𝑆𝜃2 (𝑠) + 𝑘𝜃2 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝜃1 (𝑠)
0 = 𝜃2 (𝑠)[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘] − 𝑘 𝜃1 (𝑠) (2)
From Eqn. (2):
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘]
𝜃1 (𝑠) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
Substituting with the value of 2(s) in eqn. (1),
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘]
𝑇(𝑠) = [𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘]𝜃2 (𝑠) − 𝑘 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
[𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘][𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘] − 𝑘 2
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)
𝑘
Then the system T.F. is:
𝜃2 (𝑠) 𝑘
=
𝑇(𝑠) [𝐽2 𝑆 2 + 𝐵2 𝑆 + 𝑘][𝐽1 𝑆 2 + 𝐵1 𝑆 + 𝑘] − 𝑘 2
Example:
Write the D.E’s describe the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 11. Then
draw the block diagram and calculate the T.F. 2(s)/T(s).

Fig. 11, Rotational system

Solution at smart board lecture.

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Example:
For the linear displacement mechanical system shown below, draw the mechanical
network, then write the D.E’s that describe the system and draw the block diagram
where x1(t) is the desired output

The mechanical network for this system is:

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Example:
For the translational mechanical system shown below, draw the mechanical network,
then write the system differential equations and draw the block diagram. (consider x3
as output)

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5. Mechanical Systems with Gears
Gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel or cylinder that meshes with another
toothed part to transmit motion or to change speed or direction.
In industrial applications, generally gears associate to a motor which drives the load.
Gears are used to obtain more speed and less torque or less speed and more torque.
The interaction between two gears is depicted in the Fig. 12. An input gear with
radius r1 and N1 teeth is rotated through angle 1(t) due to a torque, T1(t). An output
gear with radius r2 and N2 teeth responds by rotating through angle 2(t) and
delivering a torque, T2(t).

Fig. 12, Two-Gear transmission system

Also we must note that, if the number of gear is even, the direction of motion is
reversed. But if it is odd, as shown in Fig. 13, the direction of motion is not reversed.

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 Fig. 13, Three-Gear transmission system
What is the relationship between the input torque, T1 and the delivered torque, T2 ?
Assuming the gears do not absorb or store energy (ideal gear), then the input energy
of Gear 1 equals the energy out of Gear 2.
𝑇1 × 𝜃1 = 𝑇2 × 𝜃2
Therefore,
𝑇1 𝜃2 𝑁1
= =
𝑇2 𝜃1 𝑁2
These relations can be summarized in blocks as:

Example (6):
For the gear train shown in Fig. 14, a load is driven by a motor through the gear train.
Assuming the stiffness of the motor shaft is infinite, draw the block diagram and find
the T.F. 2(s)/Tm(s).

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 Fig. 14, Gear train system
At node 1:
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝜃̈1 + 𝐵𝑚 𝜃̇1 + 𝑇1 (𝑡)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝜃1 (𝑠)[ (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 ] + 𝑇1 (𝑠) (1)
At node 2:
𝑇2 (𝑡) = (𝐽2 + 𝐽𝐿 )𝜃̈2 + 𝐵(𝜃̇2 ) + 𝑘 𝜃2
𝑇2 (𝑠) = 𝜃2 (𝑠)[ (𝐽2 +𝐽𝐿 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑆 + 𝑘] (2)
Also we must consider the two relations of the gear train:
𝑇1 𝜃2 𝑁1
= =
𝑇2 𝜃1 𝑁2
From the above eqns., we can draw the block diagram:

Tm(S) + 1 1(S) 𝑁1 2 (S)

_ (𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 𝑁2

T1(S) 𝑁1 T2(S)
(𝐽𝑚 + 𝐽1 )𝑆 2 + 𝐵𝑚 𝑆 + 𝑘
𝑁2

So you can easily calculate the system T.F. 2(s)/Tm(s)

6. Modeling of Electrical Systems

A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both
of Kirchhoff’s laws to it.
RC Circuit: Consider the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 15. The circuit consists of a
resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad).

Page 17 of 31
 Fig. 15. RC circuit
The equations of this RC circuit are:

Combining the above two blocks we get the overall block diagram of the RC circuit;

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠
RLC Circuit: Consider the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 16. The circuit consists of
an inductance L (henry), a resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad).

Fig. 16, RLC circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system, we obtain the following equations:

Taking Laplace:
1 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) {𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + } = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠

Page 18 of 31
 1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠){ }
𝐶𝑠
The block diagram is given below:
From which the T.F. is:

A state-space model of that system may be obtained as follows:

First, note that the differential equation for the system can be obtained from T.F. as

Assuming the state variables as:

Repeated RC circuit: as shown in Fig. 17, we need to obtain the T.F. of this circuit.
Therefore the D.E’s. that describe the circuit are as follows:

Page 19 of 31
 Fig. 17. Cascaded RC circuit

Example (7):
Obtain the transfer function Xo(s)/Xi(s) of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 18
(a). Also obtain the transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s) of the electrical system shown in Fig.
18 (b). Show that these transfer functions of the two systems are of identical form and
thus they are analogous systems.

Fig. 18, (a) Mechanical system (b) analogous electrical system

From mechanical system:

Taking Laplace:

Page 20 of 31
From the electrical system:

7. Modeling of DC Machines:
Direct-current (dc) motors are one of the most widely used prime movers in the
industry. Years ago, the majority of the small servomotors used for control purposes
were ac. In reality, ac motors are more difficult to control, especially for position
control, and their characteristics are quite nonlinear, which makes the analytical task
more difficult. DC motors, on the other hand, are more expensive, because of their
brushes and commutators, and variable-flux dc motors are suitable only for certain
types of control applications. Before permanent-magnet technology was fully
developed, the torque-per-unit volume or weight of a dc motor with a permanent-
magnet (PM) field was far from desirable. Today, with the development of the rare-
earth magnet, it is possible to achieve very high torque-to-volume PM dc motors at
reasonable cost. Furthermore, the advances made in brush-and-commutator
technology have made these wearable parts practically maintenance-free. The
advancements made in power electronics have made brushless dc motors quite
popular in high-performance control systems. Advanced manufacturing techniques

Page 21 of 31
have also produced dc motors with ironless rotors that have very low inertia, thus
achieving a very high torque-to-inertia ratio. Low-time-constant properties have
opened new applications for dc motors in computer peripheral equipment such as
tape drives, printers, disk drives, and word processors, as well as in the automation
and machine-tool industries.

The dc motor is basically a torque transducer that converts electric energy into
mechanical energy. It consists from Stator that contain the field flux and Rotor (
armature) that contains the windings. DC motor is modeled as a circuit with
resistance Ra connected in series with an inductance La, and a voltage source eb,
representing the back emf (electromotive force) in the armature when the rotor rotates
as shown in Fig. 19.
The torque developed (Tm) on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the field flux
() and the armature current (Ia).
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑘∅ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
If the flux is kept constant
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑖 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
Also the induced emf eb is directly proportional to the field flux () and the shaft
speed (m).
𝑒𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘∅ 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)
If the flux is kept constant
𝑒𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)

Page 22 of 31
 Fig. 19, Separately-Excited DC motor circuit
Electrical Equation:
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑎 1 𝑅𝑎 1
= 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑎
Mechanical Equation:
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐽𝑚 𝜃̈𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑚 𝜃̇𝑚 (𝑡) + 𝑇𝐿
1 𝐵𝑚 1
𝜃̈𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) − 𝜃̇𝑚 (𝑡) − 𝑇𝐿
𝐽𝑚 𝐽𝑚 𝐽𝑚
The state variables of the system can be defined as ia(t), m(t), and m(t). The state
equations of the dc-motor system are written in vector-matrix form:

Page 23 of 31
The block diagram of dc motor is given below:

Example (8):
Consider the speed control system shown in Fig. 20. The armature of the motor is
supplied with a controlled voltage through a DC generator. The generator field
current controls the generated voltage Eg. Draw the block diagram representing this
system and deduce the T.F. m(s)/Ei(s)

Ra
Rf

Ei e If Ia TL
A
_ J
+ G Eg Eb M
Lf Tm m
B

Const.
Speed
Kb

Page 24 of 31
The D.E’s that describe the motor-generator set are:
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝑏 𝜔𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝑒(𝑠)
𝐴 𝑒(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)[𝑅𝑓 + 𝑆𝐿𝑓 ]
𝐸𝑔 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑔 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑔 (𝑠) = 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝐸𝑏 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑚 𝜔𝑚 (𝑠)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑚 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) = [𝐽𝑆 + 𝐵]𝜔𝑚 (𝑠) + 𝑇𝐿 (𝑠)
By representing the above D.E’s we can draw the block diagram: (refer to smart-
board lrcture.

Example:
The mechanical system shown in Fig. 21, is used to measuring the displacement x2
due to the driving force f(t). Write the D.E’s describing this system, then draw the
corresponding block diagram.

f (t) R1
𝐾 V1 Vo
M1 x1 1 + 𝑇𝑠

C
K1 B

R
M2 L

x2
K2/2 K2/2
E

Fig. 21, Distance-detector system

Page 25 of 31
Solution at the smart-board lectures.
Example:
For the electro-mechanical system shown below, the solenoid produces a magnetic
force FC = KC i. Draw the block diagram then find X2(s)/V(s)

Page 26 of 31
Page 27 of 31
 Sheet 5 (Physical Systems)
1) For the mechanical systems shown below;
• Draw the mechanical network, then write the system D.E’s
• If X2(s) is the system output, draw the block diagram and find X2(s)/F(s)

Page 28 of 31
2) Find the D.E’s that relates the distance X3 to 1 for the system shown below, then
draw the block diagram considering X3(s) as output. (the radius of the shaft is r).

3) For the mechanical systems shown below;

• Draw the mechanical network, then write the system D.E’s
• If 3(s) is the system output, draw the block diagram and find 3 (s)/T(s)

4) For the mechanical system shown below, the solenoid produces a magnetic
force fc = Kc i. Draw the block diagram then find X(s)/V(s)

Page 29 of 31
5) The mechanical system shown below is used to measuring the displacement x2
Write the D.E’s describing this system, then draw the block diagram.

6) For the system shown below, determine the closed loop T.F.

7) For the motor-generator set shown below, the torque constant is KT for the
motor and KV for the generator. If the generator field current is assumed
constant, draw the block diagram then find the T.F. Y(s)/U(s).

Page 30 of 31
Page 31 of 31
 Page 1

CHAPTER # 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

1. Introduction
Block Diagram is defined as a pictorial representation of functions performed by
each component of a system and that of flow of signals. Each block is
characterized by an input–output description as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 Single block diagram representation

In general, the block diagram consists of blocks, arrows, take (pick) off points
and/or summing points. Fig. 3.2 shows these elements of the block diagram.
 Page 2

Fig. 3.2 Basic elements of block diagram

2. Terminology

Fig. 3.3 Block diagram components

Regarding the closed-loop control system shown in Fig. 3.3, we can define the
following terms;
Plant: A physical object to be controlled. The Plant G2 (s), is the controlled
system, of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.
Feedback Control System (Closed‐loop Control System): A system which
compares output to some reference input and keeps output as close as possible to
this reference.
Open‐loop Control System: Output of the system is not feedback to the system.
 Page 3

Control Element G1(s), also called the controller, are the components required to
generate the appropriate control signal M (s) applied to the plant
Feedback Element H(s) is the component required to establish the functional
relationship between the primary feedback signal B (s) and the controlled output
C(s).
Reference Input R (s) is an external signal applied to a feedback control system in
order to command a specified action of the plant. It often represents ideal plant
output behavior.
Controlled Output C(s) is that quantity or condition of the plant which is
controlled
Actuating Signal E(s), also called the error or control action, is the algebraic sum
consisting of the reference input R (s) plus or minus (usually minus) the primary
feedback B (s).
Manipulated Variable M (s) (control signal) is that quantity or condition which
the control elements G1 (s) apply to the plant G2 (s).
Disturbance U (s) is an undesired input signal which affects the value of the
controlled output C(s). It may enter the plant by summation with M (s), or via an
intermediate point, as shown in the block diagram of the figure above.
Forward Path is the transmission path from the actuating signal E(s) to the output
C(s).
Feedback Path is the transmission path from the output C(s) to the feedback
signal B (s).
Summing Point: A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
point. The (+) or (−) sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be
added or subtracted.
Branch(pick/take off) Point: A branch point is a point from which the signal from
a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
 Page 4

We can conclude the above information by the following definitions:

According to the control system shown in Fig 3.4;

Fig. 3.4 Block diagram of a closed‐loop system with a feedback element.

3. Block Diagrams & Their Simplification

3.1 Cascade (Series) Connection

Fig. 3.5 (a) Original Block Diagram (b) Equivalent Block Diagram

3.2 Parallel Connection

 Page 5

Fig. 3.6 (a) Original Block Diagram (b) Equivalent Block Diagram
3.3 Feedback Connections

Fig. 3.7 Feedback connection

We know that C(s) =G(s) E(s) & B(s) = H(s)C(s)
Where E (s) =R(s) − B(s) = R(s) − H(s)C(s)
Eliminating E(s) from these equations gives
C(s) = G(s) [R(s)−H(s)C(s)] This can be written in the form
[1+G(s) H (s)] C(s) = G(s) R(s) OR

The Characteristic equation of the system is defined as an equation obtained by

setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. The
Characteristic equation for the above system is:
 Page 6

3.4 Block Diagram Algebra for Summing points

3.5 Block Diagram Algebra for Pick/take off points

4. Block Diagram Reduction Rules

In many practical situations, the block diagram of a Single Input‐Single Output
(SISO), feedback control system may involve several feedback loops, summing
points and/or take off points. In principle, the block diagram of (SISO) closed loop
 Page 7

system, no matter how complicated it is, it can be reduced to the standard single loop
form (Canonical form) shown in Fig. 3.7. The basic approach to simplify a block
diagram can be summarized in the following Table;
1. Combine all cascade blocks
2. Combine all parallel blocks
3. Eliminate all minor (interior) feedback loops
4. Shift summing points to left
5. Shift take off points to the right
6. Repeat Steps 1 to 5 until the canonical form is obtained

5. Some Basic Rules with Block Diagram Transformation

 Page 8

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3: The main problem here is the feed‐forward of V3(s). Solution is to move
this pickoff point forward.
 Page 9

Example 4:
 Page 10

Example 5:
Use block diagram reduction to simplify the block diagram below into a single block
relating Y(s) to R(s).
 Page 11

6. Multiple‐‐Inputs cases
In feedback control system, we often encounter multiple inputs to represent a
disturbance or something else. For a linear system, we can apply the superposition
principle to solve this type of problems, i.e. to treat each input one at a time while
setting all other inputs to zeros, and then algebraically add all the outputs as follows:
1. Set all inputs to zero except one
2. Transform the block diagram to solvable form
3. Find the output response due to the chosen input action alone
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs
5. Algebraically sum all the output responses obtained in Step 3

Example 6: Determine the output C(S) of the following system

Using the superposition principle, the procedure is illustrated in the following steps:
 Page 12

Step1: Put D(s) ≡ 0 as shown in Fig.

(a).
Step2: Reduce The block diagrams
to the block shown in Fig. (b)

Step 3: The output CR due to input

R(s) is shown in Fig. (c) and is given
by the relationship

Step 4: Put R(s) ≡ 0 as shown in Fig.

(d).
Step 5: Put ‐1 into a block,
representing the negative feedback
effect as shown in Fig. (d)
Step 6: Rearrange the block
diagrams as shown in Fig. (e).

Step 7: Let the ‐1 block be absorbed

into the summing point as shown in
Fig. (f).

Step 8: The output CD due to input

D(S) is :
‫ܩ‬ଶ
‫ܥ‬஽ = ‫ ܦ‬ሺ‫ ݏ‬ሻ
1 + ‫ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܩ‬ଶ
The total output is C:
C(s) = CR + CD
‫ܩ‬ଶ
‫ܥ‬ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ = ሺ‫ ܴ ܩ‬+ ‫ ܦ‬ሻ
1 + ‫ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܩ‬ଶ ଵ
 Page 13

Example 7:
Find the output C(S) of the control system shown below.

For Input R1:

For input R2:

 Page 14

Example 7:

Example 8:
For the closed-loop control system shown below,
a) Using block diagram algebra, find the system transfer function C(S)/R(S).
 Page 15

R(S) + 5 2 1 C(S)
12
_ ܵ+8 ܵ+ܶ ܵ

3 3 51
20 40 40
+ +

+ +

R(S) + 60 2 1 C(S)
_ _ ܵ+8 ܵ+ܶ ܵ

3 3 51
20 40 40
+

R(S) + 60 2 1 C(S)
_ _ ܵ + 17 ܵ+ܶ ܵ

3 51
40 40

R(S) + 120 1 C(S)

_ ܵଶ + ሺ17 + ܶሻܵ + 17ܶ + 9 ܵ

51
40
 Page 16

R(S) + 120 C(S)

_ ܵଷ + ሺ17 + ܶሻܵ ଶ + ሺ17ܶ + 9ሻܵ

51
40

‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ 120
= ଷ
ܴሺܵሻ ܵ + ሺ17 + ܶሻܵ ଶ + ሺ17ܶ + 9ሻܵ + 153
The system characteristic equation is
ܵ ଷ + ሺ17 + ܶሻܵ ଶ + ሺ17ܶ + 9ሻܵ + 153 = 0
Rearrange the above equation to be:
ܵ ଷ + 17ܵ ଶ + ܶܵ ଶ + 17ܶܵ + 9ܵ + 153 = 0
ܵ ଷ + 17ܵ ଶ + 9ܵ + 153 + ܶܵሺܵ + 17ሻ = 0

Example 9:
If the control systems shown in Fig. A and B are equivalent, Find Geq.

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2 1
_ ܵ+5 ܵ+1 ܵ C(S)

0.3
+
+ Fig. A
+ +

R(S) + ‫ܩ‬௘௤
_ C(S)
Fig. B
 Page 17

Rearrange the block diagram as follows:

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2 1
_ _ ܵ+5 ܵ+1 ܵ C(S)

0.3 S
+
+

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2
_ _ ܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ ܵሺܵ + 1ሻ C(S)

S+1

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2
_ ܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ ܵଶ + ܵ + 2 C(S)

S+1

Add unity feedback with negative and positive sign

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2
_ _ ܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ ܵଶ + ܵ + 2 C(S)

+
S+1
 Page 18

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2
_ _ ܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ ܵଶ +ܵ+2 C(S)

+
S

R(S) + 2‫ܭ‬
_ ሺܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሻሺܵ ଶ + ܵ + 2ሻ + 2‫ܵܭ‬
C(S)

By comparing with the equivalent block diagram:

R(S) + ‫ܩ‬௘௤
_ C(S)

We get that
2‫ܭ‬
‫ܩ‬௘௤ ሺܵሻ =
ሺܵ + 5 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሻሺܵ ଶ + ܵ + 2ሻ + 2‫ܵܭ‬

Example 10:

For the control system shown below, Calculate the transfer function C(s)/R(s)

C(S)
R(S) +
K 1 2 1
_ ܵ+3 ܵ+1 ܵ

0.3 0.4

+ +
+ +
 Page 19

The block diagram can be rearranged as:

C(S)
R(S) +
K 1 2 1
_ _ ܵ+3 ܵ+1 ܵ
_

0.3 0.4

R(S) + ‫ܭ‬ 2 1 C(S)

_ _ ሺܵ + 3ሻ + 0.3‫ܭ‬ ܵ+1 ܵ

0.4

R(S) + 2‫ܭ‬ 1 C(S)

_ ሺܵ + 1ሻሺܵ + 3 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሻ + 0.8‫ܭ‬ ܵ

Therefore, the closed loop T.F. is:

‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ 2‫ܭ‬
=
ܴሺܵሻ ܵሼሺܵ + 1ሻሺܵ + 3 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሻ + 0.8‫ܭ‬ሽ + 2‫ܭ‬
The system characteristic equation is given as:

ܵሼሺܵ + 1ሻሺܵ + 3 + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሻ + 0.8‫ܭ‬ሽ + 2‫ = ܭ‬0

ܵ ଷ + 4ܵ ଶ + 3ܵ + 0.3‫ܭ‬ሺܵ ଶ + 3.667ܵ + 6.667ሻ = 0

 Page 20

Example 11:
For the control system shown below, Obtain the transfer function C(s)/R(s).

R(S) + C(S)
G1(S) G2(S)
_
+
H1(S)
_

H2(S)

The blocks H1(S) and H2(S) are canonical and can be simplified as

R(S) + C(S)
G1(S) G2(S)
_

‫ܪ‬1ሺܵሻ
1 + ‫ܪ‬1‫ܪ‬2ሺܵሻ
ுଵሺௌሻ
The blocks G1(S) and G2(S) are cascaded and the result is canonical with ଵାுଵுଶሺௌሻ
‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ ‫ܩ‬1 ‫ܩ‬2 ሼ1 + ‫ܪ‬1 ‫ܪ‬2ሽ
=
ܴሺܵሻ 1 + ‫ܪ‬1 ‫ܪ‬2 + ‫ܩ‬1 ‫ܩ‬2 ‫ܪ‬1

Example 12:
For the control system shown below, Obtain the transfer function C(s)/R(s) and
C(s)/D(s), then find an expression for the system response C(s).

G4(S) D(S)

+ + C(S)
+ G1(S) G2(S) G3(S)
R(S) _ + +

H(S)

Using super position

Assume R(S) = 0, and rearrange the block diagram as follows:

 Page 21

G3(S)
D(S) + _ C(S)

G2(S) G1(S) H(S)

‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ
=
‫ܦ‬ሺܵሻ 1 + ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ܪ‬ሺܵሻ

Now, assume D(S) = 0, rearrange the block diagram as follows

G4(S)

+ C(S)
+ G1(S) G2(S) G3(S)
R(S) _ +

H(S)

After moving the summing point as shown by the arrow indicated, the T.F. will be

‫ܩ‬4ሺܵሻ
‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ ൬1 + ൰
‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ
=
ܴሺܵሻ 1 + ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ܪ‬ሺܵሻ

From both T.F's we can obtain the expression for the system response C(s) as:

‫ܩ‬4ሺܵሻ
‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ ‫ ܦ‬ሺܵሻ ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ ൬1 + ൰ ܴሺܵሻ
‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ
‫ ܥ‬ሺܵ ሻ = +
1 + ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ ܪ‬ሺܵሻ 1 + ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ܪ‬ሺܵሻ

‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ ‫ ܦ‬ሺܵሻ + ሼ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ + ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬4ሺܵሻሽܴሺܵሻ

‫ ܥ‬ሺܵ ሻ =
1 + ‫ܩ‬1ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬2ሺܵሻ‫ܩ‬3ሺܵሻ‫ ܪ‬ሺܵሻ
 Page 22

Example 13:
Simplify the block diagram shown below and then obtain the closed–loop transfer
function C(s)/R(s).

G8

C(S)

_
R(S) + G1 G2

G3 G4 G5

+ +
G6 G7
_ +

Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

22
 Page 24

Problem #1
Simplify the following control systems using block diagram algebra, and then find
the transfer function C(s) / R(s).

(a) (b)

(c)
Problem #2
For the control system shown in Fig. (b) below,
a) Determine G(s) and H(s) that are equivalent to the block diagram of fig. (a)
b) Determine the transfer function C(s)/R(s)
 Page 25

_
R(S) + 1 + 1 C(S)
ሺܵ + 5ሻ ሺܵ + 10ሻ
_
(a)

R(S)
+ C(S)
G(s)
_
(b)

H(s)
Problem #3
Simplify the following control systems using block diagram algebra, and then find
the transfer function Y(s) / R(s).

(a)

(b)
 Page 26

(c)

(d)

(e)
 Page 27

(f)

(g)

Problem #4
Obtain the transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/D(s) of the systems shown below

Obtain the transfer functions Y(s)/R1(s) and Y(s)/R2(s) of the system shown below
 Page 28

Problem #5
The control system, shown in Fig. below, has two inputs and two outputs. Find
C1(s)/R1(s), C1(s)/R2(s), C2(s)/R1(s) and C2(s)/R2(s).

Problem #6
For the control system, shown in figure below, obtain the system transfer function.

R(S) + C(S)
G1(S) G2(S)
_
+
H1(S)
_

H2(S)
 Page 29

Problem #7
For the control system shown below, find α, K, K1, K2 and K3 if Known that
‫ܥ‬ሺܵሻ 10 ሺܵ + 1ሻ
= ଷ
ܴሺܵሻ ܵ + 3 ܵ ଶ + 12 ܵ + 10
α

+ C(S)
R(S) +
K 1 1 1
_
_ ܵ + 4 ܵሺܵ + 1ሻ
_

K3

K2

K1
Problem #8
Simplify the block diagram shown below and then obtain the closed–loop transfer
function C(s)/R(s).

G8

C(S)

_
R(S) + G1 G2

G3 G4 G5

+ +
G6 G7
_ +
 CHAPTER # 4 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG)

1. Introduction
For complex control systems, the block diagram reduction technique is cumbersome.
An alternative method for determining the relationship between system variables has
been developed by Mason and is based on a signal flow graph. A signal flow graph is
a diagram that consists of nodes that are connected by branches. A node is assigned
to each variable of interest in the system, and branches are used to relate the different
variables. The main advantage for using SFG is that a straight forward procedure is
available for finding the transfer function in which it is not necessary to move pickoff
point around or to redraw the system several times as with block diagram
manipulations.
SFG is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations
which describe a system. Let us consider an equation, ‫ݔ ܽ = ݕ‬. It may be represented
graphically as,

Page 1 of 21
 2. Terminology
Node: A junction denoting a variable or a signal.
Branch: A unidirectional path that relates the dependency of an input and an output.
Relation between variables is written next to the directional arrow.
Path: A branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one
node to another

Forward Path: A path from input to output node.

Loop: A closed path that originates at one node and terminates at the same node.
Along the path no node is touched twice.

Non-Touching Loops: Loops with no common nodes

Examples: L1 and L2 are touching loops
L1 and L3 & L2 and L3 are non-touching loops,
Input node (Source): node having only outgoing branches
Output node (Sink): node having only incoming branches
Mixed node: A node that has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Page 2 of 21
 1. Construction of SFG from D.E.
SFG of a system can be constructed from the describing equations:
x 2 = a 1 2 x1 + a 3 2 x 3
x 3 = a 1 3 x1 + a 2 3 x 2 + a 3 3 x 3
x 4 = a 24 x 4 + a 34 x3

4. SFG from Block Diagram

Page 3 of 21
Page 4 of 21
Example 1
Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s)

Example 2
Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s)

Page 5 of 21
Example 3
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s)

Page 6 of 21
Example 4
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)

In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the output
C(s). The forward path gain is

Page 7 of 21
we see that there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are

Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-touching
loops. Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

The cofactor ∆ l of the determinant along the forward path connecting the input node
and output node is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops that touch this path. Since
path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain
∆1 = 1
Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), or the closed-
loop transfer function, is given by

Example 5
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)

Page 8 of 21
Example 6
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)

In this system, there are three forward paths between the input R(s) and the output
C(s). The forward path gains are

There are four individual loops, the gains of these loops are

Loop L1 does not touch loop L2; Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

The cofactor ∆1, is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops that touch path PI.
Therefore, by removing L1, L2, L3, L4, and L1, L2 from ∆ equation, we obtain
∆1 = 1
By the same way ∆2 = 1
The cofactor ∆3 is obtained by removing L2, L3, L4, and L1, L2 from ∆ Equation,
giving

Page 9 of 21
 ∆3 = 1- L1
The closed-loop transfer function

Example 7
Consider the control system whose signal flow graph is shown below. Determine the
system transfer function using Mason’s formula.

* There are SIX Forward Paths:

* There are THREE feedback loops:

* There are ONE combination of two-non-touching feedback loops:

P12 = H1 H 2G4G5

Page 10 of 21
∆3 = ∆ 4 = ∆5 = ∆ 6 = 1
Using Mason's Formula, the system Transfer Function is:
P1∆1 + P2 ∆ 2 + P3∆3 + P4 ∆ 4 + P5 ∆5 + P6 ∆ 6
T=
∆
Example 8
below, find the system
For the signal flow graph of a certain control system shown below
characteristic equation.

The characteristic equation obtained from mason's formula is ∆=0

Loop Gains Two non-touching Loops Three non-touching Loops

‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ = ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ଷ
‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ସ = ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܪ ଻ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ = െ‫ܩ‬
‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ ଻ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ସ
‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ହ = ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܪ ଼ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ହ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ହ = െ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ ଼ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ହ
‫ܮ‬ଵ = െ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܪ‬ଵ
‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܩ = ଺ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ‫଺ܪ‬ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫଺ܮ‬ = െ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ଶ = െ‫ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ଶ
‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ସ = ‫ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܪ ଻ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫଺ܮ‬ = െ‫ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܩ ଻ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ଷ = െ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ‬ଷ
‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ହ = ‫ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܪ ଼ܩ‬ଶ ‫ܪ‬ହ ‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫଺ܮ‬ = െ‫ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܩ ଻ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଶ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ସ = െ‫ܪ ଻ܩ‬ସ
‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܩ = ଺ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଶ ‫ܪ‬ଽ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫଺ܮ‬ = െ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܩ ଻ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ହ = െ‫ܪ ଼ܩ‬ହ
‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ = ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ ଻ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ସ
‫଺ܮ‬ = െ‫ܩ‬ଽ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ହ = ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܪ ଼ܩ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ହ Four non-touching Loops
‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܩ = ଺ܮ‬ସ ‫ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫଺ܪ‬ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ܩ = ଺ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܩ‬ସ ‫ܩ ଻ܩ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ‫ܪ‬ଷ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫଺ܪ‬
‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ܩ ଻ܩ = ଺ܮ‬ଽ ‫ܪ‬ସ ‫଺ܪ‬

Page 11 of 21
 ∆ = 1 െ ሼ‫ܮ‬ଵ + ‫ܮ‬ଶ + ‫ܮ‬ଷ + ‫ܮ‬ସ + ‫ܮ‬ହ + ‫ ଺ܮ‬ሽ
+ ሼ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ + ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ସ + ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ହ + ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ +‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ସ + ‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ହ + ‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ
+ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ହ + ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ ଺ܮ‬ሽ
െ ሼ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ + ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ହ + ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ ‫ܮ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ ଺ܮ‬+ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ ଺ܮ‬ሽ
+ ሼ‫ܮ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬ଷ ‫ܮ‬ସ ‫ ଺ܮ‬ሽ

Example 9
Consider the control system whose signal flow graph is shown in Fig. (2). Determine
the system transfer function using Mason’s formula.

* There are TWO Forward Paths:

P1= G1G2G3G4G5
P2=G6
* There are EIGHT feedback loops:
L1= - G2H1
L2= - G3H2
L3= - G4H3
L4= - G2H4
L5= - G3H5
L6= - G4H6
L7= - G6H7
L8= - G1G2G3G4G5H7
* There are TEN two-non-touching feedback loops:
L1L3 = G2G4H1H3

Page 12 of 21
L1L6 = G2G4H1H6
L1L7 = G2G6H1H7
L2L7 = G3G6H2H7
L3L4 = G2G4H3H4
L3L7 = G4G6H3H7
L4L6 = G2G4H4H6
L4L7 = G2G6H4H7
L5L7 = G3G6H5H7
L6L7 = G4G6H6H7

* There are FOUR three-non-touching feedback loops:

L1L3L7 = - G2G4G6 H1H3H7
L1L6L7 = - G2G4G6H1H6H7
L3L4L7 = - G2G4G6H3H4H7
L4L6L7 = - G2G4G6H4H6H7

∆ = 1 + {G2H1+G3H2+G4H3+G2H4+G3H5+G4H6+G6H7+G1G2G3G4G5H7}+{
G2G4H1H3+G2G4H1H6+G2G6H1H7+G3G6H2H7+G2G4H3H4+G4G6H3H7+
G2G4H4H6+G2G6H4H7+G3G6H5H7+G4G6H6H7}+{G2G4G6H1H3H7+
G2G4G6H1H6H7+G2G4G6H3H4H7+G2G4G6H4H6H7}
∆1 = 1
∆2 = 1 + {G2H1+G3H2+G4H3+G2H4+G3H5+G4H6}+{ G2G4H1H3+G2G4H1H6
+G2G4H3H4+ G2G4H4H6}

Using Mason's Formula, the system Transfer Function is:

ܻ(ܵ)
ܴ(ܵ)
G1G2G3G4G5 + G6ሼ1 + ሼG2H1 + G3H2 + G4H3 + G2H4 + G3H5 + G4H6ሽ + ሼ G2G4H1H3 + G2G4H1H6 + G2G4H3H4 + G2G4H4H6ሽሽ
=
1 + ሼG2H1 + G3H2 + G4H3 + G2H4 + G3H5 + G4H6 + G6H7 + G1G2G3G4G5H7ሽ + ሼ G2G4H1H3 + G2G4H1H6 + G2G6H1H7 + G3G6H2H7 + G2G4H3H4 +
G4G6H3H7 + G2G4H4H6 + G2G6H4H7 + G3G6H5H7 + G4G6H6H7ሽ + ሼG2G4G6H1H3H7 + G2G4G6H1H6H7 + G2G4G6H3H4H7 + G2G4G6H4H6H7ሽ

Page 13 of 21
Example 10
For the control system whose signal flow graph is shown below, using Mason’s formula,
find the system transfer function Y(s)/R(s).

̶ H2
̶ H1 G5

R(S) 1 G3 G4 1 Y(S)
G1 G2

G6 ̶ H3 ̶ H4 G8 G9 Fig. 2

G7

Forward paths
P1= G1G2G3G4
P2= G1G2G5
P3= G1G2G9
P4= G6G7G8G3G4
P5= G6G7G8G5
P6= G6G7G8G9
Feedback Loops:
L1 = − G 6 H 3
L2 = − G 8 H 4
L3 = − G 1 G 2 H 1
L4 = − G6G7 G8 H1
L5 = − G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 2
L6 = − G 1 G 2 G 5 H 2
L7 = − G1G2 G9 H2
L8 = − G6G7 G8G3G4 H2
L9 = − G 6 G 7 G 8 G 5 H 2

Page 14 of 21
L10 = − G6G7 G8G9 H2
Two non-touching Feedback Loops:
L1L2 = G6G8H3H4

∆1= ∆2= ∆3= ∆4= ∆5= ∆6= 1

∆ = 1+{ G6H3+ G8H4+ G1G2 H1+ G6G7 G8 H1+ G1G2 G3G4 H2+ G1G2 G5H2+ G1G2 G9 H2 +
G6G7 G8G3G4 H2 + G6G7 G8G5 H2 + G6G7 G8G9 H2}+ G6G8H3H4

ܻ(ܵ) ܲଵ ∆ଵ + ܲଶ ∆ଶ + ܲଷ ∆ଷ + ܲସ ∆ସ + ܲହ ∆ହ + ܲ଺ ∆଺
=
ܴ(ܵ) ∆
Example 11:
For the control system whose signal flow graph is shown below, using Mason’s formula,
find the system transfer function Y(s)/R(s).

̶ H1 G9
̶ H2

R(S) 1 G3 G4 1 Y(S)
G1 G2

̶ H3 ̶ H4
G5
G7 G8
G6

Forward Paths:
P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4
P2 = G5 G6 G3 G4
P3 = G1 G2 G7 G8
P4 = G5 G6 G7 G8
P5 = G9

Feedback Loops
L1 = - G5 H3
L2 = - G7 H4
L3 = - G1 G2 H1
L4 = - G3 G4 H2

Page 15 of 21
L5 = - G5 G6 H1
L6 = - G7 G8 H2
L7 = G9 H2 H1

Two non-touching Loops

L1 L2 = G5 H3 G7 H4
L1 L4 = G5 H3 G3 G4 H2
L1 L6 = G5 H3 G7 G8 H2

∆1 = ∆2 = ∆3 = ∆4 = 1
∆5 = 1 + G7 H4
∆ = 1 – {L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7} + {L1 L2 + L1 L4 + L1 L6}

Using Mason's formula

‫)ܵ(ܥ‬ ܲ1∆1 + ܲ2∆2 + ܲ3∆3 + ܲ4∆4 + ܲ5∆5

=
ܴ(ܵ) ∆
Report:
For the block diagram shown below,
a) Draw the corresponding signal flow graph
b) Using Mason's formula, obtain the system T.F. C(s)/R(s).

Page 16 of 21
Problem #1
For the control systems represented by block diagrams shown in figure below, Draw
the corresponding signal flow graph (SFG), then using Mason's rule to obtain the
system transfer function.

Page 17 of 21
Problem #2
Using Mason's Rule, find the transfer function for the following SFG's

G8
G7

X(s) 1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
1 Y(s)

-H4 -H1
-H2

-H3

Page 18 of 21
 G6

̶ H5
G5

R(S) 1 G3 G4 1 C(S)
G1 G2

̶ H1 ̶ H2 ̶ H4
̶ H3

̶ H6

Page 19 of 21
Page 20 of 21
Page 21 of 21
 CHAPTER # 3 TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSES
1. Introduction
It was stated previously in lecture #1 that the first step in analyzing a control system
was to derive a mathematical model of the system. Once such a model is obtained,
various methods are available for the analysis of system performance.
Typical Test Signals: The commonly used test input signals are those of step
functions, ramp functions, acceleration functions, impulse functions, sinusoidal
functions, and the like. With these test signals, mathematical and experimental
analyses of control systems can be carried out easily since the signals are very simple
functions of time.
If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time, then a ramp
function of time may be a good test signal. Similarly, if a system is subjected to
sudden disturbances, a step function of time may be a good test signal; and for a
system subjected to shock inputs, an impulse function may be best. Once a control
system is designed on the basis of test signals, the performance of the system in

1
response to actual inputs is generally satisfactory. The use of such test signals enables
one to compare the performance of all systems on the same basis.
The time response of a control system consists of two parts as shown in Fig. 1;
a) Transient response
b) Steady-state response.

Fig. 1, Time response

By transient response, we mean that which goes from the initial state to the final
state.
By steady-state response, we mean the manner in which the system output behaves as
t approaches infinity. Thus the system response C(t) may be written as

where Ctr(t) is the transient response and Css(t) is the steady-state response.
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching a steady state. If the output of a system at steady state
does not exactly agree with the input, the system is said to have steady state error.
This error is indicative of the accuracy of the system. In analyzing a control system,
we must examine transient-response behavior and steady-state behavior.

2
2. Transient Response
2.1 First-Order system
Consider the first-order system shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2, Block diagram and its simplification

The input-output relationship is given by

For a unit step input whose Laplace transform is 1/S, the output C(S) is given by

Using partial fraction,

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

The above equation indicates that initially (at t = 0) the output c(t) is zero and finally
(at t = ∞) it becomes unity as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Time response of a first-order system

3
One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c(t) is that at t = T
the value of c(t) is 0.632, or the response c(t) has reached 63.2% of its final value.
This may be easily seen by substituting t = T in c(t). That is,

By the same way, in two time constants (t = 2T), the response reaches 86.5% of the
final value. At t = 3T, the response reaches 95% of its final value. At t = 4T, the
system response reaches 98.2% of its final value. Finally at t = 5T, the response
reaches 99.3% of the final value. Thus, for t ≥ 4T, the response remains within 2% of
the final value. As seen from the equation of c(t), the steady state value (c(t) = 1) is
reached mathematically only after an infinite time. In practice, however, a reasonable
estimate of the response time is the length of time the response curve needs to reach
and stay within the 2% line of the final value, or four time constants.
2.2 Second-Order Systems
Consider the 2nd order control system shown in Fig. 4, whose T.F. is given as:

This form is called the standard form of the second-order system, where ζ and ωn are
the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency, respectively.

Fig. 4. Standard form of Second-order control system

For a unit-step input ( R(S) = 1/S ), C(s) can be written

Using partial fraction,

4
 The frequency ωd, is called the damped natural frequency.

 =
 1 −
Taking inverse Laplace for the output C(s),

This result can be obtained directly by using a table of Laplace transforms tables.
If we plot the output C(t) versus time, such kind of plot is dependent on the two
parameters ζ and ωn. A family of curves at different values of ζ is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Transient response of 2nd order system at different ζ.

5
The characteristic equation of any 2nd order system is given by:

Complete square of the above equation we get;

As the parameters ζ changes, the location of the system poles S1 and S2 are change.
Therefore, the dynamic behavior of the second-order system is also changes. The
nature of the roots s1 and s2 of the characteristic equation with varying values of
damping ratio ζ can be shown in the complex plane as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Closed loop poles and transient response

6
 2.2.1 Transient‐‐Response Specifications
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching a steady state. In specifying the transient‐response
characteristics of a control system to a unit‐step input, it is common to name the
following terms:

These specifications are shown graphically in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Transient response specifications

Delay Time: The delay time td is the time needed for the response to reach half (50%)
of its final value.
Delay time can be calculated from this formula;

Rise Time: The rise time tr is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90%. Or the time required to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value.
We obtain the rise time tr by letting c(tr) = 1
7
   
Since ≠ 0, therefore

Where β is defined by Fig. 8, as the angle in radians.

Fig. 8. Definition of angle β

Peak Time: The peak time tp is the time required for the response to reach the first
peak of the overshoot.
We may obtain the peak time by differentiating c(t) with respect to time and letting
this derivative equal zero.

The cosine terms in the above equation cancel each other. Therefore, dc(t)/dt,
evaluated at t = tp, can be simplified to

8
 This means
Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot,
  = 

Maximum (percent Overshoot): The maximum percent overshoot Mp is the

maximum peak value of the response curve [the curve of c(t) versus t ], measured
from c (∞) . If c (∞) =1, the maximum percent overshoot is Mp × 100%. If the final
steady state value c (∞) of the response differs from unity, then it is common
practice to use the following definition:

The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time. Therefore


 =   

Settling Time: The settling time ts is the time required for the response curve to reach
and stay within ± 2% of the final value. In some cases, 5% instead of 2%, is used as
the percentage of the final value. The settling time is the largest time constant of the
system.
The settling time corresponding to ± 2% or ± 5% tolerance band may be measured in
terms of the time constant {T = l/ (ζ ωn)}
9
Based on 2% criteria, it is found that Ts = 4T

Based on 5% criteria, it is found that Ts = 3T

Summary:

Matlab software package can be used to calculate and plot the step response of the
second order system. The following m-file can be used.
10
Therefore the step response at different value of zeta is given below

In the previous Matlab code we consider some Matlab functions such as tf and step.
What is tf and step? and how can we use them?
11
"tf" Specifies a SISO transfer function for model h(s) = n(s)/d(s)
>> h = t f (num, den )
What are num & den?
row vectors listing the coefficients of the polynomials n(s) and d(s) ordered in
descending powers of s

draw the step response of the T.F

100(2 + 1)
. . =
4 +  + 1

Steady-State Error
The difference between the input and output of a system in the limit as time goes to
infinity, and it will be discussed in more details in next chapter.

12
Feedback PID controller – How does it work I?

As shown in the feedback control system given above, the type of controller used is
PID controller. The PID terms are stand for:
P: Proportional,
I: Integral,
D: Derivative

13
These correlations may not be exactly accurate, because Kp, Ki, and Kd are
dependent on each other. In fact, changing one of these variables can change the
effect of the other two.

Consider the Mass (m), spring (k), and damper (b) problem given in the above figure.

Neglecting initial values and using Laplace,

14
From the system response shown above, the Mass-spring and damper system, is
suffering from the following problems:

15
First Trial to solve the system problems is by using Proportional Controller;

Rise time is improved (Tr=0.1) and steady-state error is improved (Ess=0.95) but the
system overshoot is deteriorated (Mp~1.1). Settling time (Ts=1.2)
16
Second Trial to solve the system problems is by using Proportional-Derivative
Controller;

Rise time and steady-state error are not affected. But the system overshoot is
improved (Mp~1.05) and settling time is improved (Ts~0.5)
17
Third Trial to solve the system problems is by using Proportional-Integral Controller;

It is important to note that: Eliminated steady-state error, decreased over-shoot

But rise and settling times (Tr & Ts) are deteriorated
18
Fourth Trial to solve the system problems is by using Proportional-Integral-
Derivative (PID) Controller;

It is important to note that: Eliminated steady-state error, decreased over-shoot

Also rise and settling times (Tr & Ts) are improved
19
Example #1
Consider the system shown in Fig. 9, where ζ = 0.6 and ωn = 5 rad/sec. Let us obtain
the rise time tr, peak time tp, maximum overshoot Mp, and settling time tp when the
system is subjected to a unit-step input.

Fig. 9.

20
Example #2
Consider the control system whose closed loop poles are given in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10.

Find

Example #3
Determine the values of Td, Tr, Tp and Ts for the control system shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11
21
The rise time is given by

So we must calculate the angle β first based on Fig. 12, as follows:

Fig. 12

22
Example #4
For the system shown in Fig. 13, determine the values of gain K and velocity
feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is 0.2
and the peak time is 1 sec.
With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume that J =
1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.

Fig. 13, Block diagram of a servo system

The simplified block diagram of the system is:

The overall T.F. is given by:

By comparing, we find that

Since Mp = 0.2;

23
Since Peak time = 1, then

Then kh can be determined as:

Therefore the rise time (tr) can be calculated as:

where

Therefore, Tr=0.65 sec.

24
Example #5
When the system shown in Fig. 14 (a) is subjected to a unit-step input, the system
output responds as shown in Fig.14 (b). Determine the values of K and T from the
response curve.

Fig. 14, Control system and its step response

From the time response curve we can obtain that:
Mp = 0.254 ζ = 0.4

25
Report:

Determine the values, of K and k of the closed-loop system shown in Fig. so that the
maximum overshoot in unit-step response is 25% and the peak time is 2 sec. Assume
that J = 1 kg-m2.

Example #6
The T.F. of a closed-loop, unity feedback control system is

C(S) K
=
R(S) S + 2S + K

If the system gain (K) is set at three different values of 10, 36 and 100
- Calculate the rise time, maximum overshoot, and settling time at each value of K,
- At which value of K the system response is superior.

This is a good example for proportional controllers (P-Controllers)

The general form of the second-order system is

C(S) ω(
=
R(S) S + 2ξω( S + ω(
By Comparing,
ωn = √K
ξ = 1 / √K
Β = cos-1 (1 / √K)
ωd = ωn √1- ξ2 = √K(1-1/k) = √(K-1)
Based on 2% criteria, it is found that Ts = 4T,

26
At K = 10

ωn = √10 = 3.1623
ξ = 1 / √10 = 0.31623
Β = cos-1 (1 / √10) = 71.56505 ̊ = 1.24904577 rad
ωd = √K-1 = 3.0
− 0  − 1.24904577
Rise Time (Tr) = = = 0.63085 7 8

 3
9:;<=< >? @7ℎ>> B = C/ C 
= 0.35085 = 35.085%
4 4
FG = = =4
H
 0.31623 × 3.1623

At K = 36
ωn = √36 = 6
ξ = 1 / 6 = 0.16667
Β = cos-1 (1 / 6) = 80.40593177 ̊ = 1.4334825 rad
ωd = √35 = 5.9160798

− 0  − 1.4334825
Rise Time (Tr) = = = 0.2938 7 8

 √35

9:;<=< >? @7ℎ>> B = = 0.588 = 58.8%

C/ C 

4 4
FG = = =47 8
H
 0.16667 × 6
At K = 100
ωn = √100 = 10
ξ = 1 / 10 = 0.1
Β = cos-1 (0.1) = 84.261 ̊ = 1.47063 rad
ωd = √99 = 9.94987

− 0  − 1.47063
Rise Time (Tr) = = = 0.167938 7 8

 √99

9:;<=< >? @7ℎ>> B = = 0.72925 = 72.925%

C/ C 

4 4
FG = = =47 8
H
 0.1 × 10
Rise Time Maximum Overshoot Settling Time
10 0.63085 7 8 35.085% 47 8
36 0.2938 7 8 58.8% 47 8
100 0.167938 7 8 72.925% 47 8
27
Based on information given in the table, by increasing the system gain from 10 to 100, the
rise time and steady-state error are decreased (improved) which is V.Good. On the other
hand, the Maximum overshoot is increased (deteriorated).

Example #7
A 3-term (PID) controller is used to control a process with unity feedback as shown
in Fig. 3, where Ti and Td are the integral and derivative time constant, respectively.
For unit step input,

a) If Td = 3.5, and the integral term is ignored, calculate the steady-state error,
b) If Ti = 2.0, and Td as given in (a), calculate the steady-state error,
c) Which steady-state error obtained from (a) and (b) is better. Why?
d) If both derivative and integral terms are ignored, calculate the damping ratio,
maximum overshoot, rise time, peak time and settling time, then draw a free-hand
sketch for the system output c(t).

PID Controller Process

R(S) + E(S) C(S)
20 4
_ 20 + + 20F 
FM   + 8 + 80

H(S) = 1,
1
80 L1 + + F N
FM 
K() =
 + 8 + 80
Since unit step input, we calculate the position error coefficient Kp
a) Ti is set to ∞ to ignore the integral term
Td = 3.5
80(1 + 3.5 )
K() =
 + 8 + 80
80
O = lim K() = =1
Q→S 80
1 1
TGG = = = 0.5
1 + O 1+1

28
b) Ti =2.0 and Td = 3.5
1
80 L1 ++ 3.5 N
K() = 2
 + 8 + 80
∞
O = lim K() = =∞
Q→S 80
1 1
TGG = = =0
1 + O 1+∞
c) the steady-state error in case (b) is better than that of (a) because the integral term
is employed, therefore the system type is increased by one, so that the error is
reduced to 0.
d) Ti is set to ∞ to ignore the integral term
Td is set to 0 to ignore the derivative term
The overall system is shown in the figure below

Process
R(S) + E(S) C(S)
80
_
 + 8 + 80

V() 80
=
W()  + 8 + 160
The system characteristic equation is
 + 8 + 160 = 0
The standard form of second order system characteristic equation is
 + 2
  +
 = 0
By comparing the coefficients
ωn = √160 = 12.649 rad/sec
2ξ ωn = 8 → ξ = 0.3162
XY

Z[\ Y
Maximum overshoot =  = = 0.35096 = 35.096 %
β = cos-1 0.3162 = 71.5667° = 1.2491 rad

29
Rise Time Tr
−0  − 1.2491
F] = = = 0.1577 7 8.

 12.649√1 − 0.3162
Peak Time Tp
 
F = = = 0.2618 7 8.

 12.649√1 − 0.3162
Settling Time Ts
3 3
FG = = = 0.75 7 8. (^97 _ >` ± 5% >b @9`8 )

 0.3162 × 12.649
4 4
FG = = = 1.0 7 8. (^97 _ >` ± 2% >b @9`8 )

 0.3162 × 12.649

30
 3.2 ROOT LOCUS ANALYSES

1. Introduction
The basic characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is
closely related to the location of the closed-loop poles. If the system has a variable
loop gain, then the location of the closed-loop poles depends on the value of the
loop gain chosen. It is important, therefore, that the designer know how the
closed-loop poles move in the s plane as the loop gain is varied.
A simple method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation has been
developed by W. R. Evans and used extensively in control engineering. This method,
called the root-locus method, is one in which the roots of the characteristic equation
are plotted for all values of a system parameter. The roots corresponding to a
particular value of this parameter can then be located on the resulting graph. Note that
the parameter is usually the gain, but any other variable of the open-loop transfer
function may be used.

Page 1 of 29
By using the root-locus method the control Engineer can predict the effects on the
location of the closed-loop poles with varying the gain value.

1. Root Locus Method

The root locus is the locus of roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop
system as a specific parameter (usually, gain K) is varied from zero to infinity, giving
the method its name. Such a plot clearly shows the contributions of each open-loop
pole or zero to the locations of the closed-loop poles.
By using the root-locus method, it is possible to determine the value of the gain K
that will make the damping ratio of the dominant closed-loop poles as prescribed.
If the location of an open-loop pole or zero is a system variable, then the root-locus
method suggests the way to choose the location of an open-loop pole or zero.
1.1 Angle and magnitude conditions
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 1, whose closed loop T.F. is;

Fig.1 closed loop control system

The characteristic equation of this system is;

The quantity G(s)H(s) is called loop T.F. or open-loop T.F. Assuming that the loop
T.F. is a rational function including a gain K, this gives

Or
 = −1 (1)

Page 2 of 29
 Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity, eqn. (1) can be split into two equations by
equating the angles and magnitudes of both sides, respectively, to obtain the
following:
Angle condition:

∑    − ∑    = ±180 (2)

Magnitude condition:

(3)
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of
the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.
Then the root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as the gain K is
varied from zero to infinity.
2.2 Root Locus Sketch
To begin sketching the root locus of a system by the root-locus method we must
know the location of the poles and zeros of G(s) H(s)
• Step #1
K=0 points are located at the open-loop poles
• Step #2
K=∞ points are located at the open-loop zeros
The poles and zeros referred above include those at infinity, if any.
EX: Consider the characteristic equation

Dividing both sides by the terms that do not contain K, we get

When K = 0, the 3 poles are at s = 0, s = –2, and s = –3 as shown in Fig. 2.

Page 3 of 29
 =0
 = −2 = 3
 = −3
 = −1
When K is ∞, the 3 zeros are at s = –1, s = ∞ and ∞ as shown in Fig. 2.
 → ∞  = 1
→∞

Fig. 2, K=0 and K=∞ points of the root locus

Number of branches on the root loci
We must know that, the number of branches of root locus plot equals the number of
poles. In the previous example, there are 3 poles. So that the total number of root
locus branches is THREE. Also for the control system that has 3 poles and shown in
Fig. 3, it has three root locus branches.
Symmetry of The root loci
Root locus is symmetrical w.r.t. the real axis of the s-plane as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3, three pole system gives three root locus branches; also the root locus is
symmetrical around the real axis

Page 4 of 29
 • Step #3
Number of Asymptotes if there are zeros located at ∞, there are asymptotes equal
to those zeros at ∞. Simply we can calculate the number of asymptotes by:
Number of asymptotes = | − |
For the previous example, since there are TWO zeros at infinity OR n – m = 2,
there are TWO asymptotes.
• Step #4

2# + 1180
Angle of Asymptotes we can calculate the angles of asymptotes by
!" =
| − |
Where k = 0, 1, 2, …., | − | − 1
Substituting k=0 we get the angle of 1st asymptote
Substituting k=1 we get the angle of 2st asymptote, … etc.
In case of number of asymptotes =2, therefore the angles are θ0 = 90 and θ1 = 270
(as shown in Fig. 4-a)
In case of number of asymptotes =3, therefore the angles are θ0 = 60, θ1 = 180 and
θ2 = 300 (as shown in Fig. 4-b)
In case of number of asymptotes =4, therefore the angles are θ0 = 45, θ1 = 135, θ2
= 225 and θ3 = 315 (as shown in Fig. 4-c)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4, angle of asymptotes

Page 5 of 29
 • Step #5
Intersection of Asymptotes with Real Axis The point of intersection of
asymptotes of the root locus lies on the real axis of the s-plane, at σ, where
∑ & &'    − ∑ & &'   
%=
−
The point of intersection of the asymptotes (σ) represents the center of gravity of
the root locus, and is always a real number. Since the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s)
are either real or in complex-conjugate pairs, the imaginary parts in the numerator
of σ equation always cancel each other out. Thus, the summation terms may be

∑    '     − ∑    '    

replaced by the real parts of the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s), respectively. That is,

%=
−
Example: suppose we have a control system

( + 1
 =
(( + 4( + 1 − *( + 1 + *

0 − 4 − 1 − 1 − −1 −5
The point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis is

%= = = −1.67
4−1 3
• Step #6
Root Locus on Real Axis
On a given section of the real axis, root locus are found in this section only if the
total number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of the section is odd. On
another explanation, for s1 to be a point on the root locus, there must be an odd
number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of that point. We can explain
this by the following pole-zero configurations shown in Fig. 5.

Page 6 of 29
 Fig. 5, root locus on real axis
Where the dotted line shows Inverse Root Locus (IRL) where the system gain K
changes from –∞ to 0 (i.e. K<0).
On the other hand, the solid line shows Root Locus (RL) where the system gain K
changes from 0 to ∞ (i.e. K>0)
• Step #7
Angles of Departure for complex poles OR
And Angles of Arrival for complex zeros
The angle of departure or arrival of a root locus at a pole or zero, respectively, of
G(s)H(s) denotes the angle of the tangent to the locus near the point. The angle of
departure is defined as the angle at which the root locus leaves the pole. The angle
of arrival is defined as the angle at which the root locus moves toward the zero.
We can explain how to calculate the angle of departure by the following example:
Consider the characteristic equation of a control system
S(S+3)(S2+2S+2) + K(S+1) = 0
The angle of departure of the root locus at (s +1– j) is represented by θ2, measured
with respect to the real axis. Let us assign s1 to be a point on the RL leaving the

Page 7 of 29
pole at (s +1– j) and is very close to the pole as shown in Fig. 6. Then, s1 must
satisfy Eqn. (2). Thus,

Fig. 6, calculation of angle of departure

0 − /0 + /1 + /2 + /3  = 180
Based on eqn. 2, since no zeros

/1 = −180 − /0 − /2 − /3 = −180 − 135 − 90 − 26.6 = −71.6

Step #8
Intersection of the Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis
The points where the root locus intersect the imaginary axis of the s-plane, and the
corresponding values of K, may be determined by means of the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion explained in the previous lecture.

Page 8 of 29
Step #9
Breakaway Points
Breakaway points on the root locus of an equation correspond to multiple-order
roots of the equation.
Figure (7-a) illustrates a case in which two branches of the root locus meet at the
breakaway point on the real axis and then depart from the axis in opposite
directions. In this case, the breakaway point represents a double root of the
equation when the value of K is assigned the value corresponding to the point.

Fig. 7, break away point

Figure (7-b) shows another common situation when two complex-conjugate root
locus approach the real axis, meet at the breakaway point, and then depart in
opposite directions along the real axis. In general, a breakaway point may involve

Page 9 of 29
more than two root locus. Figure (7-c) illustrates a situation when the breakaway
point represents a fourth-order root.
A root-locus diagram can have, of course, more than one breakaway point.
Moreover, the breakaway points need not always be on the real axis. Because of
the conjugate symmetry of the root loci, the breakaway points not on the real axis
must be in complex conjugate pairs.
At the breakaway points, the following properties must be satisfied:

1) (3)
where G1(s)H1(s) = K G(s)H(s) setting K=1
2) All real solutions of Eqn. (3) are breakaway points on the root locus for all
values of K, since the entire real axis of the s-plane is occupied by the root
locus.
3) The complex-conjugate solutions of Eqn. (3) are breakaway points only if they
satisfy the characteristic equation or are points on the root locus.
It is important to point out that the condition for the breakaway point given
in Eqn. (3) is necessary but not sufficient.
The angles at which the root locus arrive or depart from a breakaway point depend
on the number of branches that are involved at the point. For example, the root
locus shown in Figs. (7-a) and (7-b) all arrive and break away at 180 apart,
whereas in Fig. (7-c), the four root loci arrive and depart with angles 90 apart. In
general, n root locus branches arrive or depart a breakaway point at 180/n
degrees apart.
Example: Consider the second-order equation

The breakaway points on the root loci must satisfy

Page 10 of 29
Or
We find the two breakaway points of the root locus at s = -1.172 and -6.828

Fig. 8 Breakaway points of the example

Figure 8, shows that the two breakaway points are all on the root locus for positive
K. this mean both points are used as breakaway points.
Another example: Consider the equation

Fig. 9 Breakaway points of the example

Page 11 of 29
The above derivative can be reduced to

The solution of this equation gives the breakaway

point as s1 = – 0.586 and s2 = –3.414. The root locus shown in Fig. 9, indicates
that, the point S1 is located in IRL portion, this means that it can't be a proper
breakaway point.
Another example:

The solutions of the last equation are s1 = – 2, s2 = –2 + j2.45, and s3 = –2 – j2.45.

As shown in Fig. 10 that the two complex points S2 and S3 are considered as
breakaway points.

Fig. 10 Breakaway points of the example

Page 12 of 29
Another example: In this example, we shall show that not all the solutions of
Eqn. (3) are breakaway points on the root locus. Consider the root loci of the
equation

The roots of the above equation is s1= – 0.667 – j0.471 and s2= – 0.667 + j0.471.
From the root locus shown in Fig. 11, these two roots are not breakaway points on
the root loci.

Fig. 11 Breakaway points of the example

2.3 Calculation of K from the Root Locus

Once the root locus is constructed, the values of K at any point (as s1 for example)
on the locus can be determined by using the angle condition described in eqn. (3).
Graphically, the magnitude of K can be written as:

Page 13 of 29
For the root locus shown in Fig. 12, the value of K at point s1 is given by

where A and B are the lengths of the vectors drawn from the poles of G(s)H(s) to
the point s1, and C is the length of the vector drawn from the zero of G(s)H(s) to
s1. In this case, s1 is on the locus where K is positive

Fig. 12 Calculation of K using magnitude condition

Example (1):
Consider the control system whose characteristic equation is

Dividing both sides of the last equation by the terms that do not contain K, we
have

• K = 0 points: at s = 0, s = –5, and s = –6 and S= –1+j and S= –1–j.

Page 14 of 29
 =0
8
 = −5 6
  = −6 =5
 = −1 − *7
6
 = −1 + *5

 = −38
• K = ∞ points, at s = –3.

 → ∞6

→∞ =1
 → ∞7
6
 → ∞5
• Number of asymptotes = | − |= 5 – 1 = 4
• Angle of asymptotes
θ0 = 45, θ1 = 135, θ2 = 225 and θ3 = 315
• Intersection of asymptotes with real axis:

• Angle of departure: from the angle condition,

26.6 – 135 – 90 – 14 – 11.4 – θD = 180 so that θD = – 43.8

• Intersection of the root locus with the imaginary axis is determined using
Routh’s tabulation.

We can obtain the value of K to satisfy the stability as:

Page 15 of 29
 So that 0 < K < 35 At K = 35, the auxiliary equation A(s) is

Substituting K = 35 in A(s) we find

Then S = ± j 1.34
• Break away points:
Taking the derivative after making K = 1 we can obtain

Since there is only one breakaway expected, only one root of the last equation is
the correct solution of the breakaway point. The five roots of the above equation
are:

Clearly, the breakaway point is at –5.53. The other four solutions do not satisfy
the requirements.

Fig. 13, Root locus of example 1.

Page 16 of 29
Example (2):
For the control system described by the block diagram shown in Fig. 14, draw the
root locus.

Fig. 14, Block diagram for example 2.

Page 17 of 29
The root locus of this example is shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15, Root locus of example 2.

Example (3)
Draw the root locus of the control system shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16, control system of example 3.

Page 18 of 29
Using Routh, we can obtain the intersection of root locus with imaginary axis. From Routh
array, K = 150 at S = ± j5.0
The root locus of this example is shown in Fig. 17.

Page 19 of 29
 Fig. 17, Root locus of example 3.
Example (4)
Draw the root locus for the control system shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18, Block diagram for example 4.

There are 3 asymptotes

Page 20 of 29
 Fig. 19, Root locus of example 4.
Example (5)
Draw the root locus for the control system whose T.F. is given below,

( 1 + 2( + 2
 =
( ( + 1( + 2( 1 + 6( + 13
a) Find the max value of K to make a sustained oscillation system and find the
frequency of this oscillation.

Page 21 of 29
b) Calculate the value of K at the breakaway point.
Hint: please don’t waste your valuable time in calculating the breakaway points.
There is only ONE breakaway point at S = –0.46

Page 22 of 29
Page 23 of 29
Page 24 of 29
Page 25 of 29
Fig. 20 Root locus of example 5.

Page 26 of 29
Matlab code to draw the root locus is as follows:

Page 27 of 29
 Example (6)
Consider the characteristic equation S2 (S + a) + K(S + b) = 0

( + 1
Draw root locus of that system when b = 1 and a = 10, 9, and 8

( =
( 1 ( + 
At a = 10, there are TWO breakaway points at S= -2.5 and at S = -4.0 as shown in
Fig. 21(a)

At a = 9, there are ONE breakaway point at S= -3.0 as shown in Fig. 21(b)

Page 28 of 29
At a = 8, there is NO breakaway points as shown in Fig. 21(b)

Fig. 21, Root locus of example 6.

Page 29 of 29