MSM 192 Unit 2

Business Mathematics
Mr Bupe Kolosa
Course code(MSM 192)

School of Natural and Applied Sciences (SNAS)
Mulungushi University (MU)
February 5, 2024
Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 1 / 111

Overview
1 Introduction
Introduction
2 Limits and Continuity
laws of Limits
Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number
Limits as x Approaches 0
Limits as x Approaches Infinity
Continuity of a function at a point
3 Differentiation
The Derivative from First Principle
Basic Differentiation Rules
The Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Parametric Differentiation
Partial Differentiation
Successive Differentiation Business Math
Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) February 5, 2024 2 / 111
Introduction Introduction
Differential Calculus
This unit provides answers to questions like what happens to the value of
a function as the independent variable gets very close to a particular value.
our goal is to learn how pre-calculus formulas and techniques are used as
building blocks to produce the more general calculus formulas and
techniques.
Modeling real life situations in economics, business and engineering.

Introduction Introduction
Objectives
Find the limit of a function as x approaches a given point.

State whether a given function is continuous or not at a given point .
Applications of differential calculus to solve real world problems.

Limits and Continuity
Limits
The Limit of a function f (x) is that value which the function approaches
as x approaches a given value.
If b is the limit of the function f (x) as x → a we write
lim f (x) = b
x→a
Limits describe how a function behaves near a point instead of at the

point.
Limits can be determined graphically or numerically

Limits
Example
2 −4
Find limx→2 xx−2 We can not evaluate the limit by substituting x = 2 into
the function.
We see that as x → 2 from either side f (x) = 4. The function is never

equal to 4, for any particular value of x.
Theorem A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one sided limits
exists and are equal, that is
lim f (x) = L
x→a
for some number L, if and only if
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L

x→a− x→a

Limits of Specific Functions

Example (Determine if the limit exist for the following)

x2 − 5
lim
x→2 x − 2
Solution.
2 −5
x g (x) = xx−2
1.9 13.9
1.99 103.99
1.999 1003.999
As x → 2− g →∞
This limit does not exist.

Cont...
2 −5
x g (x) = xx−2
2.1 -5.9
2.01 -95.99
2.001 -995.999
As x → 2+ g → −∞
This limit does not exist.
Therefore,
x2 − 5
lim does not exist.
x→2 x − 2

Example (Determine if the limit exist for the following)

p
f (x) = 9 − x 2
Solution.
√
The function f (x) = 9 − x 2 has the interval −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 as domain of
definition. √ interval −3 < x < 3, then
√ If a is any number on the open
limx→a 9 − x exists and is equal to 9 − a2 . Now
2
√ consider a = 3. First
, let x approaches 3 from the left, then limx→3
√ − 9 − x 2 = 0. Next, let x
approaches√3 from the right, then limx→3+ 9 √ − x 2 does not exist since
for x > 3, 9 − x is imaginary. Thus, limx→3 9 − x 2 does not exist.
2
Exercise: Determine if the limit exist for the following?

(
x x if x ≥ 0
lim , |x| =
x→0 |x| −x if x<0

Limits and Continuity laws of Limits
laws of Limits
1 lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a
2 lim [kf (x)] = k lim f (x)

x→a x→a
3 lim [f (x) · g (x)] = limx→a f (x) · lim g (x)

x→a x→a
lim f (x)
4 lim gf (x)
(x) =
x→a
lim g (x)
x→a x→a
5 lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n

x→a x→a
6 The limit of a constant is constant.

Limits and Continuity Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number
Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number

Sometimes, finding the limiting value of an expression means simply
substituting a number.
For any polynomial f (x) and any real number a. limx→a [f (x)] = f (a)
Apply the laws of limits to evaluate the following;

1
lim (3x 2 − 5x + 4) = 6
x→2
2
x 3 − 5x + 4 16
lim 2
=
x→3 x −2 7
3
x 2 − 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 3)
lim = lim =4
x→3 x −3 x→3 x −3

Example
Evaluate
x 3 − 5x + 4

lim
x→3 x2 − 2
Solution.

x 3 − 5x + 4
lim x 3 − 5x + 4
x→3
lim =
x→3 x2 − 2 lim x 2 − 2
x→3
3
lim x − 5 lim x + lim 4
x→3 x→3 x→3
= 2
lim x − lim 2
x→3 x→3
33 − 5 · 3 + 4
=
32 − 2
31 − 15 16
= =
9−2 7
Example
Evaluate p
3
lim 3x 2 − 2x − 16
x→4
Solution.
p r
3
lim 3x − 2x − 16 = 3 lim 3x 2 − 2x − 16
2
x→4 x→4
q
= 3 3(4)2 − 2(4) − 16
√
= 3 48 − 8 − 16
√3
= 24
√3
= 8×3
√3
= 2 3

Limits and Continuity Limits as x Approaches 0
Limits as x Approaches 0
We must remember that we cannot divide by zero - it is undefined.
Examples
1
1
lim = DNE
x→0 x 2
1 1 2−(x+2)
x+2− 2 2(x+2) −1 1
lim = lim = =−
x→0 x x→0 x 2(x + 2) 4

Limits and Continuity Limits as x Approaches Infinity
Limits as x Approaches Infinity

Let us consider the fraction x5 . If we take larger and larger values of x, the
value of the fraction becomes smaller and smaller until it gets very close to
0. Therefore,
1
lim =0
x→∞ x
Examples
1
!
5
−3

5 − 3x x 1
lim = lim =−
x→∞ 6x + 1 x→∞ 6 + x1 2
!
5
4x 3 + 5 4x +

x2
limx→∞ = limx→∞ = −∞
−6x 2 − 7x −6 − x7

Limits and Continuity Continuity of a function at a point
Continuity of a function at a point

If you can draw the function without lifting your pencil, then the function
is continuous.
A function f (x) is continuous at a point a iff

1 f (a) is defined
2 the limit of f (x) exists at a and is equal to f (a)
otherwise f (x) is discontinuous
Examples
Discuss the continuity of the following functions

x+2
1 f (x) = 4x 2 +7x−2
, at x = −2, x = 1
2
x −x−6
2 f (x) = x−3 , at x = 3
2
x −4
3 f (x) = x−2 , at x = 2

−2
 if x< − 1
4 f (x) = 3x + 1 if − 1 ≤ x<1 , at x = 1

 2
x if x ≥ 1

Sol’n
1
−2 + 2 0
f (−2) = = Undefined
4(−2)2 + 7(−2) − 2 0
1+2 1
f (1) = = defined
4(1)2 + 7(1) − 2 3
Therefore

x +2
lim (x + 2) 1
x→1
lim 2
= =
x→a 4x + 7x − 2 lim (4x 2 + 7x − 2) 3
x→1
Since lim f (x) = f (1), the function f (x) Continuous.

x→1

Sol’n
3
22 − 4
f (2) = , Undefined.
2−2
but
22 − 4
lim f (x) = lim
x→2 x→2 2 − 2
(x − 2)(x + 2)
= lim
x→2 x −2
= lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2

Sol’n
4 Step 1
f (1) = (1)2 = 1 defined
Step 2
lim (3x + 1) = 3(1) + 1 = 4
x→1−
lim (x 2 ) = (1)2 = 1
x→1+
therefore the limit of f (x) does not exist, hence not continuous.

Removable Discontinuity
A function is discontinuous at a point or has a discontinuity at a point if

it is not continuous at the point. A removable discontinuity occurs at a
point a if f (x) is discontinuous at a, but lim f (x) exists.
x→a
If lim f (x) does not exist the function f (x) has a non-removable
x→a
discontinuity at x = a.
Examples Use the limit rules to show that the following functions have
either a removable or non-removable discontinuity.
x 2 −9
1 f (x) = x−3 , at x =3
2
x −5x+4
2 f (x) = x 2 −5x−14
, at x = 7

Sol’n
1
x2 − 9 (x + 3)(x − 3)
f (x) = =
x −3 x −3
therefore
lim (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6
x→3
Since we can divide out the discontinuity, the function is a removable

discontinuity.
2
x 2 − 5x + 4 (x − 1)(x − 4)
f (x) = =
x 2 − 5x − 14 (x − 7)(x + 2)
(x − 1)(x − 4)
lim
x→7 (x − 7)(x + 2)
hence, this is a non-removable discontinuity.

Exercise
Find the removable and non-removable discontinuity of the following

function
x 2 + 2x − 8
f (x) = 2
x + 5x + 4
At x ̸= −4 - Removable
At x ̸= −1 - Non-Removable

Continuous functions
1 All polynomial function are continuous for all values of x.
2 sin x and cos x are continuous every where.
3 Rational functions are continuous for all values of x, except that

makes the denominator 0.
4 ln x is continuous when x > 0.

QUIZ
−1 2
1 Evaluate lim x1−x
x→1
4x 3 +5
2 Evaluate lim 2
x→∞ −6x −7
−1 3
3 Evaluate lim xx−1
x→1
x 2 +2x−3
4 Determine whether f (x) = x−1 is a continuous at x = 1.
√
x 2 +4−2
5 Evaluate lim x
x→0

Differentiation
The Slope of a Tangent to a Curve (Numerical Approach)
We are trying to find the rate of change of one variable compared to

another.
we show you one of the historical approaches for finding slopes of

tangents, before differentiation was developed.
The slope of a curve at the point P means the slope of the tangent at the
point P.
notations
change in y as ∆y
change in x as ∆x

Differentiation
Cont...
By definition, the slope is given by

∆y y2 − y1
m= =
∆x x2 − x1
We use this to find a numerical solution to the slope of a curve.
Example
Find the slope of the curve f (x) = x 2 at the point (2, 4), using a
numerical method.
y2 − y1 4 − 3.61
m= = = 3.9
x2 − x1 2 − 1.9
We have found that the rate of change of y with respect to x is 4 units at
the point x = 2.

Differentiation
Cont...

Differentiation The Derivative from First Principle
The Derivative from First Principle

We wish to find an algebraic method to find the slope of y = f (x) at P,
to save doing the numerical substitutions.
We can approximate this value by taking a point Q(x + h, f (x + h))

somewhere near to P(x, f (x)).
If we move Q closer and closer to P, the line PQ will get closer and closer
to the tangent at P and so the slope of PQ gets closer to the slope that
we want.

Cont...
the slope PQ will be given by:
∆y y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
m= = =
∆x x2 − x1 h
But we require the slope at P, so we let h → 0, then in effect, Q will
approach P. therefore we can write the slope of the tangent at P as
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h

Examples
dy
Find dx from the first principles if
1
y = 2x 2 + 3x
dy
ANS = 4x + 3
dx
2
y = x 2 + 4x
dy
ANS = 2x + 4
dx

Differentiation Basic Differentiation Rules
Basic Differentiation Rules
We used the limit definition to find derivatives. In this section, we will be

introduced to several differentiation rules that allow you to find derivatives
without the direct use of the limit definition.

1 The Power Rule

If n is a rational number, then the function f (x) = x n is differentiable and
d n
[x ] = nx n−1 .
dx
Example (Using the power rule)

Differentiate the following functions:
√
(i) f (x) = x 3 (ii) g (x) = 3
x
Solution.
′
(i) f (x) = x 3 : f (x) = 3x 3−1 = 3x 2
√ ′ 1 1

(ii) g (x) = x : g (x) = d
dx [x ]
2 = 12 x − 2 = 1
2
1
1 = 1
√
2 x
x2

2 The Constant Multiple Rule

If f is a differentiable function and c is a real number, then cf is also
differentiable and
d ′
[cf (x)] = cf (x).
dx
Example (Using The constant multiple rule)
. Differentiate the following functions:
2
(i) y = 7x 3 (ii) g (x) = x
Solution.
dy d d
(i) y = 7x 3 : dx = 3
dx [7x ] = 7 dx [x 3 ] = 7(3x 2 ) = 21x 2 .
(ii) g (x) = x2 :
′ −1 ]
g (x) = dxd 2
[x ] = d
dx [2x
d
= 2 dx [x −1 ] = 2(−1)x −2 = − x22 .
3 The Constant Rule

If f (x) = c = cx 0 a real number, then
d
[c] = 0
dx
Example (Using the constant rule)
Differentiate the following functions
(i) y = 4 (ii) s(t) = −3 (iii) y = kπ 2 , where k=constant.
Solution.
′ d
(i) y = 4 : y = dx [4] =0
′ d
(ii) f (x) = −3 : f (x) = dx [−3] =0
′ d
(iii) s(t) = kπ 2 : s (t) = dt kπ
2 =0
4 The Sum and Difference Rule

The sun or (difference) of two differentiable functions f and g is itself
differentiable. Moreover, the derivative of f + g (or f − g ) is the sum (or
difference) of the derivatives of f and g . That is if y = f (x) + g (x), them
dy d d d ′ ′
= [f (x) ± g (x)] = [f (x)] ± [g (x)] = f (x) ± g (x).
dx dx dx dx
Example (Using the sum and difference rule)

. Differentiate each of the following functions:
4
(i) f (x) = 7x 3 − 4x + 5 (ii) g (x) = − x2 + 3x 3 − 2x 2
Solution.
′
(i) f (x) = 7x 3 − 4x + 5 : f (x) = 21x 2 − 4
4 ′
(ii) g (x) = − x2 + 3x 3 − 2x : g (x) = −2x 3 + 9x 2 − 2
5 The Product Rule
The product of two differential functions f and g is itself differentiable.

Moreover, the derivative of fg is the first function times the derivative of
the second function, plus the second function times the derivative of the
first.
d d d ′ ′
(f (x)g (x)] = f (x) [g (x)] + g (x) [f (x)] = f (x)g (x) + g (x)f (x)
dx dx dx

Example (Using the product rule)

Find the derivatives of f (x) = (3x − 2x 2 )(5 + 4x)
Solution.
Applying the Product Rule,we get
′ d
f (x) = [(3x − 2x 2 )(5 + 4x)]
dx
d d
= (3x − 2x 2 ) [5 + 4x] + (5 + 4x) [3x − 2x 2 ]
dx dx
= (3x − 2x 2 )(4) + (5 + 4x)(3 − 4x)
= (12x − 8x 2 ) + (15 − 8x − 16x 2 )
= −24x 2 + 4x + 15.

Example
′
If f (x) = xg (x) and it is known that g (3) = 5 and g (3) = 2, find f (3)
Solution.
Applying the Product Rule, we get
′ d d d
f (x) = [xg (x)] = x [g (x)] + g (x) [x]
dx dx dx
′
= xg (x) + g (x).
Therefore when x = 3,
′ ′
f (3) = xg (3) + g (3) = 3(2) + 5 = 11.

6 The Quotient Rule
The quotient gf of two differentiable functions f and g is itself

differentiable at all values of x for which g (x) ̸= 0. Moreover, the
derivative of gf is given by the denominator times the derivative of the
numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator,
all divided by the square of the denominator: if y = gf (x)
(x)
d d
[f (x)] − f (x) dx

dy d f (x) g (x) dx [g (x)]
= = 2
dx dx g (x) [g (x)]
′ ′
g (x)f (x) − f (x)g (x)
= , g (x) ̸= 0
[g (x)]2

Example (Applying the quotient rule)

Differentiate the function below with respect to x:
x
f (x) = .
x −1
Solution.
x
For f (x) = x−1 ,
d d
′ (x − 1) dx [x] − (x) dx [(x − 1)] (x − 1)(1) − (x)(1)
f (x) = =
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
x −1−x
=
(x − 1)2
−1
= .
(x − 1)2

Example (Use of the quotient rule)

.
Find the derivative of y = 5x−2
x 2 +1
.
Solution.
d
dy (x 2 + 1) dx [5x − 2] − (5x − 2) dx [x 2 + 1]
=
dx (x 2 + 1)2
(x 2 + 1)(5) − (5x − 2)(2x)
=
(x 2 + 1)2
(5x 2 + 5) − (10x 2 − 4x)
=
(x 2 + 1)2
−5x 2 + 4x + 5
=
(x 2 + 1)2

Differentiation The Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of Composite Functions -(The Chain Rule)

We know how to differentiate y = f (u) = u 10 and u = g (x) = x 2 − 4 but
how do we differentiate a composite functions like
h(x) = f (g (x)) = (x 2 − 4)10 ? The differentiation formulas we have
′
studied so far do not tell us how to calculate h (x) so easily.
Definition
Let f (u) be differentiable at the point u and u = g (x) be differentiable at
x, then the composite function (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) is differentiable at x,
and
′ ′ ′
(f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) · g (x)
In Leibniz’s notation, if y = f (u) and u = g (x) then
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
where dy /du is evaluated at u = g (x).
Example
Find the derivative of the function y = (3x 2 + 1)2 .
Solution.
Note that expanding gives (3x 2 + 1)2 = 9x 4 + 6x 2 + 1. Finding the
derivative from the expanded formula, we get
dy d
= (9x 4 + 6x 2 + 1) = 36x 3 + 12x.
dx dx
Now, using the chain rule we see that, the function is the composite
of y = u 2 and u = 3x 2 + 1. Calculating derivatives, we see that
dy dy du
= · = 2u · 6x = 2(3x 2 + 1) · 6x = 36x 3 + 12x.
dx du dx
Example (Applying the Chain Rule)

Differentiate each of the following with respect to x.
1
√
(i) y = 3x−2 (ii) y = 5x 2 + 1
2
(iii) y = (2x 3 −5)4
Solution.
1
(i) Here, y = 3x−2 = (3x − 2)−1 . Let u = 3x − 2, then y = u −1 and so
dy −2 and du = 3. Hence,
dx = −1u dx
dy dy du 3
= · = −1(u −2 )(3) = −3(3x − 2)−2 = − .
dx du dx (3x − 2)2

Solution.
√ 1
(ii) Here, y = 5x 2 + 1 = (5x 2 + 1) 2 . By chain rule, we get
dy 1 5x
= 5x(5x 2 + 1)− 2 = p .
dx (5x 2 + 1)
(iii) y = 2
(2x 3 −5)4
= 2(2x 3 − 5)−4 . Let u = 2x 3 − 5, then y = 2u −4 .
Hence, dydu = −8u
−5 and du = 6x 2 .
dx Therefore,
dy dy du 48x 2
= · = (−8u −5 ) · 6x 2 = −48x 2 (2x 3 − 5)−5 = − .
dx du dx (2x 3 − 5)5

Differentiation Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
With certain functions containing more complicated products and

quotients, differentiation is often made easier if the logarithm of the
function is taken before differentiating. This technique, called “logarithmic
differentiation” is achieved using the idea of
(i) the laws of logarithms,
(ii) the differential coefficients of logarithmic functions, and
(iii) the differentiation of implicit functions.

Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
I. Derivative of ln x: For if y = ln x then
d 1
ln x = (1)
dx x
II. Derivative of ln [f (x)]: If y = ln f (x), then by the chain rule
differentiation, let u = f (x) so that y = ln u. This gives dy
du =
1
u and
du d ′
dx = dx f (x) = f (x). Then,
′
d f (x) d 1 dy
ln [f (x)] = i.e, [ln y ] = (2)
dx f (x) dx y dx

Example
Differentiate with respect to x
(i) ln(ax + b) (ii) ln(x 2 − 3x + 1) (iii) ln sin 3x
ln x
(iv) x 2 ln x (v) x+1
Solution.
′
d f (x)
In each case, we use dx ln [f (x)] = f (x) :
d
d [ax+b] a
(i) Let f (x) = ln(ax + b), then dx [ln(ax + b)] = dx
ax+b = ax+b .
d 2x−3
(ii) dx ln(x 2 − 3x + 1) = x 2 −3x+1
.
d 3 cos 3x
(iii) dx ln sin 3x = sin 3x = 3 cot 3x.
d 2
(iv) dx x ln x = 2x ln x + x 2 x1 = 2x ln x + x = x(2 ln x + 1).
1
MrdBupe (x+1)
ln xKolosa (MU) −ln x (x+1)−x ln xMath
Business February 5, 2024 50 / 111
2
√
Differentiation of an expression such as y = (1+x)
√
x x+2
x+1
may be achieved
by using the product and quotient rules of differentiation; however the
working would be rather complicated. With logarithmic differentiation the
following procedure is adopted
(i) Take Napierian (natural) logarithms of both sides of the equation.
Thus
√ 1
!
(1 + x)2 x + 1 (1 + x)2 (x + 1) 2

ln y = ln √ = ln 1
x x +2 x(x + 2) 2
(ii) Apply the laws of logarithms, which gives
1 1
ln y = 2 ln(1 + x) + ln(x + 1) − ln x − (x + 2)
2 2
(iii) Differentiate each term in turn with respect to x:

d d d 1 d d 1
[ln y ] = [2 ln(1 + x)] + [ ln(x + 1)] − [ln x] − [ (x + 2)]
dx dx dx 2 dx dx 2
thus, gives
1 1
1 dy 2 1
= + 2 − − 2
y dx x +1 x +1 x x +2
(iv) Rearrange the equation to make dy
dx the subject. Thus,

dy 2 1 1 1
=y + − −
dx x + 1 2(x + 1) x 2(x + 2)
(v) Substitute for y in terms of x, we get
√
(1 + x)2 x + 1

dy 2 1 1 1
= √ + − −
dx x x +2 x + 1 2(x + 1) x 2(x + 2)

Example
(x+1)(x−2)3
Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate y = (x−3) .
Solution.
3
Since y = (x+1)(x−2)
(x−3) , taking the natural logarithms both sides and
aplying the laws of logarithms, we obtain
(x + 1)(x − 2)3

ln y = ln = ln(x + 1) + ln(x − 2)3 − ln(x − 3)
(x − 3)
= ln(x + 1) + 3 ln(x − 2) − ln(x − 3).
Differentiating (implicitly) both sides with respect to x;
d d d d
[ln y ] = [ln(x + 1)] + [3 ln(x − 2)] − [ln(x − 3)]
dx dx dx dx
Solution.
gives
1 dy 1 3 1
= + −
y dx x +1 x −2 x −3
Rearranging and substituting for y gives:

dy 1 3 1
=y + −
dx x +1 x −2 x −3
(x + 1)(x − 2)3

1 3 1
= + −
(x − 3) x +1 x −2 x −3

Derivative of Exponential Functions

I. Derivative of e x : If y = e x , then ln y = x. By implicit
Differentiation both sides with respect to x gives:
d x
e = ex . (3)
dx
This result makes e x a unique function. It is the only function whose
derivative is itself. The gradient at a point on the curve y = e x
equals the value of y at that point.
II. Derivative of e f (x) : If y = e f (x) , then ln y = f (x). By implicit
Differentiation both sides with respect to x gives:
d f (x) ′
e = f (x)e f (x) . (4)
dx

Example
Differentiate with respect to x;
2
(a) e 3x−2 (b) e sin 2x (c) xe −2x (d) e ln x
Solution.
d f (x) ′
Here, we use dx e = f (x)e f (x) .
d d
3x−2 3x−2
(a) dx e = e · dx (3x − 2) = 3e 3x−2 .
d
e sin 2x = 2(cos 2x)e sin 2x .

(b) dx
(c) By the product rule, d −2x = e −2x + (−2xe −2x ) = e −2x (1 − 2x).
dx xe
h i
d 2 x 2 ln x 2 2
(d) dx e ln x = 2x e = x2 e ln x .

Differentiation Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Explicit and Implicit Functions

Definition (Explicit and Implicit Functions)
An explicit function of x is an equation that can be written in the form
y = f (x). Examples of explicit functions include;
y = x 4 − 2x 3 − 3x + 4 y = 2x ln x
In such cases y may be differentiated with respect to x by using standard

derivatives, the product rule and the quotient rule of differentiation.
Sometimes with equations involving, say, y and x, it is impossible to make

y the subject of the formula. The equation is then called an implicit
function and examples of such functions include;
y 3 − 2x 3 y 2 = 3x + 4 y 2 = 2x ln y
Derivative of Implicit Functions

Fortunately, we don’t need to solve an equation for y in terms of x in order
to find the derivative of y . Instead we can use the method of implicit
differentiation. This consists of differentiating both sides of the equation
with respect to x using the chain rule, which in this may be stated as:
du du dy
= × (5)
dx dy dx
and then solving the resulting equation for dydx . In the examples that
follows it is always assumed that the given equation determines y
implicitly as a differentiable function of x.
A simple rule for differentiating an implicit function is summarized as:
d d dy
[f (y )] = [f (y )] × (6)
dx dy dx
Example
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
(i) y 3 (ii) 2y 4
Solution.
du
(i) For y 3 , let u = y 3 . Then dy = 3y 2 . Hence, by the chain rule,
d 3 d 3 dy dy
[y ] = [y ] × = 3y 2 × .
dx dy dx dx
d d dy
(ii) Let f (y ) = 2y 4 , The chain rule dx [f (y )] = dy [f (y )] × dx gives,
d d dy dy
[2y 4 ] = [2y 4 ] × = 8y 3 .
dx dy dx dx

Example
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
(i) 4 ln 5y (ii) 15 e 3θ−2 .
Solution.
(i) Let u = 4 ln 5y , then by the chain rule:
d d dy d dy 5 dy 4 dy
[4 ln 5y ] = [4 ln 5y ]× = 4 [ln 5y ]× =4 × =
dx dy dx dy dx 5y dx y dx
(ii) Let u = 51 e 3θ−2 , then, by the chain rule:

d 1 3θ−2 d 1 3θ−2 dθ 3 dθ
e = e × = e 3θ−2
Mr Bupe Kolosa dx 5
(MU) dθBusiness
5 Math dx 5 February dx
5, 2024 60 / 111
Derivatives of implicit functions containing products and

quotients
The product and quotient rules of differentiation must be applied when

differentiating functions containing products and quotients of two
variables.

Example
Determine the derivative of 2x 3 y 2 with respect to x.
Solution.
In the product rule of differentiation let g (x) = 2x 3 and h(x) = y 2 . Then,
d d d
(3x 3 y 2 ) = (y 2 ) (2x 3 ) + (2x 3 ) (y 2 )
dx dx dx

2 d 3 3 d 2 dy
= (y ) (2x ) + (2x ) (y ) ×
dx dy dx

dy
= (y 2 )(6x 2 ) + (2x 3 ) 2y
dx
dy
= 6y 2 x 2 + 4x 3 y .
dx

Example
3y
Find the derivative of 2x with respect to x.
Solution.
In the quotient rule of differentiation let g (x) = 3y and h(x) = 2x. Thus,

d dy
dy

3y
d
(2x) dx [3y ] d
− (3y ) dx [2x] (2x) dy [3y ] ×dx − (3y )(2)
= 2
=
dx 2x (2x) (2x)2

(2x) 3 dy
dx − (3y )(2)
=
(2x)2
6x dy
dx − 6y

3 dy
= 2
= 2 x −y
4x 2x dx

Example
Differentiate with respect to x the given function
2y 2 − 5x 4 − 2 − 7y 3 = 0.
Proof.
Each term in turn is differentiated with respect to x:
d d d d d
[2y 2 ] − [5x 4 ] − [2] − [7y 3 ] = [0]
dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy
=⇒ 4y − 20x 3 − 0 − 21y 2 =0
dx dx
Rearranging gives: (4y − 21y 2 ) dy 3

dx = 20x . Hence, solving for
dy
dx gives:
dy 20x 3
=
dx 4y − 21y 2
Example
dy
Determine the values of dx when x = 4 given that x 2 + y 2 = 25.
Solution.
√
Since x 2 + y 2 = 25, then when x = 4, y = 25 − 42 = ±3.
Differentiating each term in turn with respect to x gives:
d 2 d 2 d
[x ] + [y ] = [25]
dx dx dx
and so, 2x + 2y dy
dx = 0. Hence,
dy 2x x
=− =− .
dx 2y y
Thus when x = 4 and y = ±3 we obtain that,
dy 4 4
=− =± .
dx ±3 3

Example
dy
(i) Find dx in terms of x and y given 4x 2 + 2xy 3 − 5y 2 = 0.
dy
(ii) Evaluate dx when x = 1 and y = 2.
Solution.
(i) Differentiating each term in turn with respect to x gives:
d d d d
[4x 2 ] + [2xy 3 ] − [5y 2 ] = [0]
dx dx dx dx
h i
implying 8x 2 + 2y 3 + 2x 3y 2 dy
dx − 10y dy
dx = 0. Hence,
dy dy
8x 2 + 2y 3 + 6xy 2 − 10y =0
dx dx
dy
Rearranging and solving for dx we get,
Solution Continu’d.
dy 8x 2 + 2y 3 4x 2 + y 3
= = .
dx 10y − 6xy 2 5y − 3xy 2
(ii) When x = 1 and y = 2,
dy 4(1)2 + (2)3 12
= = − = −6.
dx (1,2) 5(2) − 3(1)(2)2 2

Example
Find the gradients of the tangents drawn to the circle
x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 2y = 3
at x = 2.
Solution.
dy
The gradient of the tangent is given by dx . Differentiating each term in
turn with respect to x:
d 2 d 2 d d d
[x ] + [y ] − [2x] − [2y ] = [3]
dx dx dx dx dx
gives,
dy dy
2x + 2y −2−2 = 0.
dx dx
Rearranging we obtain, (2y − 2) dy
dx = 2 − 2x from which
dy 2 − 2x 1−x
= =
dx 2y − 2 y −1
The value of y when x = 2 is determined from the original equation.
Hence (2)2 + y 2 − 2(2) − 2y = 3 =⇒ 4 + y 2 − 4 − 2y = 3 =⇒
y 2 − 2y − 3 = 0. Factorization gives: (y − 1)(y − 3) = 0, from which
= −1 or y = 3.
When x = 2 and y = −1,
dy 1 − (2) −1 1
= = =
dx (−1) − 1 −2 2
When x = 2 and y = 3,
dy 1−x 1−2 −1 1
= = = =−
dx y −1 3−1 2 2
Hence the gradients of the tangents are ± 21
Differentiation Parametric Differentiation
Parametric Differentiation
If variables x and y are expressed in terms of a third variable say t as

x = y (t) and y = v (t) then x and y are called parametric functions of the
parametric t. When t is eliminated between x and y , y becomes the
function of x and thereby dy dy
dx exist. To find dx :
i) Differentiate x and y with respect to t
dy dx
ii) Divide dx by dt and if you divide it should give us
dy dy dt
= ·
dx dt dx

dy
Example (Find dx given the following parametric equations )
(a) y = t 2 , x = 2t
(b) (i) x = t 3 + t 2 , y = t 2 + t
(ii) when t = 1, find the equation of the normal
Solution.
(a) y = t 2 , x = 2t
dy dx dt 1
dx = 2t, dt = 2 = dx = 2
dy dy dt
= ·
dx dt dx
1
= 2t ·
2
2t
=
2
= t

Solution Continu’d .
(b) x = t 3 + t 2 , y = t 2 + t
dx 2 dy
dt = 3t + 2t, dt = 2t + 1
dy dy dt
= ·
dx dt dx
1
= (2t + 1) ·
3t 2 + 2t
2t + 1
=
3t 2 + 2t
dy 2(1)+1 −5
When t = 1, dx = 3(1)2 +2(1)
= 35 , 3 = normal
Normal is the line that is perpendicular to the tangent. The equation of
normal
3 −5
m1 m2 = −1 and m2 = −1 ∴ y − y1 = (x − x1 )
5 3
Differentiation Partial Differentiation
Partial Differentiation
xy
f (x, y ) = ⇒ 2 variables
x2 + y2
xy
f (x, y , z) = ⇒ 3 variables
x 2 yz + xy 2 z
• Partial differential work on the principle of keeping other variable
constant
• Notation used is
∂f
∂x

Differentiation Partial Differentiation
Example (Find the partial derivative of the following)

(a)
z = xy 3 + x sin(xy )
(b)
x 2 y − xy 3
Solution.
(a)
z = xy 3 + x sin(xy )
∂z
= y 3 + sin(xy ) + xy cos(xy )
∂x
∂z
= 3xy 2 + x 2 cos(xy )
∂y
(b) Exercise

Differentiation Successive Differentiation
Successive Differentiation
When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with respect to x the

′
differential coefficient is written as dy
dx or f (x). If the expression is
differentiated again, the second differential coefficient is obtained and is
2 ′′
written as ddxy2 (pronounced dee two y by deex squared) or f (x)
(pronounced f double-dash x). By successive differentiation further higher
derivatives such as
d 3y d 4y d ny
, , ...,
dx 3 dx 4 dx n
may be obtained.

Example
′′ ′′′
If f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5, find f (x) and f (x).
Solution.
From f (x) = 2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5, we have
′ d d
f (x) = [f (x)] = [2x 5 − 4x 3 + 3x − 5] = 10x 4 − 12x 2 + 3.
dx dx
So,
′′ d ′ d
f (x) = [f (x)] = [10x 4 − 12x 2 + 3] = 40x 3 − 24x,
dx dx
and
′′′ d ′′ d
f (x) = [f (x)] = [40x 3 − 24x] = 120x 2 − 24.
dx dx

Example
Given that y = 2xe −3x , show that
d 2y dy
+6 + 9y = 0
dx 2 dx
Solution.
For y = 2xe −3x , differentiating by applying the product rule gives
dy
= (2x)(−3e −3x ) + (e −3x )(2) = −6xe −3x + 2e −3x
dx
and also,
d 2y dy
2
= [−6xe −3x + 2e −3x ]
dx dx
= [(−6x)(−3e −3x ) + (−6)(e −3x )] + (−6)(e −3x )
= 18xe −3x − 12e −3x
Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) . Math
Business February 5, 2024 77 / 111
d 2y
Substituting values into dx 2
+ 6 dy
dx + 9y = 0 gives
d 2y dy
2
+6 + 9y = (18xe −3x − 12e −3x ) + 6(−6xe −3x + 2e −3x ) + 9(2xe −3x )
dx dx
= 18xe −3x − 12e −3x − 36xe −3x + 12e −3x ) + 18xe −3x )
=0
Thus when y = 2xe −3x , we then have
d 2y dy
2
+6 + 9y = 0.
dx dx

Applications of differentiation Optimisation for Functions of One Variable
Optimisation for Functions of One Variable
At the end of this section you should be able to:

Use the slope of a curve to find turning points
Use the change in slope and second derivatives to determine whether

a turning point is a maximum or minimum
Find the intervals along which a function is increasing or decreasing
Outline the key features of curve sketching

Slope of a curve and turning points

Optimisation is mainly concerned with finding maximum and minimum
points, also known as stationary points, on a curve. Applications include
finding maximum and minimum values for functions such as profit, cost,
utility and production.

Extreme Values of Functions
Definition (Extreme of a function)

Let f be a function defined on an interval I containing c.
(i) f (c) is the maximum of f on I if f (c) > f (x) for all x in I .
(ii) f (c) is the minimum of f on I if f (c) < f (x) for all x in I .
The maximum and minimum of a function on an interval are the extreme

values, or extrema, of the function on the interval. They are also called
the absolute maximum and absolute minimum, or the global
maximum and global minimum.

Theorem (Relative extrema only occur at critical numbers)

If f has a relative or local maximum or minimum value at an interior point
′
c of its domain, and if f is defined at c, then
′
f (c) = 0
If f has relative maximum and minimum at x = c, then c is a critical
number for f .
This states that the relative extrema of a function can occur only at the
critical numbers of the function. Knowing this, you can use the following
guidelines to find extrema on a closed interval.

Cont...
To find the x-coordinates of the turning points for a curve y = f (x), the
following method is used:
dy
1 Find dx for the given curve y = f (x).
dy
2 Solve the equation dx = 0.
The solution of this equation gives the x-coordinates of the turning points.
Notes
dy
1 If the equation dx = 0 has no solution, then there is no turning point,
2 While it is true that at turning points we can say dy
dx = 0, the
dy
converse is not always true. If dx = 0 at a point, it may indeed be a
turning point but it could be a point of inflection

Examples
Find the turning points for the following functions:

1 y = 3x 2 –18x + 34
1
2 y= x

Sol’n
1
dy
Slope = = 6x − 18
dx
dy
Solve dx = 0.
6x − 18 = 0
18
x= =3
6
when x = 3, y = 3(3)2 − 18(3) + 34 = 7, The turning point exists
at x = 3, y = 7.

Determining maximum and minimum turning points
When y is increasing, the derivative or rate of change of y , i.e. dy

dx is
positive. When dx is increasing, the derivative or rate of change of dy
dy
dx
is positive, i.e
d2 y

d dy
= 2 is positive
dx dx dx
When y is decreasing, the derivative or rate of change of y , i.e. dy
dx is
dy
negative. When dx is decreasing, the derivative or rate of change of
dy
dx is negative, i.e
d2 y

d dy
= is negative
dx dx dx 2

Testing for minimum and maximum points

Cont...
This behaviour provides two methods of determining whether a turning

point is a maximum or a minimum. Start by calculating the value of x at
d2 y
which dy
dx = 0. Call this value x0 . Also determine dx 2 and evaluate it at x0 .
This is written symbolically as
d2 y
dx 2 x0
1 change of sign in slope

2 second derivative sign test

Cont...
The max/min method may be summarised as follows:

dy d2 y
1 Find dx and dx 2
; both derivatives will be required.
2 Solve the equation dy
dx = 0; the solution of this equation gives the
x-coordinates of the turning points.
3 Calculate the y-coordinate of each turning point by substituting the
x-coordinate of the turning point (from step 2) into the equation of
the curve.
4 Determine whether the turning point is a maximum or minimum by
substituting the x-coordinate of the turning point (from step 3) into
the equation of the second derivative.
d2 y
The point is a maximum if the value of dx 2 is negative at the point.
d2 y
The point is a minimum if the value of dx 2 is positive at the point.

Example
1 Find the turning points for the curve, y = –x 3 + 9x 2 –24x + 26.
2 Determine which point is a maximum and which is a minimum by

using the second derivatives.

Sol’n
1 Step 1: Find first and second derivatives,
y = –x 3 + 9x 2 –24x + 26
dy
= −3x 2 + 18x − 24
dx
d2 y
= −6x + 18
dx 2
Step 2: At turning points, slope is zero, therefore, solve the equation
dy
dx = 0,
−3x 2 + 18x − 24 = 0
(x–4)(x–2) = 0
x =4 or x =2

Cont...
Step 3: Find y. Since we know the .x-coordinate, find y from the equation
of the curve:
y = –x 3 + 9x 2 − 24x + 26
y = –(2)3 + 9(2)2 –24(2) + 26 substituting x = 2
= –8 + 36–48 + 26 = 6 therefore , y = 6 when x = 2.
y = −(4)3 + 9(4)2 − 24(4) + 26 substituting x = 4
= −64 + 144 − 96 + 26 − 10 therefore , y = 10 when x = 4

Cont...
Step 4: Determine whether each turning point is a maximum or a
minimum by substituting the value of x at the turning point.
Turning point at x = 2
d2 y
= −6x + 18
dx 2
= −6(2) + 18 = 6
POSITIVE, Therefore, a minimum at x = 2. (2, 6) is a minimum point
Turning point at x = 4
d2 y
= −6x + 18
dx 2
= −6(4) + 18 = −6
NEGATIVE, Therefore, a maximum at x = 2. (4, 10) is a maximum point
Intervals along which a function is increasing or decreasing
Now that maximum and minimum points can be located exactly, stating
the intervals along which a curve is increasing or decreasing is a very
simple matter.
1 If a point is a maximum point, then y must increase in the interval
immediately before the maximum and decrease in the interval
immediately after the maximum.
2 If a point is a minimum point, then y must decrease in the interval
immediately before the minimum and increase in the interval
immediately after the minimum.

Example
1 State the range of values of Q for which the average cost function
AC = –9Q + 0.5Q 2 + 43
is (a) increasing, (b) decreasing.

2 The demand equation of a good is P + Q = 30 and the total cost
function is TC = 21 Q 2 + 6Q + 7
1 Find the level of output that maximizes total revenue.
2 Find the level of output that maximizes profit. Calculate MR and MC
at this value of Q. What do you observe?
Solution
Before any statements are made about whether the function is increasing
or decreasing, we must find the turning point(s), and also decide if they
are a maximum or minimum.
Cont...
Step 1: Find first and second derivatives:
AC = –9Q + 0.5Q 2 + 43
d(AC)
= −9 + Q
dQ
d2 (AC)
=1
dQ 2
Step 2: Solve slope = 0 as slope is zero at turning point(s):
d(AC)
=0
dQ
−9 + Q = 0 → Q = 9
the turning point is at Q = 9

Cont...
Step 3: Determine whether the turning point is a maximum or minimum.

Since the second derivative is a positive constant, then the only turning
point is a minimum.
Conclusion: AC is decreasing until Q = 9 (the minimum), increasing after

Q = 9.

Applications of differentiation Optimization of economic functions
Business Calculus - Marginal functions
The task of finding the maximum and minimum values of a function is

referred to as optimization. This is an important topic in mathematical
economics problems. These problems involve the optimization of specific
revenue, cost, profit and production functions.
At the end of this section you should be able to;

1 Show that, at the point of maximum profit, marginal revenue equals
marginal cost.
2 Show that, at the point of maximum profit, the slope of the marginal
revenue curve is less than that of marginal cost.
3 Maximize profits of a firm

Business Calculus - Marginal functions

The derivative of certain economic variables such as TR, TC, profit, etc is
called the marginal function:
d(TR)
MR =
dQ
The marginal revenue is the rate of change in total revenue per unit
increase in output, Q:
d(TC )
MC =
dQ
The marginal cost is the rate of change in total cost per unit increase in
output, Q.
To determine an expression for a marginal function the steps are as

follows:
1 Determine an expression for the total function.
2 Differentiate the total function.

Marginal revenue
To determine the equation for marginal revenue one must first obtain the
equation for total revenue: TR = P × Q, where P, the price, is expressed
in terms of Q through the equation of the demand function.
Examples
1 Given the demand function P = 6–0.5Q find the value of MR for
Q = 1, 2, 3.
1 Determine an expression for total revenue:
2 Differentiate TR to deduce the equation for MR:
2 If the demand function is P = 120 − 3Q find an expression for TR in
terms of Q. Find the value of MR at Q = 10 using
1 differentiation
2 the 1 unit increase approach
3 A firm estimates that the total revenue received from the sale of Q
goods is given by TR = ln(1 + 1000Q 2 ) Calculate the marginal
revenue when Q = 10.
Sol’n
The first step is to find the total function, in this case, given the demand
function P, it follows that,
TR = P × Q = 6Q − 0.5Q 2
. Therefore,
d(TR)
MR = =6−Q
dQ

Total cost from average cost

Average cost is total cost divided by the level of output. Therefore, it can
be shown that total cost is average cost multiplied by output, Q:
TC
AC =
Q
d(TC )
MC =
dQ
The marginal cost is the rate of change in total cost per unit increase in
output, Q.
To determine an expression for a marginal function the steps are as

follows:
1 Determine an expression for the total function.
2 Differentiate the total function.
Total cost from average cost

Average cost is total cost divided by the level of output. Therefore, it can
be shown that total cost is average cost multiplied by output, Q:
TC
AC =
Q
Examples
1 Find an expression for the MC function given the following average
cost functions:
1 AC = 2Q + 5 + 30
Q
100
2 AC = 3Q 2 − 4Q + 6 + Q
In each case (i) state the value of fixed cost and variable cost, and
(ii) calculate the value of marginal cost when Q = 50.
2 If the average cost function of a good is AC = 2Q + 6 + 13 Q find an
expression for MC. If the current output is 15, estimate the effect on
TC of a 3 unit decrease in Q.
Sol’n
1 TC = AC × Q = 2Q 2 + 5Q + 30, therefore
dTC
MC = = 4Q + 5
dQ
at Q = 50, MC = 4(50) + 5 = 205
2 TC = AC × Q = 3Q 3 − 4Q 2 + 6Q + 100, therefore
d(TC )
MC = = 9Q 2 − 8Q + 6
dQ
at Q = 50, MC = 9(50)2 − 8(50) + 6 = 2216

Marginal propensity to consume and save
The marginal propensity to consume, MPC, is defined as the change in

consumption per unit change in income, and likewise, the marginal
propensity to save, MPS, is defined as the change in savings per unit
change in income.
∆C ∆S
MPC = and MPS =
∆Y ∆Y
For the consumption function C = C0 + bY we can derive the MPC, APC,
MPS, and APS.
Since Y = C + S, then 1 = MPC + MPS.

Examples
Examples
Given the consumption function C = 20 + 3Y 0.4 ,
1 Write down the equations for MPC and MPS
2 Write down the equations for APC and APS
3 Verify the inequalities APC > MPC and MPS > APS by comparing
the values of MPC, APC, MPS and APS at Y = 10

Soln
1 Given the consumption function C = 20 + 3Y 0.4 , it follows that
dC 1.2
= (3 × 0.4)Y 0.4−1 = 0.6
MPC =
dY Y
Since 1 = MPC + MPS, then
1.2
MPS = 1 − MPC = 1 − 0.6
Y
2
C C0 bY
APC = = +
Y Y Y
20 3
= + 0.6
Y Y
Since 1 = APC + APS,
20 3
APS = 1 − − 0.6
Y Y
Curve sketching and applications
Sketching curves outlines the general shape of the curve, but it also shows
specific points such as turning points, points of intersection with the axes,
etc. Thus, a business person should be able to take most equations, such
as a total cost function or a function outlining projected company sales,
and determine when costs and sales increase or decrease; when the rate is
increasing or decreasing; whether cost and sales ever reach a maximum or
minimum, etc.

Example
Sketch the following functions over the stated interval.

1
Q = 100 − P 2 , −1<P<10
2
5
AC = , 0<Q<4
Q

Sol’n
1 Plot Q on the vertical, P on the horizontal. This is a polynomial,

therefore there are no problems with discontinuities and we proceed
as follows:
1 Where does the graph cross the axes?
The graph crosses the Q-axis at P = 0, that is, Q = 100. The graph
crosses the P-axis at Q = 0, that is, P 2 = 100, that is, at P = 10 and
P = –10.
2 Find the turning point(s)
Q = 100 − P 2
dQ
= −2P
dP
= 0, when P = 0, Q = 100
d2 (Q)
= −2, Negative
dP 2

Cont...

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Business Mathematics

Course code(MSM 192)

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 1 / 111

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 3 / 111

Find the limit of a function as x approaches a given point.

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 4 / 111

If b is the limit of the function f (x) as x → a we write

Limits describe how a function behaves near a point instead of at the

Limits can be determined graphically or numerically

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 5 / 111

We see that as x → 2 from either side f (x) = 4. The function is never

for some number L, if and only if

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 6 / 111

Limits of Specific Functions

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 7 / 111

Example (Determine if the limit exist for the following)

This limit does not exist.

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 8 / 111

This limit does not exist.

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 9 / 111

Example (Determine if the limit exist for the following)

Exercise: Determine if the limit exist for the following?

Mr Bupe Kolosa (MU) Business Math February 5, 2024 10 / 111

1 lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

2 lim [kf (x)] = k lim f (x)

3 lim [f (x) · g (x)] = limx→a f (x) · lim g (x)

5 lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n

6 The limit of a constant is constant.

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Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number

Apply the laws of limits to evaluate the following;

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We must remember that we cannot divide by zero - it is undefined.

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Limits as x Approaches Infinity

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Continuity of a function at a point

A function f (x) is continuous at a point a iff

Discuss the continuity of the following functions

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Since lim f (x) = f (1), the function f (x) Continuous.

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A function is discontinuous at a point or has a discontinuity at a point if

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Since we can divide out the discontinuity, the function is a removable

hence, this is a non-removable discontinuity.

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Find the removable and non-removable discontinuity of the following

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1 All polynomial function are continuous for all values of x.

2 sin x and cos x are continuous every where.

3 Rational functions are continuous for all values of x, except that

4 ln x is continuous when x > 0.

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