LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY, OJO

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

NAME:
NDOKWU AUSTIN EBUKA

MATRIC NO:
200641254

COURSE CODE:
SOC 401

COURSE TITLE:
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES I

ASSIGNMENT:
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON THE USES OF SOCIOLOGY

LECTURER IN CHARGE
PROF. WAHAB ELIAS
A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society
and social interaction. The word “sociology” is derived from the
Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos(speech
or reason), which together mean “reasoned speech about
companionship”. How can the experience of companionship or
togetherness be put into words or explained? While this is a
starting point for the discipline, sociology is actually much more
complex. It uses many different methods to study a wide range of
subject matter and to apply these studies to the real world.

The sociologist Dorothy Smith (1926 – ) defines the social as the

“ongoing concerting and coordinating of individuals’ activities”
(Smith 1999). Sociology is the systematic study of all those
aspects of life designated by the adjective “social.” These aspects
of social life never simply occur; they are organized processes.
They can be the briefest of everyday interactions—moving to the
right to let someone pass on a busy sidewalk, for example—or the
largest and most enduring interactions—such as the billions of
daily exchanges that constitute the circuits of global capitalism. If
there are at least two people involved, even in the seclusion of
one’s mind, then there is a social interaction that entails the
“ongoing concerting and coordinating of activities.” Why does the
person move to the right on the sidewalk? What collective process
lead to the decision that moving to the right rather than the left is
normal? Think about the T-shirts in your drawer at home. What
are the sequences of linkages and social relationships that link
the T-shirts in your chest of drawers to the dangerous and hyper-
exploitive garment factories in rural China or Bangladesh? These
are the type of questions that point to the unique domain and
puzzles of the social that sociology seeks to explore and
understand.

Sociologists study all aspects and levels of society. A society is a

group of people whose members interact, reside in a definable
area, and share a culture. A culture includes the group’s shared
practices, values, beliefs, norms and artifacts. One sociologist
might analyze video of people from different societies as they
carry on everyday conversations to study the rules of polite
conversation from different world cultures. Another sociologist
might interview a representative sample of people to see how
email and instant messaging have changed the way organizations
are run. Yet another sociologist might study how migration
determined the way in which language spread and changed over
time. A fourth sociologist might study the history of international
agencies like the United Nations or the International Monetary
Fund to examine how the globe became divided into a First World
and a Third World after the end of the colonial era.

These examples illustrate the ways society and culture can be

studied at different levels of analysis, from the detailed study of
face-to-face interactions to the examination of large-scale
historical processes affecting entire civilizations. It is common to
divide these levels of analysis into different gradations based on
the scale of interaction involved. As discussed in later chapters,
sociologists break the study of society down into four separate
levels of analysis: micro, meso, macro, and global. The basic
distinction, however, is between micro-sociology and macro-
sociology.
The study of cultural rules of politeness in conversation is an
example of micro-sociology. At the micro-level of analysis, the
focus is on the social dynamics of intimate, face-to-face
interactions. Research is conducted with a specific set of
individuals such as conversational partners, family members,
work associates, or friendship groups. In the conversation study
example, sociologists might try to determine how people from
different cultures interpret each other’s behaviour to see how
different rules of politeness lead to misunderstandings. If the
same misunderstandings occur consistently in a number of
different interactions, the sociologists may be able to propose
some generalizations about rules of politeness that would be
helpful in reducing tensions in mixed-group dynamics (e.g.,
during staff meetings or international negotiations). Other
examples of micro-level research include seeing how informal
networks become a key source of support and advancement in
formal bureaucracies or how loyalty to criminal gangs is
established.

Macro-sociology focuses on the properties of large-scale, society-

wide social interactions: the dynamics of institutions, classes, or
whole societies. The example above of the influence of migration
on changing patterns of language usage is a macro-level
phenomenon because it refers to structures or processes of social
interaction that occur outside or beyond the intimate circle of
individual social acquaintances. These include the economic and
other circumstances that lead to migration; the educational,
media, and other communication structures that help or hinder
the spread of speech patterns; the class, racial, or ethnic
divisions that create different slangs or cultures of language use;
the relative isolation or integration of different communities
within a population; and so on. Other examples of macro-level
research include examining why women are far less likely than
men to reach positions of power in society or why fundamentalist
Christian religious movements play a more prominent role in
American politics than they do in Canadian politics. In each case,
the site of the analysis shifts away from the nuances and detail of
micro-level interpersonal life to the broader, macro-level
systematic patterns that structure social change and social
cohesion in society.

The Founders of Sociology

Each field of academic study has its own cast of characters, and
sociology is no exception. Although countless individuals have
contributed to sociology's development into a social science,
several individuals deserve special mention.

Auguste Comte

The French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857)—often

called the “father of sociology”—first used the term “sociology” in
1838 to refer to the scientific study of society. He believed that all
societies develop and progress through the following stages:
religious, metaphysical, and scientific. Comte argued that society
needs scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve
its problems—not speculation and superstition, which
characterize the religious and metaphysical stages of social
development. Comte viewed the science of sociology as consisting
of two branches: dynamics, or the study of the processes by
which societies change; and statics, or the study of the processes
by which societies endure. He also envisioned sociologists as
eventually developing a base of scientific social knowledge that
would guide society into positive directions.

Herbert Spencer

The 19th‐century Englishman Herbert Spencer(1820–1903)

compared society to a living organism with interdependent parts.
Change in one part of society causes change in the other parts,
so that every part contributes to the stability and survival of
society as a whole. If one part of society malfunctions, the other
parts must adjust to the crisis and contribute even more to
preserve society. Family, education, government, industry, and
religion comprise just a few of the parts of the “organism” of
society.

Spencer suggested that society will correct its own defects

through the natural process of “survival of the fittest.” The
societal “organism” naturally leans toward homeostasis, or
balance and stability. Social problems work themselves out when
the government leaves society alone. The “fittest”—the rich,
powerful, and successful—enjoy their status because nature has
“selected” them to do so. In contrast, nature has doomed the
“unfit”—the poor, weak, and unsuccessful—to failure. They must
fend for themselves without social assistance if society is to
remain healthy and even progress to higher levels. Governmental
interference in the “natural” order of society weakens society by
wasting the efforts of its leadership in trying to defy the laws of
nature.

Karl Marx

Not everyone has shared Spencer's vision of societal harmony

and stability. Chief among those who disagreed was the German
political philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818–1883), who
observed society's exploitation of the poor by the rich and
powerful. Marx argued that Spencer's healthy societal “organism”
was a falsehood. Rather than interdependence and stability,
Marx claimed that social conflict, especially class conflict, and
competition mark all societies.

The class of capitalists that Marx called

the bourgeoisie particularly enraged him. Members of the
bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the class of
laborers, called the proletariat, who do not own the means of
production. Marx believed that the very natures of the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat inescapably lock the two classes
in conflict. But he then took his ideas of class conflict one step
further: He predicted that the laborers are not selectively “unfit,”
but are destined to overthrow the capitalists. Such a class
revolution would establish a “class‐free” society in which all
people work according to their abilities and receive according to
their needs.

Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that economics, not natural

selection, determines the differences between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat. He further claimed that a society's economic
system decides peoples' norms, values, mores, and religious
beliefs, as well as the nature of the society's political,
governmental, and educational systems. Also unlike Spencer,
Marx urged people to take an active role in changing society
rather than simply trusting it to evolve positively on its own.

Emile Durkheim

Despite their differences, Marx, Spencer, and Comte all

acknowledged the importance of using science to study society,
although none actually used scientific methods. Not until Emile
Durkheim (1858–1917) did a person systematically apply
scientific methods to sociology as a discipline. A French
philosopher and sociologist, Durkheim stressed the importance of
studying social facts, or patterns of behavior characteristic of a
particular group. The phenomenon of suicide especially
interested Durkheim. But he did not limit his ideas on the topic
to mere speculation. Durkheim formulated his conclusions about
the causes of suicide based on the analysis of large amounts of
statistical data collected from various European countries.

Durkheim certainly advocated the use of systematic observation

to study sociological events, but he also recommended that
sociologists avoid considering people's attitudes when explaining
society. Sociologists should only consider as objective “evidence”
what they themselves can directly observe. In other words, they
must not concern themselves with people's subjective
experiences.

Max Weber
The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) disagreed with
the “objective evidence only” position of Durkheim. He argued
that sociologists must also consider people's interpretations of
events—not just the events themselves. Weber believed that
individuals' behaviors cannot exist apart from their
interpretations of the meaning of their own behaviors, and that
people tend to act according to these interpretations. Because of
the ties between objective behavior and subjective interpretation,
Weber believed that sociologists must inquire into people's
thoughts, feelings, and perceptions regarding their own
behaviors. Weber recommended that sociologists adopt his
method of Verstehen (vûrst e hen), or empathetic understanding.
Verstehen allows sociologists to mentally put themselves into “the
other person's shoes” and thus obtain an “interpretive
understanding” of the meanings of individuals' behaviors.

Uses of Sociology
1. Understanding social problems: Sociology helps us
understand the root causes of social problems such as
poverty, inequality, and discrimination. This knowledge can
inform policies and programs aimed at reducing or
eliminating these problems.
2. Developing social policies: Sociologists can use their
research to inform the development of social policies that
promote social justice, equality, and well-being. For
example, sociologists can provide evidence-based
recommendations on how to address issues such as
healthcare access, education, and housing.
3. Promoting cultural awareness: Sociology helps us
understand the diversity of cultures and societies around
the world. This knowledge can promote cross-cultural
understanding and respect, and can inform policies and
programs that celebrate cultural diversity.
4. Improving social services: Sociology can inform the
development of social services that meet the needs of
diverse populations. For example, sociologists can provide
insights into the unique challenges faced by marginalized
communities, and can help develop programs that address
these challenges.
5. Understanding human behavior: Sociology helps us
understand the factors that influence human behavior,
such as social norms, values, and institutions. This
knowledge can be used to improve communication,
collaboration, and cooperation among individuals and
groups.
6. Promoting social justice: Sociology can be used to promote
social justice and equity by identifying and addressing
social inequalities and injustices. For example, sociologists
can study the ways in which race, gender, and class
intersect to create unique challenges for marginalized
communities.
7. Developing business practices: Sociology can inform
business practices by providing insights into consumer
behavior, organizational culture, and workplace dynamics.
This knowledge can help businesses develop more effective
 marketing strategies, improve employee satisfaction and
retention, and promote diversity and inclusion.
8. Informing law enforcement practices: Sociologists can study
the causes and consequences of crime, and the ways in
which social institutions and policies can be used to
prevent and reduce crime. This research can be used to
inform law enforcement practices, to develop crime
prevention programs, and to promote social justice and
equity in the criminal justice system.
9. Promoting global cooperation: Sociology can help us
understand the ways in which globalization is transforming
the social world, and how individuals and communities are
responding to these changes. This knowledge can be used
to promote global cooperation and understanding, and to
develop policies and programs that promote economic and
social development.
10. Informing education programs: Sociology can inform the
development of education programs that meet the needs of
diverse populations. For example, sociologists can provide
insights into the unique challenges faced by students from
marginalized communities, and can help develop programs
that address these challenges.
LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY, OJO
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

NAME:
ANI OGBONNA DESMOND

MATRIC NO:
200641240

COURSE CODE:
SOC 401

COURSE TITLE:
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES I

ASSIGNMENT:
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON THE USES OF SOCIOLOGY

LECTURER IN CHARGE
PROF. WAHAB ELIAS
A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society
and social interaction. The word “sociology” is derived from the
Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos(speech
or reason), which together mean “reasoned speech about
companionship”. How can the experience of companionship or
togetherness be put into words or explained? While this is a
starting point for the discipline, sociology is actually much more
complex. It uses many different methods to study a wide range of
subject matter and to apply these studies to the real world.

The sociologist Dorothy Smith (1926 – ) defines the social as the

“ongoing concerting and coordinating of individuals’ activities”
(Smith 1999). Sociology is the systematic study of all those
aspects of life designated by the adjective “social.” These aspects
of social life never simply occur; they are organized processes.
They can be the briefest of everyday interactions—moving to the
right to let someone pass on a busy sidewalk, for example—or the
largest and most enduring interactions—such as the billions of
daily exchanges that constitute the circuits of global capitalism. If
there are at least two people involved, even in the seclusion of
one’s mind, then there is a social interaction that entails the
“ongoing concerting and coordinating of activities.” Why does the
person move to the right on the sidewalk? What collective process
lead to the decision that moving to the right rather than the left is
normal? Think about the T-shirts in your drawer at home. What
are the sequences of linkages and social relationships that link
the T-shirts in your chest of drawers to the dangerous and hyper-
exploitive garment factories in rural China or Bangladesh? These
are the type of questions that point to the unique domain and
puzzles of the social that sociology seeks to explore and
understand.

Sociologists study all aspects and levels of society. A society is a

group of people whose members interact, reside in a definable
area, and share a culture. A culture includes the group’s shared
practices, values, beliefs, norms and artifacts. One sociologist
might analyze video of people from different societies as they
carry on everyday conversations to study the rules of polite
conversation from different world cultures. Another sociologist
might interview a representative sample of people to see how
email and instant messaging have changed the way organizations
are run. Yet another sociologist might study how migration
determined the way in which language spread and changed over
time. A fourth sociologist might study the history of international
agencies like the United Nations or the International Monetary
Fund to examine how the globe became divided into a First World
and a Third World after the end of the colonial era.

These examples illustrate the ways society and culture can be

studied at different levels of analysis, from the detailed study of
face-to-face interactions to the examination of large-scale
historical processes affecting entire civilizations. It is common to
divide these levels of analysis into different gradations based on
the scale of interaction involved. As discussed in later chapters,
sociologists break the study of society down into four separate
levels of analysis: micro, meso, macro, and global. The basic
distinction, however, is between micro-sociology and macro-
sociology.
The study of cultural rules of politeness in conversation is an
example of micro-sociology. At the micro-level of analysis, the
focus is on the social dynamics of intimate, face-to-face
interactions. Research is conducted with a specific set of
individuals such as conversational partners, family members,
work associates, or friendship groups. In the conversation study
example, sociologists might try to determine how people from
different cultures interpret each other’s behaviour to see how
different rules of politeness lead to misunderstandings. If the
same misunderstandings occur consistently in a number of
different interactions, the sociologists may be able to propose
some generalizations about rules of politeness that would be
helpful in reducing tensions in mixed-group dynamics (e.g.,
during staff meetings or international negotiations). Other
examples of micro-level research include seeing how informal
networks become a key source of support and advancement in
formal bureaucracies or how loyalty to criminal gangs is
established.

Macro-sociology focuses on the properties of large-scale, society-

wide social interactions: the dynamics of institutions, classes, or
whole societies. The example above of the influence of migration
on changing patterns of language usage is a macro-level
phenomenon because it refers to structures or processes of social
interaction that occur outside or beyond the intimate circle of
individual social acquaintances. These include the economic and
other circumstances that lead to migration; the educational,
media, and other communication structures that help or hinder
the spread of speech patterns; the class, racial, or ethnic
divisions that create different slangs or cultures of language use;
the relative isolation or integration of different communities
within a population; and so on. Other examples of macro-level
research include examining why women are far less likely than
men to reach positions of power in society or why fundamentalist
Christian religious movements play a more prominent role in
American politics than they do in Canadian politics. In each case,
the site of the analysis shifts away from the nuances and detail of
micro-level interpersonal life to the broader, macro-level
systematic patterns that structure social change and social
cohesion in society.

The Founders of Sociology

Each field of academic study has its own cast of characters, and
sociology is no exception. Although countless individuals have
contributed to sociology's development into a social science,
several individuals deserve special mention.

Auguste Comte

The French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857)—often

called the “father of sociology”—first used the term “sociology” in
1838 to refer to the scientific study of society. He believed that all
societies develop and progress through the following stages:
religious, metaphysical, and scientific. Comte argued that society
needs scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve
its problems—not speculation and superstition, which
characterize the religious and metaphysical stages of social
development. Comte viewed the science of sociology as consisting
of two branches: dynamics, or the study of the processes by
which societies change; and statics, or the study of the processes
by which societies endure. He also envisioned sociologists as
eventually developing a base of scientific social knowledge that
would guide society into positive directions.

Herbert Spencer

The 19th‐century Englishman Herbert Spencer(1820–1903)

compared society to a living organism with interdependent parts.
Change in one part of society causes change in the other parts,
so that every part contributes to the stability and survival of
society as a whole. If one part of society malfunctions, the other
parts must adjust to the crisis and contribute even more to
preserve society. Family, education, government, industry, and
religion comprise just a few of the parts of the “organism” of
society.

Spencer suggested that society will correct its own defects

through the natural process of “survival of the fittest.” The
societal “organism” naturally leans toward homeostasis, or
balance and stability. Social problems work themselves out when
the government leaves society alone. The “fittest”—the rich,
powerful, and successful—enjoy their status because nature has
“selected” them to do so. In contrast, nature has doomed the
“unfit”—the poor, weak, and unsuccessful—to failure. They must
fend for themselves without social assistance if society is to
remain healthy and even progress to higher levels. Governmental
interference in the “natural” order of society weakens society by
wasting the efforts of its leadership in trying to defy the laws of
nature.

Karl Marx

Not everyone has shared Spencer's vision of societal harmony

and stability. Chief among those who disagreed was the German
political philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818–1883), who
observed society's exploitation of the poor by the rich and
powerful. Marx argued that Spencer's healthy societal “organism”
was a falsehood. Rather than interdependence and stability,
Marx claimed that social conflict, especially class conflict, and
competition mark all societies.

The class of capitalists that Marx called

the bourgeoisie particularly enraged him. Members of the
bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the class of
laborers, called the proletariat, who do not own the means of
production. Marx believed that the very natures of the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat inescapably lock the two classes
in conflict. But he then took his ideas of class conflict one step
further: He predicted that the laborers are not selectively “unfit,”
but are destined to overthrow the capitalists. Such a class
revolution would establish a “class‐free” society in which all
people work according to their abilities and receive according to
their needs.

Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that economics, not natural

selection, determines the differences between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat. He further claimed that a society's economic
system decides peoples' norms, values, mores, and religious
beliefs, as well as the nature of the society's political,
governmental, and educational systems. Also unlike Spencer,
Marx urged people to take an active role in changing society
rather than simply trusting it to evolve positively on its own.

Emile Durkheim

Despite their differences, Marx, Spencer, and Comte all

acknowledged the importance of using science to study society,
although none actually used scientific methods. Not until Emile
Durkheim (1858–1917) did a person systematically apply
scientific methods to sociology as a discipline. A French
philosopher and sociologist, Durkheim stressed the importance of
studying social facts, or patterns of behavior characteristic of a
particular group. The phenomenon of suicide especially
interested Durkheim. But he did not limit his ideas on the topic
to mere speculation. Durkheim formulated his conclusions about
the causes of suicide based on the analysis of large amounts of
statistical data collected from various European countries.

Durkheim certainly advocated the use of systematic observation

to study sociological events, but he also recommended that
sociologists avoid considering people's attitudes when explaining
society. Sociologists should only consider as objective “evidence”
what they themselves can directly observe. In other words, they
must not concern themselves with people's subjective
experiences.

Max Weber
The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) disagreed with
the “objective evidence only” position of Durkheim. He argued
that sociologists must also consider people's interpretations of
events—not just the events themselves. Weber believed that
individuals' behaviors cannot exist apart from their
interpretations of the meaning of their own behaviors, and that
people tend to act according to these interpretations. Because of
the ties between objective behavior and subjective interpretation,
Weber believed that sociologists must inquire into people's
thoughts, feelings, and perceptions regarding their own
behaviors. Weber recommended that sociologists adopt his
method of Verstehen (vûrst e hen), or empathetic understanding.
Verstehen allows sociologists to mentally put themselves into “the
other person's shoes” and thus obtain an “interpretive
understanding” of the meanings of individuals' behaviors.

Uses of Sociology
11. Understanding social problems: Sociology helps us
understand the root causes of social problems such as
poverty, inequality, and discrimination. This knowledge can
inform policies and programs aimed at reducing or
eliminating these problems.
12. Developing social policies: Sociologists can use their
research to inform the development of social policies that
promote social justice, equality, and well-being. For
example, sociologists can provide evidence-based
recommendations on how to address issues such as
healthcare access, education, and housing.
13. Promoting cultural awareness: Sociology helps us
understand the diversity of cultures and societies around
the world. This knowledge can promote cross-cultural
understanding and respect, and can inform policies and
programs that celebrate cultural diversity.
14. Improving social services: Sociology can inform the
development of social services that meet the needs of
diverse populations. For example, sociologists can provide
insights into the unique challenges faced by marginalized
communities, and can help develop programs that address
these challenges.
15. Understanding human behavior: Sociology helps us
understand the factors that influence human behavior,
such as social norms, values, and institutions. This
knowledge can be used to improve communication,
collaboration, and cooperation among individuals and
groups.
16. Promoting social justice: Sociology can be used to promote
social justice and equity by identifying and addressing
social inequalities and injustices. For example, sociologists
can study the ways in which race, gender, and class
intersect to create unique challenges for marginalized
communities.
17. Developing business practices: Sociology can inform
business practices by providing insights into consumer
behavior, organizational culture, and workplace dynamics.
This knowledge can help businesses develop more effective
 marketing strategies, improve employee satisfaction and
retention, and promote diversity and inclusion.
18. Informing law enforcement practices: Sociologists can study
the causes and consequences of crime, and the ways in
which social institutions and policies can be used to
prevent and reduce crime. This research can be used to
inform law enforcement practices, to develop crime
prevention programs, and to promote social justice and
equity in the criminal justice system.
19. Promoting global cooperation: Sociology can help us
understand the ways in which globalization is transforming
the social world, and how individuals and communities are
responding to these changes. This knowledge can be used
to promote global cooperation and understanding, and to
develop policies and programs that promote economic and
social development.
20. Informing education programs: Sociology can inform the
development of education programs that meet the needs of
diverse populations. For example, sociologists can provide
insights into the unique challenges faced by students from
marginalized communities, and can help develop programs
that address these challenges.
LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY, OJO
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

NAME:
ADEBIMPE GBOLAHAN TOHEEB

MATRIC NO:
200641238

COURSE CODE:
SOC 401

COURSE TITLE:
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES I

ASSIGNMENT:
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON THE USES OF SOCIOLOGY

LECTURER IN CHARGE
PROF. WAHAB ELIAS
Sociology is a social science that emerged in the 19th century as a response to

the profound social changes and upheavals brought about by the industrial

revolution and the Enlightenment era. It seeks to understand and explain human

behavior, social interactions, and the structures that shape society. Sociology is a

diverse and dynamic field that encompasses various theoretical perspectives and

research methodologies.

The sociologist Dorothy Smith (1926 – ) defines the social as the “ongoing

concerting and coordinating of individuals’ activities” (Smith 1999). Sociology

is the systematic study of all those aspects of life designated by the adjective

“social.” These aspects of social life never simply occur; they are organized

processes. They can be the briefest of everyday interactions—moving to the

right to let someone pass on a busy sidewalk, for example—or the largest and

most enduring interactions—such as the billions of daily exchanges that

constitute the circuits of global capitalism. If there are at least two people

involved, even in the seclusion of one’s mind, then there is a social interaction

that entails the “ongoing concerting and coordinating of activities.” Why does

the person move to the right on the sidewalk? What collective process lead to

the decision that moving to the right rather than the left is normal? Think about

the T-shirts in your drawer at home. What are the sequences of linkages and

social relationships that link the T-shirts in your chest of drawers to the

dangerous and hyper-exploitive garment factories in rural China or Bangladesh?

These are the type of questions that point to the unique domain and puzzles of

the social that sociology seeks to explore and understand.

Sociologists study all aspects and levels of society. A society is a group of

people whose members interact, reside in a definable area, and share a culture.

A culture includes the group’s shared practices, values, beliefs, norms and

artifacts. One sociologist might analyze video of people from different societies

as they carry on everyday conversations to study the rules of polite conversation

from different world cultures. Another sociologist might interview a

representative sample of people to see how email and instant messaging have

changed the way organizations are run. Yet another sociologist might study how

migration determined the way in which language spread and changed over time.

A fourth sociologist might study the history of international agencies like the

United Nations or the International Monetary Fund to examine how the globe

became divided into a First World and a Third World after the end of the

colonial era.

These examples illustrate the ways society and culture can be studied at

different levels of analysis, from the detailed study of face-to-face interactions

to the examination of large-scale historical processes affecting entire

civilizations. It is common to divide these levels of analysis into different

gradations based on the scale of interaction involved. As discussed in later

chapters, sociologists break the study of society down into four separate levels
of analysis: micro, meso, macro, and global. The basic distinction, however, is

between micro-sociology and macro-sociology.

The study of cultural rules of politeness in conversation is an example of micro-

sociology. At the micro-level of analysis, the focus is on the social dynamics of

intimate, face-to-face interactions. Research is conducted with a specific set of

individuals such as conversational partners, family members, work associates,

or friendship groups. In the conversation study example, sociologists might try

to determine how people from different cultures interpret each other’s behaviour

to see how different rules of politeness lead to misunderstandings. If the same

misunderstandings occur consistently in a number of different interactions, the

sociologists may be able to propose some generalizations about rules of

politeness that would be helpful in reducing tensions in mixed-group dynamics

(e.g., during staff meetings or international negotiations). Other examples of

micro-level research include seeing how informal networks become a key

source of support and advancement in formal bureaucracies or how loyalty to

criminal gangs is established.

Macro-sociology focuses on the properties of large-scale, society-wide social

interactions: the dynamics of institutions, classes, or whole societies. The

example above of the influence of migration on changing patterns of language

usage is a macro-level phenomenon because it refers to structures or processes

of social interaction that occur outside or beyond the intimate circle of

individual social acquaintances. These include the economic and other

circumstances that lead to migration; the educational, media, and other

communication structures that help or hinder the spread of speech patterns; the

class, racial, or ethnic divisions that create different slangs or cultures of

language use; the relative isolation or integration of different communities

within a population; and so on. Other examples of macro-level research include

examining why women are far less likely than men to reach positions of power

in society or why fundamentalist Christian religious movements play a more

prominent role in American politics than they do in Canadian politics. In each

case, the site of the analysis shifts away from the nuances and detail of micro-

level interpersonal life to the broader, macro-level systematic patterns that

structure social change and social cohesion in society.

The founders of sociology are pioneering thinkers who laid the groundwork for

the discipline and significantly influenced its development. Some of the key

founders of sociology include:

Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Often regarded as the "father of sociology,"

Comte coined the term "sociology" and emphasized the scientific study of

society. He believed that society could be studied using the same scientific

methods as the natural sciences.

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917): Durkheim is considered one of the founding

fathers of modern sociology. He focused on the study of social facts, social

solidarity, and the impact of social forces on individual behavior. His work laid

the foundation for the study of social institutions and collective consciousness.

Karl Marx (1818-1883): Marx was a philosopher, economist, and sociologist

who is best known for his theory of historical materialism and his analysis of

class struggle. His ideas formed the basis of conflict theory, which examines

how social inequality and power dynamics shape society.

Max Weber (1864-1920): Weber made significant contributions to sociology

through his works on social action, bureaucracy, and the sociology of religion.

He emphasized the role of culture, ideas, and values in shaping social behavior.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876): Martineau was a British sociologist and one

of the earliest feminist social scientists. She translated and popularized Comte's

works and conducted her own sociological research, advocating for social

equality and the rights of women.

Georg Simmel (1858-1918): Simmel was a German sociologist known for his

microsociological approach, emphasizing the significance of individual

interactions and the role of money and exchange in social life.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963): Du Bois was a prominent African American

sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist. His work focused on race

relations and the experiences of African Americans in the United States.

These founders, along with many other early sociologists, established sociology

as a legitimate academic discipline with its own theories, methods, and areas of

inquiry. Their ideas continue to shape sociological thinking today, and

contemporary sociologists build upon their foundational work to explore and

understand the complexities of modern society. Sociology remains a vibrant and

essential field of study, addressing current social challenges and contributing to

the betterment of society through empirical research and critical analysis.

USES OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is a scientific discipline that explores human society, social

interactions, and the ways in which individuals are influenced by and influence

the larger social structures they are a part of. It seeks to understand the

complexities of human behavior and the social forces that shape our lives.

Sociology encompasses a wide range of topics, including social institutions,

social change, culture, inequality, deviance, globalization, and much more.

The primary goal of sociology is to gain knowledge and insights into human

behavior and social dynamics, and this knowledge has numerous applications

and uses in various areas of society:

1. Understanding Social Issues: One of the central uses of sociology is in

examining and understanding social issues. Sociologists investigate

problems like poverty, crime, substance abuse, racial discrimination, and

gender inequality, helping society comprehend the root causes and

potential solutions to these challenges.

2. Policy Development: Sociological research and analysis play a critical role

in informing public policies. Policymakers rely on sociological evidence to

 develop effective strategies for addressing social problems and improving

the well-being of communities and individuals.

3. Social Justice and Advocacy: Sociology contributes to social justice

initiatives by identifying and addressing social inequalities and advocating

for the rights and opportunities of marginalized and disadvantaged groups.

4. Community Development: Sociologists work with communities to

understand their needs, strengths, and weaknesses. This knowledge helps

develop community-based programs and interventions that address specific

issues and foster positive social change.

5. Market Research: Sociological insights into consumer behavior,

preferences, and cultural trends are valuable for businesses and marketers

in understanding their target audiences and developing successful products

and marketing strategies.

6. Organizational Behavior: Sociology offers valuable knowledge about

group dynamics, organizational culture, and workplace interactions, which

can be applied to improve teamwork, leadership, and organizational

effectiveness.

7. Social Work: Sociologists contribute to social work by understanding the

complexities of individual and family issues within the larger social

context. This knowledge helps social workers design appropriate

interventions and support systems.

8. Education: Sociology plays a role in the field of education by exploring

the impact of social factors on learning and academic achievement. It

informs educational policies and practices to create inclusive and

supportive learning environments.

9. Health Services: Sociological research provides insights into health

behaviors, healthcare access, and disparities, aiding in the development of

public health initiatives and healthcare policies.

10. Urban Planning: Sociologists' understanding of community dynamics and

social needs informs urban planning, contributing to the development of

sustainable and inclusive urban environments.

11. Media and Communication: Sociological perspectives are applied to

analyze media representations, audience behavior, and the influence of

mass media on culture and society.

12. Environmental Studies: Sociology contributes to environmental studies

by examining how social factors impact environmental attitudes, behaviors,

and policies.

13. Family and Relationships: Sociological research sheds light on family

dynamics, marriage, divorce, and parenting, contributing to family

counseling and support services.

14. Cultural Understanding: Sociology helps individuals develop a deeper

understanding of cultural diversity, fostering tolerance and respect for

different cultures and traditions.

15. Social Movements: Sociologists study social movements and activism,

providing insights into their causes, dynamics, and effects on society.

16. Promoting cultural awareness: Sociology helps us understand the

diversity of cultures and societies around the world. This knowledge can

promote cross-cultural understanding and respect, and can inform policies

and programs that celebrate cultural diversity.

17. Improving social services: Sociology can inform the development of

social services that meet the needs of diverse populations. For example,

sociologists can provide insights into the unique challenges faced by

marginalized communities, and can help develop programs that address

these challenges.

18. Understanding human behavior: Sociology helps us understand the

factors that influence human behavior, such as social norms, values, and

institutions. This knowledge can be used to improve communication,

collaboration, and cooperation among individuals and groups.

19. Developing business practices: Sociology can inform business practices

by providing insights into consumer behavior, organizational culture, and

workplace dynamics. This knowledge can help businesses develop more

effective marketing strategies, improve employee satisfaction and

retention, and promote diversity and inclusion.

20. Informing law enforcement practices: Sociologists can study the causes

and consequences of crime, and the ways in which social institutions and
 policies can be used to prevent and reduce crime. This research can be used

to inform law enforcement practices, to develop crime prevention

programs, and to promote social justice and equity in the criminal justice

system.

21. Promoting global cooperation: Sociology can help us understand the

ways in which globalization is transforming the social world, and how

individuals and communities are responding to these changes. This

knowledge can be used to promote global cooperation and understanding,

and to develop policies and programs that promote economic and social

development.