MT 232 Foundry and Casting Week6 8

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
MT 232: Foundry and

Casting
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
ENGR. ARNEL P. VILLANUEVA
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates
of the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………. II
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………….. III
Course Description………………………………………………………………. IV
Course Outcomes………………………………………………………… IV
General Guidelines/Class Rules………………………………………….. IV
Grading System…………………………………………………………… V
Learning Guide (Week No. 6) ……………………………………………. 1
Topic: Casting Processes: Shell Molding, Plaster Mold Casting,
Ceramic Mold Casting, Investment and Lost Wax Casting... 1
Expected Competencies…………………………………………… 1
Content/Technical Information……………………………………. 1
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………. 11
References…………………………………………………………. 14
Topic: Casting Defects: Causes and Remedies..………………….. 15
Content/Technical Information …………………………………… 15
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………. 26
References…………………………………………………………. 29
Topic: Casting Processes: Permanent Casting:
Die (Hot & Cold Chamber Process)& Centrifugal....30
Content/Technical Information……………………………………. 30
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………. 35
References…………………………………………………………. 36
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
This subject is about metal casting of different metals and alloys. It includes the design
of the mold, the kinds of process employed, the solidification of metal, the different
defects, pattern design making and the significance of sand mixture quality.
COURSE OUTCOMES
1. Understand the basic principles of metal casting.

2. Discuss the different metal casting and their appropriate usages.
3. Demonstrate the knowledge gained by making a metal cast design.
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Ask questions
2. Respect and listen to your classmates
3. Respect and listen to the teacher
4. Raise your hand to speak
5. Be prepared for class
6. Be quiet when the teacher is talking
7. Be quiet when classmates are talking
8. Share new ideas
9. Keep your hands to yourself
10. Respect others’ property
11. Keep your workspace tidy
12. Be kind
13. Always do your best
14. Walk, don’t run, in the hallways
15. Be a good friend
16. Be on time
17. Share with others
18. Use equipment properly
19. Help keep the classroom tidy
20. Listen to all the teachers
21. Obey all school rules
22. Finish your homework on time
23. Be respectful of classmates who are working
24. Have a good attitude
25. Use positive language
26. Follow the dress code
27. Line up neatly and quietly
28. Stay in your seat
29. Listen with your ears and your eyes
30. Contribute to discussions
31. Be respectful of others’ ideas
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32. Follow the teacher’s directions the first time they are given
33. Cooperate with your classmates
34. Be creative
35. Be honest
36. Use technology appropriately
37. Be proud of your work
GRADING SYSTEM
A. Weekly Assessment (70%)

1. Attendance
2. Quizzes
3. Laboratory
4. Reports
5. Recitation
6. Board work / Seatwork
7. Others
B. Term Examination (30%)

1. Mid-Term Exam
2. End-Term Exam
C. Grading Calculation
Mid-Term Grade: (Weekly Assessment from Wk. 1 to 6)x 0.70 + (MTE x 0.30)
End-Term Grade: (Weekly Assessment from Wk. 8 to13)x 0.70 + (ETE x 0.30)
Grade for the Subject: (Mid-term Grade + End-term Grade) / 2
The Passing Grade for this course is 5.0.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __6__
TOPIC/S
Casting Processes (continues..)

Shell Mold Casting, Plaster Mold Casting, Ceramic Mold Casting,
Investment Casting and Lost Wax Casting
EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
Understand the method of metal casting.

Understand the type of metal casting.
Classification of material use in each different principle or method in casting.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Shell Mold Casting
Shell mold casting or shell molding is a metal casting process in manufacturing industry in
which the mold is a thin hardened shell of sand and thermosetting resin binder, backed up by
some other material. Shell molding was developed as a manufacturing process during the mid-
20th century in Germany. Shell mold casting is particularly suitable for steel castings under 20
lbs; however almost any metal that can be cast in sand can be cast with the shell molding
process. Also much larger parts have been manufactured with shell molding. Typical parts
manufactured in industry using the shell mold casting process include cylinder heads, gears,
bushings, connecting rods, camshafts and valve bodies.
(Source:
https://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/shell_mold_casting.htmlhttps://thelibraryofmanufactur
ing.com/shell_mold_casting.html)
Shell molding process

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_molding )
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Step Process of Shell Mold Casting

(Source: https://monroeengineering.com/blog/the-6-step-process-of-shell-molding/ )
1. Creating the Pattern

The first step in shell mold casting is to create the pattern. The patterns used in this molding
process typically consist of two pieces of metal, such as iron or steel, in a custom shape as
desired for the finished casting.
The first step in shell mold casting is to create the pattern. The patterns used in this molding
process typically consist of two pieces of metal, such as iron or steel, in a custom shape as
desired for the finished casting.
2. Creating the Mold

After the pattern has been created, a mold is created. During this step, both of the pattern parts
are heated and then treated with a lubricant. The pattern parts are then inserted into a large
container, known as a dump box that contains the resin-covered sand. Once inserted into the
dump box, the pattern parts themselves will become covered in the sand.
3. Assembly of Pattern Parts

Now it’s time to assemble the pattern parts. During this step, the top and bottom pieces of the
pattern are joined together. Depending on the type of pattern, it may feature a locking
mechanism that holds the two pieces together. Once fully secured, they are then inserted into a
flask. Here, they’ll be exposed to molten metal, which is the proceeding step after the pattern
parts have been assembled.
4. Exposure to Molten Metal

The fourth step in the shell mold casting process pouring molten metal into the mold’s cavity.
Different types of metals and alloys can be used in this molding process, including steel and
iron. Regardless, the metal or alloy is heated until it turns to a liquid state, after which the
molten metal is poured into the mold’s cavity to form of a hardened shell.
5. Wait to Cool
The molten metal must cool before it will create a hardened shell and, thus, the casting.
Typically, the pattern parts are allowed to cool at room temperature. As the pattern parts cool,
the molten metal will harden to create a shell.
6. Ejecting the Casting

The sixth and final step in the shell mold casting process is ejecting the casting from the mold’s
cavity. Because this casting process uses a two-pieced pattern, castings are easily ejected by
“opening” the pattern. The top and bottom pattern parts are separated from each other, at which
point the newly created casting can be safely ejected.
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YouTube: “Animation of the Shell Molding Process”.

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VV17WRyY_uQ)
YouTube: “Prototype Shell Molding”

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7mNoLA2e18)
Plaster
Plaster mold casting is a metalworking casting process similar to sand casting except
the molding material is plaster of Paris instead of sand. Like sand casting, plaster mold
casting is an expendable mold process, however it can only be used with non-ferrous materials.
(Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaster_mold_casting#:~:text=Plaster%20mold%20casting%20i
s%20a,used%20with%20non%2Dferrous%20materials. )
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The Process
Initially plaster of Paris is mixed with water just like in the first step of the formation of any
plaster part. In the next step of the manufacture of a plaster casting mold, the plaster of Paris
and water are then mixed with various additives such as talc and silica flour. The additives
serve to control the setting time of the plaster and improve its strength.
The plaster of Paris mixture is then poured over the casting pattern. The slurry must sit for
about 20 minutes before it sets enough to remove the pattern. The pattern used for this type of
metal casting manufacture should be made from plastic or metal. Since it will experience
prolonged exposure to water from the plaster mix, wood casting patterns have a tendency to
warp. After striping the pattern, the mold must be baked for several hours, to remove the
moisture and become hard enough to pour the metal casting. The two halves of the mold are
then assembled for the casting process.
YouTube: “Plaster and Bronze Casting”

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ItwmJMigqCQ)
Ceramic
Ceramic mold casting, also known ambiguously as ceramic molding, is a group of metal casting
processes that use ceramics as the mold material. It is a combination of plaster mold casting
and investment casting. There are two types of ceramic mold casting: the Shaw process and the
Unicast process.
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_mold_casting )
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Ceramic mould casting

(Source: https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-
technology/manupedia/ceramic-mould-casting )
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How to Cast a Ceramic mold

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tt9zRWcuqsw )
Investment casting
Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known
metal-forming techniques. The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment
casting processes. Investment casting has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years.
Advantages of Investment Casting

 Smooth Finish. Investment casting uses a ceramic mold that can produce a much
smoother finish, typically averaging 125 RA (Roughness Average) surface finish as
cast.
 Faster Production.
 Tight Tolerances
 Affordable Tooling
 Vast Size Range
 Material Variety
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Surface Texture of Investment Castings

(Source: https://www.ofalloncasting.com/articles/surface-texture-investment-castings )
Investment casting process

(Source: https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-casting )
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Investment Casting Process

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVsJlWEzZY8 )
Lost wax casting
Lost-wax casting is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture is cast from an original
sculpture. Intricate works can be achieved by this method. The oldest known example of this
technique is a 6,000-year old amulet from Indus Valley Civilization.
Microcrystalline wax is pliable and slightly sticky. It is medium soft and has a smaller crystal
structure than beeswax or paraffin. Derived from petroleum, this is one of the most common
waxes used by lost wax casting jewelry sculptors.
Disadvantage of Lost-Wax Molding:

1. This process limits the larger objects due to equipment size limits,
2. The cost of equipment and process is high.
Process
1. Model-making. An artist or mould-maker creates an original model from wax, clay, or
another material. Wax and oil-based clay are often preferred because these materials
retain their softness.
2. Mouldmaking. A mould is made of the original model or sculpture. The rigid outer
moulds contain the softer inner mould, which is the exact negative of the original
model. Inner moulds are usually made of latex, polyurethane rubber or silicone, which
is supported by the outer mould. The outer mould can be made from plaster, but can
also be made of fiberglass or other materials. Most moulds are made of at least two
pieces, and a shim with keys is placed between the parts during construction so that the
mould can be put back together accurately. If there are long, thin pieces extending out
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of the model, they are often cut off of the original and moulded separately. Sometimes
many moulds are needed to recreate the original model, especially for large models.
3. Wax. Once the mould is finished, molten wax is poured into it and swished around until
an even coating, usually about 3 mm (1⁄8 inch) thick, covers the inner surface of the
mould. This is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. Another method is to fill
the entire mould with molten wax and let it cool until a desired thickness has set on the
surface of the mould. After this the rest of the wax is poured out again, the mould is
turned upside down and the wax layer is left to cool and harden. With this method it is
more difficult to control the overall thickness of the wax layer.
4. Removal of wax. This hollow wax copy of the original model is removed from the
mould. The model-maker may reuse the mould to make multiple copies, limited only
by the durability of the mould.
5. Chasing. Each hollow wax copy is then "chased": a heated metal tool is used to rub out
the marks that show the parting line or flashing where the pieces of the mould came
together. The wax is dressed to hide any imperfections. The wax now looks like the
finished piece. Wax pieces that were moulded separately can now be heated and
attached; foundries often use registration marks to indicate exactly where they go.
6. Spruing. The wax copy is sprued with a treelike structure of wax that will eventually
provide paths for the molten casting material to flow and for air to escape. The carefully
planned spruing usually begins at the top with a wax "cup," which is attached by wax
cylinders to various points on the wax copy. The spruing does not have to be hollow,
as it will be melted out later in the process.
7. Slurry. A sprued wax copy is dipped into a slurry of silica, then into a sand-like stucco,
or dry crystalline silica of a controlled grain size. The slurry and grit combination is
called ceramic shell mould material, although it is not literally made of ceramic. This
shell is allowed to dry, and the process is repeated until at least a half-inch coating
covers the entire piece. The bigger the piece, the thicker the shell needs to be. Only the
inside of the cup is not coated, and the cup's flat top serves as the base upon which the
piece stands during this process. The core is also filled with fire-proof material.
8. Burnout. The ceramic shell-coated piece is placed cup-down in a kiln, whose heat
hardens the silica coatings into a shell, and the wax melts and runs out. The melted wax
can be recovered and reused, although it is often simply burned up. Now all that
remains of the original artwork is the negative space formerly occupied by the wax,
inside the hardened ceramic shell. The feeder, vent tubes and cup are also now hollow.
9. Testing. The ceramic shell is allowed to cool, then is tested to see if water will flow
freely through the feeder and vent tubes. Cracks or leaks can be patched with thick
refractory paste. To test the thickness, holes can be drilled into the shell, then patched.
10. Pouring. The shell is reheated in the kiln to harden the patches and remove all traces
of moisture, then placed cup-upwards into a tub filled with sand. Metal is melted in
a crucible in a furnace, then poured carefully into the shell. The shell has to be hot
because otherwise the temperature difference would shatter it. The filled shells are then
allowed to cool.
11. Release. The shell is hammered or sand-blasted away, releasing the rough casting. The
sprues, which are also faithfully recreated in metal, are cut off, the material to be reused
in another casting.
12. Metal-chasing. Just as the wax copies were chased, the casting is worked until the
telltale signs of the casting process are removed, so that the casting now looks like the
original model. Pits left by air bubbles in the casting and the stubs of the spruing are
filed down and polished.
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LAMOTHERMIC - Lost Wax Castings

(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FS0uM3OC76I )
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PROGRESS CHECK
Discuss the following question. Write your answer on the blank space provided.
1. What is shell pattern?

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. What is the difference between sand mold and shell mold casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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_____________________________________________
3. Which type of sand is used in shell molding?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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_____________________________________________
4. Which is the most widely used resin in shell molding?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
5. What type of plaster is used for casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
6. What is casting plaster used for?
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_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
7. What does plaster mean?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
8. What are the types of plaster?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
9. What is made by investment casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
10. What are the advantages of investment casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
11. Why is investment casting used?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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12. How is lost wax casting done?

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
13. What is lost wax casting used for?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
14. What wax is used for lost wax casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
15. What is a major disadvantage of the lost wax casting process?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
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REFERENCES
Textbook/s :
Internet Reference(s):
https://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/shell_mold_casting.htmlhttps://thelibraryofmanufactur
ing.com/shell_mold_casting.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_molding
https://monroeengineering.com/blog/the-6-step-process-of-shell-molding/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaster_mold_casting#:~:text=Plaster%20mold%20casting%20i
s%20a,used%20with%20non%2Dferrous%20materials.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_mold_casting
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-
technology/manupedia/ceramic-mould-casting
https://www.ofalloncasting.com/articles/surface-texture-investment-castings
https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-casting
15
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __7__
TOPIC/S
Casting Defects: Causes and Remedies
To understand the causes of defects in different method of metal casting.

To give solution or remedies that causes of defects in metal casting.
Can identify or evaluate what causes of defects and recommend a remedies.
Casting defects
A casting defect is an undesired irregularity in a metal casting process. Some defects can be
tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated.
Types of Casting Defects

(Source: https://mineralmilling.com/types-of-casting-defects-in-sand-casting/ )
Sand casting is an efficient and economical process of producing geometrically complex

components and shapes using non-reusable molds. It is an efficient and cost-effective method
that is often plagued by defects when improperly done, just like with any other manufacturing
process. Its flaws are called casting defects.
Casting defects are characteristics that create an imperfection or deficiency to the quality
specification set by service requirement and design. They are usually caused by imperfections
in the sand-casting process and sand used for mold preparation.
Blow-holes
This is perhaps the most common defect in the sand-casting process. Generally, blow-holes are
usually in the form of internal voids, which may be round, smooth, or oval holes with a shiny
surface. They are surface depressions resulting from excessive gaseous materials which are
entrapped in the mold.
In most cases, it is caused by hard ramming, low permeability, excessive moisture, improper
venting, low permeability, low temperature of the mold, and excessive carbonaceous materials.
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It may also be caused by core-box arrangements and bad patterns, ultimately leading to
entrapped gases in blind places in the mold.
Possible causes
 Poor venting core of mould
 Excessive release of gas permissibility
 Excessive moisture absorption by the cores
 Low pouring temperature while casting
Remedies
 Improve venting core of mould,
 Provide venting channels,
 Reduce amounts of gas. Use slow-reacting binder
 Reduce quantity of binder.
 Use a coarser sand if necessary.
 Slowing down the heating rate and reducing gas pressure.
 Reducing absorption of water.
Swell
Swell occurs when there is an enlargement of the mold cavity when the molten iron is poured
into the mold. It is often caused either by insufficient ramming of the sand used or pouring the
molten iron too rapidly into the mold.
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Hot-tears
These are cracks with ragged edges caused by tensile stresses developed during the
solidification of the molten material placed in the mold. Additionally, it may also be caused
by the discontinuity in the metal casting, an occurrence traced to a hindered contraction
occurring just after the solidification of the metals.
In some cases, excessive mold hardness from ramming, improper metallurgical and pouring
temperature controls, provision of insufficient fillets or brackets at the junctions of sections,
and high dry and hot strength have been identified as possible causes.
Honey-combing
This is an external defect usually visible at the surface of the cast material. It comprises of a
host of cavities close to each other at the surface. It is attributed to dirt trapped in the molten
iron or swarm held in it. It can also be caused by the poor quality of the molten metal and
imperfect skimming.
Sand Spots
As the name suggests, they are developed as a result of impurities collected at one or several
vertices developed in the cast material. They appear as irregularly shaped depression usually
clustered on the casting or spaced randomly.
18
They occur when the molten iron washes particles from the runner system through the mold
walls, excess turbulence in the gating system, through the spurting of metal and into the mold.
Sand spots can be prevented by making use of proper molding, melting, and gating techniques.
Scabs or Buckles
Scabs or buckles can be attributed to sand shearing at the cope surface, hence, resulting in a
layer of metal being separated from the main cast by a layer of sand.
The term used to describe the sand shearing when it occurs in small proportions is “scabs”
while the term for defects on a larger scale are referred to as “buckles”
The defect is mostly caused by the use of sands that are too fine in texture, have low
permeability and high moisture. As with other casting errors, it is also caused by an uneven
ramming of the mold and weak or intermittent running of molten metal over the surface.
If that be the case, using sand with high hot plasticity or low expansion characteristics would
usually produce cast materials without scabs or buckles.
Usually, coal dust would suffice as it has been shown to produce cast materials without
expansion defects, one of which is scabs.
Possible causes
 Core strength is less
 Excessive mismatching of core
 Rate of Pouring too high
 Impact against mold wall surface resulting in erosion
 Pouring time too long
Remedies
 Increase the strength of the cores. Use greater proportion of binder.
 Avoid core mismatching
 Inject gas more evenly
 Compact cores more evenly and effectively and if necessary
Sand inclusion defects
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Rat Tail
A rat tail is an expansion defect visible on the cast surface. It is a long, shallow, and angular
depression that has a little semblance with a buckle. However, it is distinct from a buckle in
that it is not shaped like a broad vee. Just like scabs and buckles, it is caused by using casting
sands with low expansion characteristics and high hot plasticity.
The use of coal dust sands does a great job of eliminating such defects. The same cannot be
said of green or fresh sands. Although improved sands such as Petrobond sand promises to
eliminate these expansion defects, it fails to produce better results than what is obtained when
coal dust is used as facing sand. If you cannot find a coal dust supplier or vendor, foundry coal
dust is a good alternative.
Pinholes
These are tiny holes of about 2mm in size, which are visible on the surface of some cast
materials. It results from the dissolution of hydrogen gases in the molten iron. When molten
metal is poured into the mold, it begins to solidify. As the solidifying process begins, the
solubility of the hydrogen decreases, leaving the molten metal to escape and leave behind a
small number of holes referred to as pinholes.
It is known to be caused by the use of sands with high moisture content, absorption of hydrogen
or carbon monoxide by molten metal or pouring of steel from wet ladles or ladles that are not
sufficiently gasified.
To avoid pinholes, good melting practices should be employed. Also, sands with reduced
moisture content and increased permeability should be used in the casting process. Rapid rates
of solidification are also preferred.
For this cause, chrome sand is highly recommended. It is ideal for castings that require fast
cooling, high thermal conductivity, and can withstand high heat intensities. Indeed, its melting
point is put at around 2150ºC.
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Cold Shut
This defect appears as a straight junction line on the surface of the cast material when the
molten iron is poured into the mold from two gates, and both streams of molten metal meet at
a point with low temperatures. They do not fuse and hence create a cold shut at this junction.
It is this cold shut that appears as a crack with a round edge at the surface of the cast.
Cold Shut is caused by shallow melting temperatures, poor gating system, and reduced fluidity
in the molten iron.
To eliminate such defects, the optimum pouring temperature and a proper gating system should
be adopted.
Possible Causes
 Lack of fluidity in molten metal
 Faulty design
 Faulty gating
Remedies:
 Adjust proper pouring temperature
 Modify design
 Modify gating system
21
Drop
This defect occurs when there is a cracking on the upper surface of the sand mold, and sand
pieces from it fall into the molten metal to be cast.
It is caused by soft ramming and in some cases, by sands with low strengths. Additionally,
drops may also be triggered by insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope and
insufficient fluxing of molten metal. Fluxing is usually done to remove impurities from metals.
To minimize the occurrence of this defect, casting sands with high strength should be used, and
proper ramming practices adopted. There should also be adequate reinforcement of the sand
projections in the cope.
Metal Penetration
This defect appears as an uneven and rough surface of the casting. When large sand grains are
used, the molten iron fuses into the sand and solidifies, producing what is known as metal
penetration defect.
Metal penetration is caused by the use of low strength, large grain size, and highly permeable
sand. Consequently, molten metal penetrates the molding sand, producing a rough and uneven
cast surface.
This defect can be eliminated by using sands of smaller grain size, low permeability, and high
strength.
22
Misrun
This casting defect is prevalent in sand casting processes where inappropriate temperatures are
used. When molten iron poured into a sand mold solidifies before reaching into the corners of
the mold, it leaves spaces in the mold referred to as a misrun.
It is caused by pour fluidity of the molten metal, low temperature of the molten metal, and a
poor gating system.
It can be prevented by increasing the pouring temperature of the molten metal, which in turn
increases its fluidity. An improved gating system and the use sections which aren’t too thin can
reduce the occurrence of misruns.
Gas porosity
Porosity in castings is due to bubbles being trapped during solidification. wall, dissolved gases
from melting and dross or slag containing gas porosity The gas can be from trapped air,
hydrogen dissolved in aluminum alloys, moisture from water based die lubricants or steam
from cracked cooling lines.
Usually internal, caused by trapped gases of various kinds in the die. Gas porosity comes from
three main sources in die-casting, namely trapped air steam and burned lubricant. Air is present
in the cavity before the shot. It can easily be trapped as the metal starts to fill the cavity. The
air is then compressed as more and more metal streams into the cavity and the pressure rises.
When the cavity is full it becomes dispersed as small spheres of high pressure air. The swirling
flow can cause them to become elongated.
23
Possible Causes
 Metal pouring temperature too low.
 Insufficient metal fluidity
 Pouring too slow
 Slag on the metal surface.
 Interruption to pouring during filling of the mold.
 Metal section too thin.
Remedies
 Increase metal pouring temperature.
 Modify metal composition to improve fluidity.
 Pour metal as rapidly as possible without interruption. Improve mold filling by
modification to running and gating system.
 Remove slag from metal surface.
 Reduce gas pressure in the mold by appropriate adjustment to molding material
properties and ensuring.
Distortion or warp
Warped Casting—Distortion due to warp age is known as warp defect.
Possible causes
 Distortion due to warp age can occur over time in a casting that partially or completely
liberates residual stresses.
Remedies
 Common practice in iron casting is normalizing heat treatment to remove residual
stress. In aluminum casting, a straightening between quench and aging might be
required.
24
Mismatch defect
Mismatch in mold defect is because of the shifting molding flashes. It will cause the dislocation
at the parting line.
Possible causes
 A mismatch is caused by the cope and drag parts of the mold not remaining in their
proper position.
 This is caused by loose box pins, inaccurate pattern dowel pins or carelessness in
placing the cope on the drag.
Remedies
 Check pattern mounting on match plate and Rectify, correct dowels.
 Use proper molding box and closing pins.
Cracks or tears
Cracks can appear in die castings from a number of causes. Some cracks are very obvious and
can easily be seen with the naked eye. Other cracks are very difficult to see without
magnification.
Possible causes
 Shrinkage of the casting within the die
 Undercuts or damage in die cavities
 Uneven, or excessive, ejection forces
25
 Thermal imbalance in the die

 Insufficient draft in sections of the die
 Excessive porosity in critical regions of the part
 Product design not matched to the process
 Inadequate die design
Remedies
 Reduce dry strength, add saw dust/ coal dust
 Reduce pouring temperature
 Avoid superheating of metal
 Use chills
 Provide feeders
 Avoid early knockout. Give sufficient cooling time.
 Correct composition
 Reduce sharp corners
26
PROGRESS CHECK
Discuss the following question. Write your answer on the blank space provided.
1. What are the different types of casting defects?

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. How can cracks in casting be avoided?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
3. What is a cold shut in casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
4. What is pinhole defect?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
5. What is the principle of pinhole?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
6. What is cold shut defect?
27
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
7. What is swell a casting defect?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
8. What is the difference between hot tears and hot cracking?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
9. What is gas porosity in casting?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
10. How can porosity be reduced?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
11. How can we eliminate the shrinkage cavity?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
28
12. What is hot tear defect in casting?

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
REFERENCES
Internet reference:
https://mineralmilling.com/types-of-casting-defects-in-sand-casting/
29
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __8__
TOPIC/S
Casting Processes (continues)

Permanent Casting:
Die (Hot & Cold Chamber Process)
Centrifugal
Understand the history of metal casting and foundry.

Describe a brief overview what type of metal use during those days.
Classify types of ferrous and non-ferrous foundries.
Classify nature of work on a specific raw material use.
Understand the basic terminology use in casting and foundry
Permanent Casting
There are four main types of permanent mold casting: gravity, slush, low-pressure, and
vacuum.
Gravity process
The gravity process begins by preheating the mold to 150–200OC (300–400OF) to ease the flow
and reduce thermal damage to the casting. The mold cavity is then coated with
a refractory material or a mold wash, which prevents the casting from sticking to the mold and
prolongs the mold life. Any sand or metal cores are then installed and the mold is clamped
shut. Molten metal is then poured into the mold. Soon after solidification the mold is opened
and the casting removed to reduce chances of hot tears. The process is then started all over
again, but preheating is not required because the heat from the previous casting is adequate and
the refractory coating should last several castings. Because this process is usually carried out
on large production run work-pieces automated equipment is used to coat the mold, pour the
metal, and remove the casting.
The metal is poured at the lowest practical temperature in order to minimize cracks and
porosity. The pouring temperature can range greatly depending on the casting material; for
instance zinc alloys are poured at approximately 370 OC (698OF), while Gray iron is poured at
approximately 1,370OC (2,500OF).
Mold
Molds for the casting process consist of two halves. Casting molds are usually formed from
gray cast iron because it has about the best thermal fatigue resistance, but other materials
include steel, bronze, and graphite. These metals are chosen because of their resistance to
erosion and thermal fatigue. They are usually not very complex because the mold offers no
30
collapsibility to compensate for shrinkage. Instead the mold is opened as soon as the casting is
solidified, which prevents hot tears. Cores can be used and are usually made from sand or
metal.
As stated above, the mold is heated prior to the first casting cycle and then used continuously
in order to maintain as uniform a temperature as possible during the cycles. This decreases
thermal fatigue, facilitates metal flow, and helps control the cooling rate of the casting metal.
Venting usually occurs through the slight crack between the two mold halves, but if this is not
enough then very small vent holes are used. They are small enough to let the air escape but not
the molten metal. A riser must also be included to compensate for shrinkage. This usually limits
the yield to less than 60%.
Mechanical ejectors in the form of pins are used when coatings are not enough to remove casts
from the molds. These pins are placed throughout the mold and usually leave small round
impressions on the casting.
Slush
Slush casting is a variant of permanent molding casting to create a hollow casting or hollow
cast. In the process the material is poured into the mold and allowed to cool until a shell of
material forms in the mold. The remaining liquid is then poured out to leave a hollow shell.
The resulting casting has good surface detail but the wall thickness can vary. The process is
usually used to cast ornamental products, such as candlesticks, lamp bases, and statuary, from
low-melting-point materials. A similar technique is used to make hollow chocolate figures
for Easter and Christmas.
The method was developed by William Britain in 1893 for the production of lead toy soldiers.
It uses less material than solid casting, and results in a lighter and less expensive product.
Hollow cast figures generally have a small hole where the excess liquid was poured out.
Similarly, a process called slush molding is used in automotive dashboard manufacture, for
soft-panel interiors with artificial leather, where a free-flowing (which behave like a liquid)
powder plastic compound, either PVC or TPU, is poured into a hot, hollow mold and a viscous
skin forms. Excess slush is then drained off, the mold is cooled, and the molded product is
stripped out.
31
Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process
Low-pressure
Low-pressure permanent mold (LPPM) casting uses a gas at low pressure, usually between 3
and 15 psi (20 to 100 kPa) to push the molten metal into the mold cavity. The pressure is
applied to the top of the pool of liquid, which forces the molten metal up a refractory pouring
tube and finally into the bottom of the mold. The pouring tube extends to the bottom of the
ladle so that the material being pushed into the mold is exceptionally clean. No risers are
required because the applied pressure forces molten metal in to compensate for shrinkage.
Yields are usually greater than 85% because there is no riser and any metal in the pouring tube
just falls back into the ladle for reuse. The vast majority of LPPM casting are from aluminum
and magnesium, but some are copper alloys. Advantages include very little turbulence when
filling the mold because of the constant pressure, which minimizes gas
porosity and dross formation. Mechanical properties are about 5% better than gravity
permanent mold castings. The disadvantage is that cycles times are longer than gravity
permanent mold castings.
Vacuum
Vacuum permanent mold casting retains all of the advantages of LPPM casting, plus the
dissolved gases in the molten metal are minimized and molten metal cleanliness is even better.
The process can handle thin-walled profiles and gives an excellent surface finish. Mechanical
properties are usually 10 to 15% better than gravity permanent mold castings. The process is
limited in weight to 0.2 to 5 kg (0.44 to 11.02 lb).
Advantages and disadvantages

he main advantages are the reusable mold, good surface finish, good dimensional accuracy,
and high production rates. Typical tolerances are 0.4 mm for the first 25 mm (0.015 in for the
first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002 in per in); if the dimension crosses
the parting line add an additional 0.25 mm (0.0098 in). Typical surface finishes are 2.5 to
32
7.5 μm (100–250 μin) RMS. A draft of 2 to 3° is required. Wall thicknesses are limited to 3 to
50 mm (0.12 to 1.97 in). Typical part sizes range from 100 g to 75 kg (several ounces to 150 lb).
Other advantages include the ease of inducing directional solidification by changing the mold
wall thickness or by heating or cooling portions of the mold. The fast cooling rates created by
using a metal mold results in a finer grain structure than sand casting. Retractable metal cores
can be used to create undercuts while maintaining a quick action mold.
There are three main disadvantages: high tooling cost, limited to low-melting-point metals, and
short mold life. The high tooling costs make this process uneconomical for small production
runs. When the process is used to cast steel or iron the mold life is extremely short. For lower
melting point metals the mold life is longer but thermal fatigue and erosion usually limit the
life to 10,000 to 120,000 cycles. The mold life is dependent on four factors: the mold material,
the pouring temperature, the mold temperature, and the mold configuration. Molds made from
gray cast iron can be more economical to produce but have short mold lives. On the other hand,
molds made from H13 tool steel may have a mold life several times greater. The pouring
temperature is dependent on the casting metal, but the higher the pouring temperature the
shorter the mold life. A high pouring temperature can also induce shrinkage problems and
create longer cycle times. If the mold temperature is too low misruns are produced, but if the
mold temperature is too high then the cycle time is prolonged and mold erosion is increased.
Large differences in section thickness in the mold or casting can decrease mold life as well.
Centrifugal casting (industrial)
Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled
cylinders. It is typically used to cast materials such as metals, glass, and concrete. A high
quality is attainable by control of metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting
techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used to manufacture rotationally symmetric stock
materials in standard sizes for further machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to a
particular end-use.
Features of centrifugal casting

 Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
 Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same mold.
 Eliminates the need for cores.
 Good mechanical properties due to the grain structure formed by centrifugal action.
 Typically cylindrical shapes are produced:
o In sizes of up to 6 m (20 ft) diameter and 15 m (49 ft) length.
o With a wall thickness range from 2.5 to 125 mm (0.098 to 4.921 in).
o In tolerance limits of the outer diameter of 2.5 mm (0.098 in) an die inner diameter of
3.8 mm (0.15 in).
o In a surface finish from 2.5 to 12.5 mm (0.098 to 0.492 in) rms.
33
Youtube: Centrifugal Casting - Permanent Mold Casting Processes.
(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RriRwznm5E )
34
PROGRESS CHECK
1. What is a permanent cast?
2. What are the differences between permanent mold and die casting processes?
3. What is the process of die casting?
4. What are the advantages of die casting?
5. What is centrifugal casting used for?
6. What are the advantages of centrifugal casting?
7. What happens to the impurities in the centrifugal casting method?
8. What is the process of die casting?
35
REFERENCES
Textbook/s :
Internet Reference(s):

MT 232 Foundry and Casting Week6 8

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

MT 232: Foundry and

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGR. ARNEL P. VILLANUEVA

T - Transparent and participatory governance

1. Understand the basic principles of metal casting.

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

A. Weekly Assessment (70%)

B. Term Examination (30%)

The Passing Grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __6__

Casting Processes (continues..)

Understand the method of metal casting.

Shell Mold Casting

Shell molding process

Step Process of Shell Mold Casting

1. Creating the Pattern

2. Creating the Mold

3. Assembly of Pattern Parts

4. Exposure to Molten Metal

6. Ejecting the Casting

YouTube: “Animation of the Shell Molding Process”.

YouTube: “Prototype Shell Molding”

YouTube: “Plaster and Bronze Casting”

Ceramic mould casting

How to Cast a Ceramic mold

Advantages of Investment Casting

Surface Texture of Investment Castings

Investment casting process

Investment Casting Process

Lost wax casting

Disadvantage of Lost-Wax Molding:

LAMOTHERMIC - Lost Wax Castings

1. What is shell pattern?

12. How is lost wax casting done?

Week No.: __7__

Casting Defects: Causes and Remedies

To understand the causes of defects in different method of metal casting.

Types of Casting Defects

Sand casting is an efficient and economical process of producing geometrically complex

Sand inclusion defects

Warped Casting—Distortion due to warp age is known as warp defect.

 Thermal imbalance in the die

1. What are the different types of casting defects?

12. What is hot tear defect in casting?

Week No.: __8__

Casting Processes (continues)

Understand the history of metal casting and foundry.

Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process

Advantages and disadvantages

Centrifugal casting (industrial)

Features of centrifugal casting

Youtube: Centrifugal Casting - Permanent Mold Casting Processes.

1. What is a permanent cast?

3. What is the process of die casting?

4. What are the advantages of die casting?

5. What is centrifugal casting used for?

6. What are the advantages of centrifugal casting?

Week No.: 6

Week No.: 7

Week No.: 8