WEEK 5: CARBON AND ITS properties

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
I. Give four physical properties of carbon
II. Explain three chemical properties of carbon.

Carbon is a non-metallic molecular element that exists naturally as diamond and

graphite in the pure form. In the impure form, it exists as coal (commercial
source), and in the combined state as petroleum, wood and natural gases. These
carbon compounds are important sources of fuel as they burn to release heat and
light which may be converted to other forms of energy.
Other sources of carbon are mineral deposits of metallic trioxocarbonates(iv),
especially CaCO3 (limestone) and MgCO3 (dolomite), and the carbon (iv) oxide in
the air and water around us.
Carbon is the only non-metal that exists in nature as a non-volatile molecular solid
with very high melting point because of the strong carbon to carbon covalent
bonds in its molecules.
Carbon is an essential constituent of all living things.
Carbon atoms form tetravalent positive ion i.e. C 4+ in most of its compounds e.g.
CO2, CH4 and CCl4, and divalent ion i.e. in C2+ in carbon (ii) oxide gas.

i. Carbon in its ground state and (ii) its excited state

Characteristic properties of carbon

Physical properties
1. It is a non-metal and exists as a non-volatile solid.
2. All different carbon allotropes are black or greyish black solids except
diamond.
3. They are odourless and tasteless.
4. They have very high melting points.
5. They are insoluble in all common solvents like water, alkalis, acids, petrol
and carbon (iv) sulphide.
Chemical properties
1. Combustion reaction: Carbon burns in excess air to give carbon (iv) oxide
gas and in limited air to give carbon (ii) oxide gas.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) in excess air
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) in limited air
2. Direct combination reaction: It reacts with metals such as Ca and Al when
heated to give carbide of the corresponding metal.
Ca(s) + C(s) CaC2(s)
4Al(s) + 3C(s) Al4C3(s)
a. Reaction with non-metals: It reacts with chlorine, hydrogen and sulphur
when heated to give CCl4, CH4 and CS4 respectively.
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2(l)
C(s) + 2Cl2(g) CCl4(l)
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
3. As a reducing agent:
a. Carbon reduces oxides of Cu and Pb to their metal and CO2 gas.
2CuO
Black (s)
+ C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)

2PbO + C(s)
(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Reddish brown

b. Carbon in the form of coke reacts with steam when heated to 1000ºC to
give equal mixture of carbon (ii) oxide and hydrogen gas (water gas).
C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)
c. Hot coke reduces carbon (IV) oxide gas to carbon (ii) oxide gas.
CO2 (g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
d. Reaction of carbon with powerful oxidizing agent
(I) Reaction of carbon with Conc. H2SO4 acid
Carbon reduces Conc. H2SO4 to sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2 gas) and water and
itself is oxidized to CO2 gas
C(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) 2SO2(g) +CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(II) Reaction of carbon with Conc.HNO3 acid
Carbon also reduces Conc. HNO3 acid to brown fume nitrogen (IV) oxide
(NO2 gas) and water and itself is oxidized to CO2
C(s) + 4HNO3(g) + 4NO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l
WEEK 6: ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
I. Define allotropy.
II. Name the crystalline and non-crystalline allotropes of carbon.
III. Explain the characteristics of diamond and graphite.
IV. Describe the destructive distillation of coal.

Allotropy in Carbon Element

Allotropy: is a phenomenon whereby elements exist in two or more different
forms but in the same physical state. The different forms of the elements are
called allotropes.
Carbon element exists in nature as crystalline carbon and as amorphous carbon.
Allotropes of crystalline carbon: These are: Diamond and Graphite
Allotropes of amorphous carbon: These are: Charcoal, Coke, Lampblack, Carbon
black or Soot and Coal
Other elements that exhibit allotropy include: phosphorous, tin and sulphur.

Crystalline allotropes of carbon

DIAMOND
Diamond molecule consists of tetrahedral units of carbon atoms which are joined
or interlocked to one another by strong covalent bonds to give a giant 3-
dimensional structure or molecule.

Tetrahedral unit cell of diamond

The four valence electrons of each carbon atom in the tetrahedral unit cell of
carbon atoms are bonded to four other carbon atoms by Sp3 hybridization leaving
no unused free valence electrons in the crystal hence diamond does not conduct
current.
Diamond is the hardest known substance in nature because of the strong carbon
to carbon covalent bonds in its 3-dimensional structure/molecule hence the
rigid/fixed structure of diamond.
Physical properties of Diamond
1. It has colourless, transparent and lustre appearance.
2. It has a very high melting point.
3. It is hard and dense.
4. It does not conduct current.
5. It is insoluble in water and other solvents.
Uses of Diamond and the Physical Property That Account For Each Uses
1. Diamond is used in cutting tools in industry, in drilling rocks in mining industry,
as abrasive in sharpening very hard tools and also for cutting glass and metals
because of its hard structure or hardness.
2. Diamond is used in jewellery because of its high refractive index and dispersion
power which gives it a sparkling brilliance and lustre appearance when cut and
polished.
3. It is used as pivot support in precision instruments and as dies for drawing
wires.

GRAPHITE
Graphite molecule consists of hexagonal units of carbon atoms bonded to three
other carbon atoms by sp2 hybridization leaving one free/mobile unused valence
electron in the crystal, hence graphite conducts electricity and is used as
electrode. These atoms are joined together to one another by strong covalent
bonds to form planar or flat layers.
The flat/planar layers in the graphite molecules are arranged parallel to one other
and are joined together by weak Van der Waal forces, which allow the layers to
slide over one another easily, hence, graphite flakes and is used as lubricant.
Graphite form of carbon is the only non-metal element that conducts electricity
because it has free/mobile valence electrons in its crystal structure.

Hexagonal unit cell of carbon (graphite) molecules

Physical properties of graphite

1. It conducts current/electricity.
2. It has a high melting point.
3. It is a black and opaque solid.
4. It is insoluble in common solvents.
Uses of graphite
1. Graphite is used as electrode because it has one free/mobile valence
electron per atom which makes it conduct electricity.
2. It is used as a lubricant because its planar layers are joined together by
weak Van der Waal’s forces which allow the layers to slide over each other. This
also account for its softness.
3. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils
for writing and drawing because of its softness.
4. It is used as neutron moderator in nuclear reactors because of its softness.
5. It is used as pigment in paints.

Differences between diamond and graphite

AMORPHOUS ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

These are charcoal, coke lampblack, carbon black/soot and coal.
Charcoal: Charcoal consists of minute crystals of graphite which are not well
formed. It is porous and has a good adsorbent property particularly when heated
in steam to give activated charcoal. It allows small molecules of gases and dyes to
adsorb/adhere to its internal surfaces and it is been used in removing impurities
from other substances.
Types of charcoal
i. Wood charcoal: It is produced by burning wood in limited air and is used in
adsorbing colouring matter from crude sugar. It contains impurities such as
sulphur.
ii. Sugar charcoal: It is formed when sugar is dehydrated either by burning
sugar in limited air or by the action of conc. H 2SO4. It is the purest form of
amorphous carbon.
iii. Animal charcoal: It is produced by burning bones and animal refuse in
limited air. It contains high percentage of CaSO 4 as impurities. It is used in
purification of noble gases.
Coconut charcoal: It is produced by burning coconut shells in limited air.
Uses of charcoal
1. Wood charcoal is used as fuel.
2. It is used in adsorbing or removing colouring matter from substances.
3. It is used in gas mask to remove/adsorb poisonous gases.
4. Animal charcoal is used in purification of substances particularly noble
gases.
5. It is used in the recovery of industrial solvent.
6. Animal charcoal is used in removing the brown colour of crude sugar and in
decolourizing petroleum jelly.

Carbon black (soot): Carbon black is finely divided carbon particles produced by
burning carbonaceous materials like coal gas, fuel oils or natural gas e.g. methane
in a limited supply of air. It is used in the manufacture of rubber tyres, black shoe
polish, printer’s ink, typewriting ribbons and carbon paper.

Carbon fibres: Carbon fibres are extremely strong but light weight reinforcement
materials. They are produced by carefully heating fibres of materials such as poly
propenonitrile until they char to form carbon. Carbon fibres are incorporated into
plastic to produce a very light but stiff and strong material. They are also used in
construction, mountain bikes and tennis rackets.

Lamp black: This is obtained by burning lamp oil or kerosene in limited air. It is
used in shoe polish, printer’s ink and carbon paper.

Coal: Coal was formed from the vegetation of carboniferous era which was
protected from complete decay by overlaying water-washed earth deposits.
Decomposition occurs gradually under pressure in the absence of air. CO 2,
methane and water were liberated leaving behind a material that contains a very
high percentage of carbon (about 95% pure carbon). The process involves the
conversion of vegetation materials in stages to peat, lignite (brown coal),
bituminous (soft) coal and finally anthracite (hard coal). Impurities present may
include nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus.
Uses of coal
1. It is used as a fuel for domestic and industrial heating and to generate
power for stem engines.
2. It is also used in manufacturing synthetic petrol by catalytic hydrogenation
process.
3. It is used for making various chemicals like synthesis gas, a gaseous mixture
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The synthesis gas can then be used to produce
a number of useful chemicals, like methanol. Ammonia and urea are significant
products for use in fertilizers.
NOTE: The use of coal as a source of fuel for heating is being discouraged despite
the high heating value of coal because when coal is burnt, it produces gaseous
pollutants such as CO, SO2 and NO2 in addition to CO2 and air.
Types of coal
1. Peat coal (immature coal) it contains 50-60% of carbon
2. Lignite coal it contains 60-75% of carbon
3. Bituminous coal (soft coal) it contains 75-90% of carbon
4. Anthracite coal (hard coal) it contains 93% of carbon

Destructive distillation of coal

This involves heating coal to a very high temperature in the absence of air so that
all the volatile components will distil over.
Coal Heat Coke + ammoniacal liquor + coal tar + coal gas
Some of these condense on cooling to form an almost black tar called coal tar (a
mixture of more than 200 different substances which can be separated by
fractional distillation) and an aqueous liquid known as ammoniacal liquor (a
solution of ammonia in water) which is converted to ammonium tetraoxosulphate
(vi) for use as fertilizer.
Coal gas in an important gaseous fuel because it is cleaner and more efficient than
coal or other solid fuels.
Coke is used as a fuel or as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals such as
iron.
Destructive distillation of wood
Wood is a complex substance with a higher percentage of hydrogen and oxygen
but a lower percentage of carbon than coal. Its destructive distillation yields:
Wood wood charcoal + pyroligneous acid + wood tar + wood gas
Pyroligneous acid which is the liquid fraction contains mainly ethanoic acid,
propanone, methanol and some other compounds.

Gasification of coal
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while also being
heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water
molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also
releasing hydrogen gas (H2). This process has been conducted in both
underground coal mines and in the production of town gas.
C (as Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
This synthesis gas can then be converted into transportation fuels, such as
gasoline and diesel. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be
used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen economy, making
ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.

Liquefaction
Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by
several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is
either hydrogenated or carbonized. In the process of low-
temperature carbonization, coal is cooked at temperatures between 360 and
750 °C (680 and 1,380 °F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal
tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then
further processed into fuels. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first,
and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the
conversion process.

Coke
Coke is obtained by heating bituminous coal to very high temperature (about
1300 ̊C) in the absence of air to drive away all the volatile constituents.
Uses of coke
1. Coke is used as a fuel because it burns with practically no smoke and leaves
very little residue.
2. It is a very important industrial reducing agent. It is used in the extraction of
metals from their ores.
3. It is used in the production of gaseous fuels i.e. water gas and producer gas.
4. It is used in the manufacture of graphite, calcium carbide, silicon carbide and
carbon (iv) sulphide.

GASIFICATION OF COKE
Fuel gases
1. Water gas is a synthesis gas, containing carbon (II) oxide and hydrogen. This is
an equal mixture of carbon (ii) oxide gas and hydrogen gas and is obtained by
passing steam over white coke that is heated to redness at 1000ºC in a
furnace.
It is a useful product but requires careful handling because of the risk of
carbon (II) oxide poisoning.
C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)
Water gas is a better and more efficient gaseous fuel with high heating value
than producer gas because its two components are combustible while only
one component of producer gas is combustible.
Uses of water gas
(a) Used mainly as a fuel industrially
(b) Industrial source of hydrogen and other organic compound like butanol and
methanol.
2. Producer gas: This is obtained by passing air over coke that is heated to
redness at 1000ºC. it is a mixture of nitrogen gas and carbon (ii) oxide gas in
ratio 4:1. Stream of air is passed over the red-hot coke fuel and carbon (II)
oxide is produced.
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
2C(s) + O2(g) + N2(g) → 2CO(g) + N2(g).
Producer gas has low heating power because of high non-combustible
nitrogen content (67%) and carbon (II) oxide is 33%. It is inexpensive.

Uses of Producer gas

(a) Used to heat furnaces, retorts (in the manufacture of zinc and coal gas) and
limekilns.
(b) In the manufacture of ammonia (Haber process) as a good source of
nitrogen.
ASSIGNMENT: Questions 4, 5, 6a and 7 on pages 106 and 107 of Essential
Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by I.A. Odesina.