Week (1), Day (1)

Period (2)

Chapter (1)

General Characteristics of Modern Power System

Learning Outcomes

After the chapter, you will be able to understand

1. Evolution of EPS
2. Structure and Components of Power System
3. Power System Design and Control Strategies for Stability

Teaching Topics

1. Evolution of Electric Power System

2. Structure of the Power System
3. Power System Control

1.1 Evolution of Electric Power System

The commercial use of electricity began in 1870s when arc lamps were used for
lighthouse illumination and street lighting.In 1882, Thomas Edison built his first complete EPS
at the historic Pearl Street Station in New York.(Stream-engine,dc generators,59 users,distance
area 1.5 km,110 V,underground cable system).Later,added motor loads to such system in 1884
(Frank Sprague).In 1886,due to short distance,it was necessary to keep I 2R,Vdrop. So, voltage
transfromation for long distance became a necessity.

The development of the transformer and ac transmission is led to ac system by L.Gaulard

and J.D.Gibbs of Paris, France. Later, in 1889, the first ac singlie phase transmission line at 4kV
over distance of 21 km, in North America was put into operation in Oregon between Willamette
Falls and Portland.

In the 1888, Nikola Tesla was formatted the basic of the present-day ac systems.Then, ac
system had won out over the dc system for the following reasons:

(a) Voltage levels can be easily transformed in ac, thus providing the flexibility for the use of
different voltages for generation, transmission and consumption.
(b) AC generators are musch simpler than ac generators.
(c) AC motors are mush and cheapter than dc motors.

The first three-phase line went in operation in 1893-2.3k,12 km line in South

California.In the early time,frequency was not standardized.Eventually 60 Hz and 50 Hz was
adopted as standard in many countries with the use of power system.The use of voltage levels are
standardized for the different classes wrt different distances.

The first modern commercial application of HVDC transmission occurred in 1954 in the
connected line of Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland.The first modern commerical
application of HVDC system using thyristor valves was at Eel River in 1972.With the cost and
size of conversion equipment decreasing and its reliability increasing, there has been a steady
increase in the use of HVDC transmission.

In addition, the interconnection permits the utilities to make economy transfers and thus
take advantages of the most economical sources of power.So, the design of a system and its
secure operation are indeed challenging problems.

1.2 Structure of the Power System

Electric Power System vary in size and structural components.However, they all have the
same basic characteristics:

(a) Are comprised of three-phase ac systems operating essentially at constant

voltage.Generation and transmission facilities use three-phase equipment.Industrial loads
are invariably three-phase;single-phase residential and commercial loads are distributed
equally among the phases so as to effectively from a balanced three-phase system.
(b) Use synchronous machines for generation of electricity.Prime movers convert the
primary sources of energy to mechanical energy that is, in turn, converted to electrical
energy by synchronous generators.
(c) Transmit power over significant distrances to consumers spread over a wide area.This
requires a transmission system comprising subsystems operating at different voltage
levels.

The following figure shows the basic elements of a modern power system.It consists of
subsystems:

(a) Generation system

(b) Transmission system
(c) Subtransmission system
(d) Distribution system
 Figure- Elements of Electric Power System

1.3 Power System Control

The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from one of the naturally
available forms to the electrical form and to transport it to the point of consumption.A properly
designed and operated power system should meet the following fundamental requirements:

(a) The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and
reactive power.Adequate “spinning”reserve of active and reactive power shoulf be
maintained and appropiately controlled at all times.
(b) The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with minimum ecological
impact.
(c) The quality of power supply must meet minimum standards with regard to the
following factors:
(1) Constancy of frequency
(2) Constancy of voltage,and
(3) Level of reliability.
 The following figure identifies the various subsystems of a power system and the
associated controls.In this overall structure, there are controllers operating directly on individual
system elements.In a generating unit these consist of prime mover controls and excitation
controls.The prime mover controls are concerned with speed regulation and control of energy
supply system variables such as boiler pressures, temperatures and flows.

Figure- Power System Control

The function of the excitation control is to regulate generator voltage and reactive power
output.The desired MW outputs of the individual generating units are determined by these
control.

The primary purpose of the system-generation control is to balance the total system
generation against system load and losses so that the desired frequency and power interchange
with other systems (tie flows) is maintained.
 The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, such as static VAR
compensators, synchronous condensers, switched capacitors and reactors,tap-changing
transformers, phase-shifting transformers and HVDC transmission controls.

The control objectives are dependent on the operating state of the power system.Under
normal conditions, the control objective is to operate as efficiently as possible with voltages and
frequency close to normal values.When an abnormal contion develops, new objectives must be
met to restore the system to normal operation.System failures are rarely the result of the
catastrophic disturbance (natural disturbances-tornado, storm, equipment malfunction, human
errors, etc).

Week (1), Day (2)

Period (2)

Teaching Topics

1.4 Operating States of a Power and Control Strategies

1.5 Design and Operating Criteria for Stability
1.6 System Design for Stability

1.4 Operating States of a Power and Control Strategies

For purposes of analyzing power system security and designing appropiate controls, it is
helpful to conceptually classify the system-operating conditions into five states: normal, alert,
emergy, in extremis and restorative.

In the normal state, all system variables are within the normal range and no equipment is
being overloaded.The system operates in a secure manner and is able to withstand a contigency
without violating any of the constraints.

The system enters the alert state if the security level falls below a certain limit of
adequecy, or if the possibility of a disturbance increases because of adverse weather
conditions.In this state, all system may remain to be normal.But if the system has been weakened
to a level where a contingency may cause an overloading of equipment that places the system in
an emergency state.If the disturbance is very severe, the in extremis state may result directly
from the alert state.

In emergency state, voltages at many buses are low and/or equipment loadings exceed
short-term emergency ratings. The system is still and may be restored to the alert system state by
the initiating of emergency control actions: fault clearing, excitation control, fast-valving,
generating tripping, generation run-back, HVDC modulation and load curtailment.

If the above measures are not applied, the system is in extremis; the result is cascading
outages and possibly a shut-down of a major portion of the system.

The restorative state represents a condition in which control action is being taken to
reconnect all the facilities and to restore system load. The system transits from this state to either
the alert state or the normal state, depending on the system conditions.

However, the operator plays a key role by coordinating related information from diverse
sources and developing corrective strategies to restore the system to a more secure state of
operation.The function of the operator is to monitor system performance and manage resources
so as to ensure economic operation while maintaining the required quality and reliable of power
supply.

Figure- Power system operating states

1.5 Design and Operating Criteria for Stability

Design and operating criteria play an essential role in preventing major system
disturbances following contingencies.

Normal Design Contingencies: include the following:

(a) A permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit, transformer or

bus section, with normal fault clearing and with due regard to reclosing facilities.
(b) Simultaneous permanent phase-to-ground faults on different phases of each of two
adjacent transmission circuits on a multiple-circuit tower, cleared in normal time.
(c) A permanent phase-to-ground fault on any transmission circuit, transformer, or bus
section with delayed clearing because of malfunction of circuit breakers, relay, or
signal channel.
(d) Loss of any element without a fault.
(e) A permanent phase-to-ground fault on a CB, cleared in normal time.
(f) Simultaneous permanent loss of both poles of a dc bipolar facility.
 Extreme Contingency Assessment: the objective is to determine the effects of extreme
contingencies on system performance in order to obtain an indication of system strength and to
determine the extent of a widespread system disturbance even through extreme contingencies do
have very low probabilities of occurrence.After an analysis and assessment,measures are to be
utilized,to reduce the frequency of occurrence of such contingencies or,to mitigate the
consequences that are indicated as a result of simulating for such contingencies.It includes the
following:

(a) Loss of the entire capability of a generating station.

(b) Loss of all lines emanating from a generating station, switching station or substation.
(c) Loss of all transmission circuits on a common right-of-way.
(d) A permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit, transformer, or
bus section, with delayed fault clearing and with due regard to reclosing facilities.
(e) The sudden dropping of a large-load or major-load centre.
(f) The effect of severe power swing arising from disturbances outside the
interconnected systems.
(g) Failure or misoperation of a special protection system, such as a generation rejection,
load rejection, or transmission cross-tripping scheme.

1.6 System Design for Stability

Because of the high dimentionality and complexity of the system, it is essential to make
simplifying assumptions and to analyze specific problems using the right degree of detail of
system representation.This requires a good grasp of the characteristies of the overall system as
well as of those of its individual elements.

The power system is a highly nonlinear system whose dynamic performance is influenced
by a wide array of devices with different response rates and characteristics.System Stability must
be viewed not as a single problem, but rather in terms of its different aspects.

Week (1), Day (3)

Period (1)

Exercises 1 (Total-40 marks)

1. State the reasons why ac system uses more than dc system in electric power system?
(2 marks)
2. Describe the basic characteristics of a system? (4 marks)
3. What are the fundamental requirements of the designed and operated power system?
(4 marks)
4. Draw the respective diagram of modern elements of a power system? (5 marks)
5. Explain the following functions: (1 mark per ques:)
 (a) Prime mover control
(b) Excitation control
(c) System-generation control
(d) Transmission control
(e) Power system control objectives with different conditions
6. Write briefly the operating states of a power and control strategies? (7 marks)
7. Explain the contingencies in design and operating criteria for stability of a system?
(8 marks)