CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

HANDOUT in COMPUTER 7-3rd Quarter

A.Y 2022-2023

LESSON 1 How Computer Systems Works

The computer needs Input, Process, and Output to work. Users encode input
data to the computer to get processed information or output. The input,
process, and output have corresponding devices that do the work. Users are usually familiar with
the input and output associated with the computer. The process part which is done by the
microprocessor or CPU is the unseen part of the computer system.

Input
The computer needs input data and commands to work. You can enter the input data and commands into the computer
using the keyboard and the mouse. Typing letters and numbers are called input. Input is the data and command entered
into the computer.

Process
The computer then works on these data and commands entered into the computer. This step is called the process. The
CPU or microprocessor is where the process takes place.

Output
The result displayed on the monitor or heard on the speaker after the data is processed is called output. Output is the
result of the data processing. The processed data is now called information.

How Input and Output Devices Work

Without Input/Output (I/O), there will be no interaction with the CPU. The devices are connected to the data bus that
carries the data and the address bus that puts the data in the storage location. They are accessed thru special I/O
instructions. The devices communicate with the CPU using interrupt I/O lines.

Input is getting data from the user to the computer. Some input data can go directly to the computer for processing like
bar codes, speech that enters the computer through a microphone, and data entered using a keyboard, mouse, scanner,
or from a magnetic disk. The raw data is then processed by the computer which will result in an output that can be seen
in output devices like monitors, printers, etc., resulting in an output showing the information/image that the user can
use.

The computer needs the following parts to function properly:

 CPU – processor chip, buses, ports (plugs), controllers, BIOS ROM ( placed by the manufacturer, cannot be
accessed or modified, tells the computer how to start itself)
 RAM – short-term or temporary memory storage, called main memory
 Input devices – allow the user to input data into the computer like a keyboard and mouse
 Output devices – allow the user to see the results like monitor, printer, and modem (can perform both input
and output)
 Secondary storage – permanent storage like CD-ROM, hard disk drive, and floppy disk

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or chip or microprocessor is the brain of every computer, may it be a desktop or
laptop computer. The CPU is contained inside a small chip called the microprocessor. The CPU makes all things happen
inside the computer. It performs the arithmetic operation and control, where data would go based on a certain set of
conditions. The microprocessor is a complete computational engine in one small chip.

Common uses of microprocessors are the following:

Embedded Micro Controllers

These are microprocessors found inside many household electronic appliances, cars, calculators, and others. These
microprocessors are used where there is a simple processing requirement. They are less flexible, programmable, and
complex compared to the processors you see on your computer.
Common Desktop or Laptop Processors
These microprocessors can perform a wide array of tasks. They are normally integrated into a larger system which would
include motherboards, memories, and hard disks. They are capable to be used with a variety of programs.

Powerful Processors
These microprocessors are the most powerful processors for high-end servers. They are used for powerful computer
applications requiring computations and manipulation of a very high volume of data and information.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Identification: Give what is being asked based on your understanding.
___1. What do you call the data and command such as numbers and letters entered into the computer?
___2. What do you call the overall result of the data processing?
___3. Which computer components served as the temporary storage of the computer?
___4. Which devices are used to enter raw data into the computer?
___5. Which devices are used to display useful information processed by the CPU?
___6. What is the permanent storage of the computer system located inside the system unit?
___7. What kind of microprocessors are less flexible, programmable, and complex compared to the processors you see
on your computer?
___8. Which kind of microprocessors can perform a wide array of tasks and could be integrated into a motherboard?
___9. Which kind of microprocessors are the most powerful processors for high-end servers?
___10. Where does the processing of raw data take place?

Parts of the CPU Chip

LESSON 2 CPU is a highly complex, extensive set of electronic circuitry that executes
stored program instructions.

The parts of the CPU are:

1. Control Unit
The control unit contains electrical
signals that direct other parts of the
system to do their work. It reads and
interprets program instructions and
converts them to machine language
that the CPU can understand.

The control unit acts like a traffic enforcer that directs and manages the various CPU components and data. The
control unit decodes the program instructions and directs where the data should go, and what operation will be
done next. It increments the program counter so that the next instruction will be performed by the CPU. In
general, the control unit tells the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) what operation to perform, provides data to the
ALU for the operation, and then places the result in the processor register.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU contains electronic circuitry that executes arithmetic and logical operations like calculations and
comparisons. The arithmetic operation includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The logic
operations include Boolean operations such as AND, OR, XOR, and NOT, which are useful to create conditional
statements and comparisons like comparing numbers, letters, or special characters where it takes action based
on the result of the comparison. An example of this function is when using a credit card to book a hotel, the
computer determines the vacancy. Another example is when using a credit card, it determines if the customer
has exceeded the credit limit.

3. Registers
Inside the CPU are small but high-speed data storage called registers. Registers are temporary storage areas that
hold data and instructions temporarily. Registers work under the control unit to accept, hold and transfer
instructions or data and perform arithmetic/logical comparisons at high speed. The register is where data that is
to be processed at high speed are placed and the results also pass through here before they are sent to
memories outside the CPU. Processors have different types of CPUs that decode it, store data while ALU
computes it, and store results of ALU calculation or control unit comparison.

4. Memory or RAM
RAM is the primary internal storage that holds data and instructions for processing. It allows fast access but
stores them only when the computer is turned on and loses data when the computer is turned off.
 5. Cache
Cache stores memory data and speeds up operation by making recently accessed data immediately available to
the processor. The cache is a memory located inside the microprocessor chip, but it is not considered a register.
It is used to read data coming in from external memory. The cache speed is a lot faster than the processor
speed. Its memory comes in 2 or 3 levels, depending on the microprocessor chip. Level 1 (L1) is the smallest but
fastest. Level 2 |(L2) is bigger but slower than L1. Level 3 (L3) has the largest memory among the three levels but
it is the slowest; however, it is still a lot faster than the speed of the RAM.

6. Input/Output
Input and output are the connection of the microprocessor to the outside world. They allow the processor to
communicate with the RAM, hard disk, and other components inside the computer system. The motherboard,
which contains the microprocessor, usually provides the access to the other input/output peripherals.

7. System Clock
The CPU system clock is generated by a quartz crystal. The system clock provides a fixed sequence in time that
cannot be changed. The number of ticks in one cycle is called the clock rate. The faster the clock rate, the faster
the processor in processing instructions. Today’s microprocessor clock rates are measured in gigahertz (GHz).
Giga is a prefix denoting billions and hertz in one cycle per second. Therefore, one gigahertz (GHz) is one billion
processor clock cycles per second. A CPU that is rated at 1.6 GHz has 1.6 billion processor clock cycles per
second. Therefore, it is preferable to have a processor with a high clock rate.

8. Bus
Buses are the three sets of wires used to connect the CPU or microprocessor to CPU cache memory and
input/output devices. It is usually the L2 cache. The three
internal buses in a PC are:
a. Control bus
b. Address bus
c. Data bus

How CPU Works

The CPU executes a step-by-step instruction in its memory called the program. The microprocessor is an integrated
circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors. All actual computing starts with the CPU. The ALU does the
arithmetic and logic operations of the computer. The control unit functions just like a traffic enforcer that directs the
sequence of traffic or operation that the CPU follows. It determines what numbers to add and what data to compare in
the ALU.

Machine Cycle
There are four basic steps that the CPU does to process its operation: fetch, decode, execute, and store. The process is
repeated again and again until the last instruction.
This is also called t machine cycle.

Step 1 Fetch is the process of getting instructions or data from program memory (cache or RAM).
Step 2 Decoding is the process of translating these instructions or data that the CPU can understand and execute
upon.
Step 3 Execute is the process of carrying out the command. The commands are executed or performed either in
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) or floating point unit (FPU).
Step 4 Store or Writeback is the process of writing the result to the memory. This memory is in the CPU itself
and they are called the register.

For the computer to get information, the CPU sends a request to the memory controller and gets a report back of when
the information will be available. This cycle can vary in length according to memory speed as well as other factors, such
as bus speed.
The system clock, located in the motherboard, sends a signal to all components, just like a metronome ticking. Each click
of the clock represents a clock cycle. A clock running at 100MHz represents 100 million clock cycles per second. Every
action is timed by the clock and different actions require a different number of clock cycles.

Cache memory is a relatively small amount of high-speed memory and is located near the CPU. It is designed to supply
the CPU with the most frequently requested data. It takes a fraction of the time, compared to normal memory, to access
cache memory. The cache memory tracks instructions, putting the most frequently used instruction at the top of the list.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFICATION: Identify the parts of the CPU
___1. Which part of the CPU contains electrical signals that direct other parts of the system to do their work?
___2. What part of the CPU contains electronic circuitry that executes the arithmetic and logical operations like
calculations and comparisons?
___3. Which part of the CPU served as a temporary storage area that holds data and instructions temporarily?
___4. What part of the CPU served as the primary internal storage that holds data and instructions for processing?
___5. Which part of the CPU allows the processor to communicate with the RAM, hard disk, and other components
inside the computer system?
___6. Which part of the CPU provides the fixed sequence in time that cannot be changed?
___7. Which part of the CPU has three sets of wires used to connect the CPU or microprocessor to CPU cache memory
and input/output devices?
___8. What do you call a process of getting instructions or data from program memory?
___9. What is the process of translating these instructions or data that the CPU can understand and execute upon?
__10. What is the process of writing the result to the memory?

LESSON 3 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The RAM is located in the
motherboard. The parts of a RAM
are as follows:

How RAM Works

RAM is an essential component of a computer system. This memory is connected to
the CPU (Central Processing Unit) usually located in a motherboard. RAM is a
temporary storage for programs and data fetched from a CD or hard disk, and it is
designed to handle data as fast as it can be designed.
The characteristics of a RAM are as follows:
1. It can be accessed randomly thereby making faster loading and retrieval of programs and data.
2. It is a temporary storage for programs and data, therefore its contents change frequently
3. Information in the RAM stay in the memory as long as there is electrical power supplied to it, otherwise all
information is lost.

The RAM functions as follows: when you open your computer, the operating system loads into the RAM; when you open
application programs such as Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop, as well as your e-mail and social media programs
like FB, all of them, will be loaded into the RAM; so the CPU can fetch them faster since RAMs are incredibly faster than
the hard disk or the CD, thereby, working on these applications will be faster. When you close a program, an application,
or an internet function, the RAM is cleared to be used again by the next program that you will use.

RAM assists when you work on an application, for example, if you open Adobe
Photoshop it takes a bit of time for it to open. When it is open and you stop
using it for a while to look for something on the internet and then return to it,
you will notice that it will load or open up rapidly this time around, that is
because the Photoshop program is now in the RAM, and that is how RAM
supports faster computer operations. If you have several applications opened at
the same time, they are all residing temporarily inside the RAM, and when you
return to the program, it will open faster. Therefore, the bigger size of the RAM
of the computer, the faster and smoother will your computer be operating.

RAM is a faster memory compared to the old system called the Serial Access Memory (SAM) which is used to access data
sequentially since the data is also accessed one at a time just like the tape system of the past. RAMs have support
circuits and infrastructure so the computer will be able to access the right program and data to load into the CPU. This
support system determines the data or program location inside the RAM making it possible to access them quickly.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
T/F: Write T if the statement is correct and F otherwise.
____1. RAM can be accessed randomly thereby making faster loading and retrieval of programs and data.
____2. RAM is temporary storage for programs and data, therefore its contents change frequently.
____3. Information in the RAM stays in the memory as long as there is electrical power supplied to it.
____4. RAM cannot assist when you work on an application.
____5. RAM is a faster memory compared to the old system.
____6. RAMs don’t support circuits and infrastructure so the computer will be able to access the right program and data
to load into the CPU.
____7. RAM is cleared when you turn off the computer, to be used again by the next program that you will open.
____8. RAM is a temporary storage for programs and data fetched from a CD or hard disk, and it is designed to handle
data as fast as it can be designed.
____9. RAM is not an essential component of a computer system.
____10. when you open your computer, the operating system loads into the RAM

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

LESSON 4 The HDD is usually located at the bottom of the computer case. The
parts of the hard disk are as follows: Platter, spindle, read/write head, actuator
arm, actuator axis, power connector, SATA connector, and jumper.

How HDD Works

The HDD (Hard Disk Drive) was developed for IBM by
Renoyld B. Johnson to replace the slow and serially-
read form of computer memory such as punched
cards and magnetic tape. Accessing information or
data from these devices requires that you read from
beginning to end so that if the information that you want to read is at the end, you will have to spin the tape forward
until you reach the end. Hard disks were created to randomly access from memory, whether the data is at the
beginning, middle, the end, giving a faster access time compared to the punched card or the magnetic tape. The first
hard disk was very large, as big as a very large refrigerator, had a rotating disk running at 1,200 rpm (revolutions per
minute), had a capacity of 3.75 Megabytes, had 50 disks each at 24-inch diameter, had an access time of about 200
milliseconds, weighed about 900 kilos, and memory cost was enormous in the range of P400,000.00 per megabyte. It
was called the IBM 350 Disk Storage Unit.

Today, thanks to continuous innovation, HDDs have capacities of 1 to 10 terabytes, just weighing around 60 grams, can
now be held by your hand at 30 cubic centimeters, access time of a few milliseconds, and cost around Two Pesos per
gigabyte.

Hard disk is a marvel of engineering and physics. It looks like a simple metal
enclosure on the outside, but inside is precision engineering design and
manufacturing process at work. Hard disks are computers memory
workhorse located inside the desktop computer or a laptop, where the
operating system program, application software such as MS Word, MS
Excel, Photoshop, etc., and all other data files are stored even when the
power is turned off. Microsoft Windows label the hard disk as the “C” drive.
HDD stores data and all other files as 1s and 0s since everything inside is
digital, and this is accomplished by the principle of magnetism. A simple
way of storing data is to magnetize a bit (binary digit) corresponding to 1
and to store 0 is to demagnetize that area.

Inside the hard disk is a platter made of aluminum or glass coated with magnetic material. Consumer HDD platter rotates
at 5400 rpm (revolutions per minute) or 7200 rpm with some HDDs at 10,000 rpm for high-performance HDD. The
platter which is constantly rotating is where data are stored. It is accessed by a read-write head connected and held by
an electrically controlled actuator arm. The head does not touch the smooth surface of the platter as it accesses or
writes on the platter but it just files by a distance of around tens of nanometers, so wear and tear on the platter and the
head is greatly reduced. One HDD may hold 3 to 4 platters with two read-write heads, one to read or write on the top
surface and the other one to read the bottom for each platter, so a 4-platter hard disk would require 8 separate heads.

Data inside the hard disk are stored in an orderly fashion on each platter. Data are arranged in a circular concentric path
called tracks, and tracks are broken into smaller areas called sectors. The hard disk contains the map of each sector and
writes data on vacant positions or retrieves data from the sectors for data to be worked on. The actuator arm positions
the read-write head to the correct position where data will be written or read on.

Care of the hard disk requires that it be placed in a dust-free and cool environment to preserve its life and make it run
efficiently. HDDs are particularly sensitive to dust since they could disrupt or crush the read-write head into the platter,
destroying data stored on it. HDDs have filters to remove all dust particles from getting inside the HDD. Computer users
should not attempt to open the HDD since opening it would ruin the HDD.

It is always a good practice to back up important data contained in the HDD to an external HDD, CDs or DVDs, USB flash
drives, or other external storage devices to recover the data in case the HDD in the computer crashes.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:
1. What is the importance of a Hard Drive in a computer system?
2. What are the parts of a Hard Disk Drive? Enumerate.