A.

jeffersonianum, 111;

A. mavortium, 115;

A. opacum, 110;

A. persimile, 111;

A. punctatum, 110;

A. talpoideum, 110;

A. tigrinum, 111 f.;

e tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under-surface, so that it can be
elevated but not protruded. It fills the whole space between the two halves of the
lower jaw behind their symphysis. The dorsal surface shows numerous irregular
polygonal fields, in the middle of most of which opens the duct of a large mucous
gland. Tactile and gustatory corpuscles are scattered over the surface in the shape
of tiny wartlike elevations. The hinder margin of the tongue is raised into a
transverse fold, which, by meeting a similar fold from the palate, the velum
palatinum, can shut off the mouth completely from the deep and wide cavity of the
throat, which leads of course into the gullet. Dorsally the choanae open into this
cavity; and since the narial passages are transformed into long tubes, completely
surrounded by bone, Crocodiles can lie submerged in the water, with only the
nostrils exposed and with the mouth open, and breathe without water entering the
windpipe. The opening of the latter, the glottis, is a longitudinal slit, protected
by the laryngeal cartilages, opened and closed by muscles. There is also a pair of
membranous folds within the glottis, which serve as vocal cords. Ventrally below
the larynx lies the cartilaginous, broad, shield-shaped hyoid; on the sides are
attached the short hyoid horns. The trachea is long, consists of about sixty or
more complete cartilaginous rings, and divides into two short bronchi, likewise
protected by complete rings. The trachea is depressed; its transverse diameter
decreases {444}from the glottis backwards. The lungs have attained a high degree of
efficiency. Each lung is an oval sac, and is transformed into a complicated system
of tubes, at the end of which are the countless honeycomb-like respiratory cells,
the whole lung being spongy. The main bronchus is continued straight down to the
posterior end of the lung, and sends off during its course regular secondary
bronchi, and these send off tertiary bronchi. The whole arrangement is very
regular, the tubes coming off like rows of organ-pipes. Each lung hangs freely in
the thoracic cavity. Besides its ventral attachment by its arteries, veins, and the
bronchus, it is connected by loose tissue with the liver and the pericardial
septum. Each half of the thoracic cavity is partitioned off from the abdominal
cavity by a strong transverse mesenteric lamella. The partition between the lungs
and the stomach is at first simple, it then divides, to enclose the liver; the
anterior partition passing between liver and lung to the inner surface of the
sternum; the posterior lamella between the liver and the stomach. Both meet on the
ventral surface of the liver, and are continued into or attached to the peculiar
"diaphragmatic" muscle. This is covered by the internal rectus muscle of the
abdomen, arising from the last pair of abdominal ribs near the pubic bones; it is
innervated by a branch of the last precrural nerve, and extends as a broad but thin
muscular sheath (always within and unconnected with the abdominal wall) to the
ventral posterior vein of the liver; thence it is continued as an aponeurosis,
together with the peritoneal lamella mentioned above, to the inner surface of the
sternum. Contraction of this singular muscle indirectly widens the pulmonary
cavity, and thereby directly aids inspiration. It acts consequently like the
diaphragm or midriff of Mammals, although it is morphologically an entirely
different muscle.

The stomach is smaller than one might expect from the fact that large Crocodiles
can eat up nearly a whole man; but a great deal of their prey is stowed away
preliminarily in the wide gullet until the rapid, powerful digestion, which
dissolves every bone, makes room in the stomach. This consists of a wide, somewhat
globular gizzard, rather muscular, with a pair of tendinous centres like those of
birds, and a much smaller pyloric, globular, more glandular compartment. It leads
into the duodenum, which is coiled up into a double loop, and receives at its end
the {445}hepatic and pancreatic ducts. The small intestine is narrow, and is stowed
away in a few irregular coils; the rectum is wide; a caecum is absent.

The cloaca is peculiar. The coprodaeum and urodaeum, cf. p. 498, are confluent, and
form a wide, oval bag, closed in front and behind by strong sphincters, and it acts
normally as a urinary receptacle. In the dorsal wall open the two ureters; a little
towards the sides, and ventrally, open the two oviducts, on the right and left,
near the base of the clitoris. Then follows a transverse, soft, muscular fold,
which shuts off this cavity from the proctodaeum or outermost chamber. In the
latter is stowed away the rather large copulatory organ. It arises out of the
medio-ventral wall of the cloaca, and has a deep, longitudinal groove on its
morphologically dorsal side for the conduction of the sperma, the vasa deferentia
opening near its basal end. On either side of the root of this organ, in both sexes
alike, opens a peritoneal canal, wide enough in large specimens to pass a goose-
quill. The outer opening of the cloaca forms a longitudinal slit; within it, dorso-
laterally, are the openings of the two anal musk-glands.

The kidneys are much lobed. The testes are long and oval; the ovaries are much
elongated and flat; and the eggs contained therein in great numbers are extremely
small, except those which ripen during the time of propagation.

The vascular system has attained the highest state of development of all reptiles.
The heart is practically quadrilocular, the partition between the right and left
ventricle being complete; but there is still a small communication, the foramen
Panizzae, which lies in the middle of the wall common to both aortae, where they
leave their respective ventricles. The left aortic arch conveys all the
arterialised blood out of the left ventricle, and supplies head, neck, trunk, and
tail. The right aortic arch, coming from the right ventricle, supplies venous
blood, mixed with what little arterial blood it receives through the foramen
Panizzae, to most of the viscera. On a level with the stomach both descending
aortic arches are still connected with each other; the left aorta supplies most of
the gut; the right, the trunk and the kidneys.

The outer ear lies in a recess, dorsally overhung by the lateral edge of the bony
squamoso-postfrontal bridge; and this {446}carries a flap of skin, provided with
muscles, to close the ear tightly. The tympanic membrane is visible at the bottom
of the recess; shining through it is part of that cartilage which is homologous
with the malleus of the auditory ossicular chain; the outward extension of the
latter on its way to the mandible, behind the joint, passes as a partly
cartilaginous string through the slit-like hole which is visible at the back of the
skull, between the quadrate and the latero-occipital wing.

The eyes have, besides the lower and upper lid, a third, the nictitating membrane,
which can be drawn over the front of the eyeball. In the upper lid lies a cup-
shaped bony plate of variable size. The pupil contracts into a vertical slit. The
iris is greenish.
fig104

Fig. 104.–Map to
metamorphosis of, 112 f.

Amblystomatinae, 102, 109

Ameiva, 549

Amnion, a membrane round the embryo, 278

Amphibia, 3 f.;

definition, 5;

systematic position, 5;

numbers of species, 4

Amphicondylous, i.e. the occipital part of the skull articulates with the neck by a
right and a left knob, 4

Amphignathodon, 185;

A. guentheri, 188

Amphignathodontinae, 139, 188

Amphisbaena, 566;

A. fuliginosa, 566

Amphisbaenidae, 514, 565 f.

Amphiuma, 88, 96;

A. means s. tridactyla, 100, 101

{652}Amphiumidae, 94, 97

Amphodus, 210;

A. wucheri, 211

Anaconda, 603, 603

Anaides = Autodax (q.v.), 107

Anal sacs of Chelonia, used as additional respiratory organs, 330

Anarosaurus pumilio, 477

Anchisaurus, 415, 417, 421;

skull of A. coelurus, 421

Ancistrodon, 645;

A. contortrix, 646, 646;

A. halys, 645;

A. himalayanus, 645;

A. piscivorus, 645, 645

Anderson, on nest of Gavialis, 452

Andrews, on Amblystoma, 110

Andrias scheuchzeri, 84

Anelytropidae, 514, 564

Anelytropsis papillosus, 564

Anguidae, 513, 537 f.;

distribution, 501, 529

Anguis fragilis, 539, 539

Aniella pulchra, 564

Aniellidae, 514, 564

Annandale, on habits of Calotes, 518;

of Liolepis, 527;

of Rhacophorus, 247;

of Varanus salvator, 544

Anodonta, as food of Trionyx, 407

Anodontohyla, 236

Anolis, 528;

A. carolinensis, 529

Anomodontia, 309

Anura, 7;

characters, 138;

classification, 139 f., 141;

phylogenetic tree of, 142

Anus, asymmetrical position of, 60

Apoda, 84 f.;

affinities, 88;

distribution, 89;

eyes, 86;

skin, 87;

skull, 84, 85;

spermatozoa, 87;

tentacular apparatus, 88;

vertebrae, 86;

visceral arches, 86

Archaeopteryx, 417

Archegosaurus, vertebrae, 13, 82, 287

Arcifera, of Cope, 140;

of Boulenger, 140

Arciferous, type of shoulder-girdle, 24, 25

Arion, slug, eaten by tortoises, 363

Arrau-turtle (Podocnemis), 391 f.

Arteria cutanea magna, 144;

A. sacralis of Anura, 144

Arthroleptis, 241, 242;

A. seychellensis, 243, 243

Ascaphus, 153

Asterophrys, 161

Athecae, 333;

definition of name, 337

Atlantosaurus, 415, 419;

A. immanis, 419, 420

Atlas and Axis, i.e. first and second cervical vertebrae; of Cryptobranchus, 13;

of Crocodilia, 283;

of Chelonia, 283, 316;

of Sphenodon, 283, 294;

atlas fused with axis, 307

Atoposauridae, 453

Atractaspis, 638;

dentition, 593 n.
Atria, the thin-walled receptive parts (auricles) of the heart

Auditory columellar apparatus, of Amphibia, 24;

of Anura, 29

Australian, Anura, spawning time and habits of, 201;

Lacertilia, 502

Autodax, 96, 104, 107;

A. lugubris, 107;

A. iecanus, 107

Autosauri, 491 f.

Axis;

see Atlas

Axolotl, 65, 112 f., 112;

Neoteny of, 65, 112

Azemiops feae, 638

Balancers of Amphibia, 45

Baptanodon, 483, 484

Barfurth, on absorption of Tadpole's tail, 61

Bartlett, on Boa constrictor, 602;

on Pipa, 152

Basiliscus, 528, 530;

B. americanus, 530, 530

Bates, on habits of Podocnemis, 392 f.

Batrachomyia, fly infesting Bufonidae, 177

Batrachophrynus, 224;

B. macrostomus, 225;

B. brachydactylus, 224

Batrachopsis, 161

Batrachoseps, 96, 104

Batrachylodes, 241

Batrachyperus, 96;
B. sinensis, 109

Baur, on Sphargis, 336

Bdellophis, 90

Bedriaga, on Axolotl, 114;

synopsis of Urodelous Larvae, 59 n.

Bell, J., on classification, 8

Bell, Napier, on habits of Iguana, 531

Belodon, 305, 434, 448

Bemmelen, on Sphargis, 336

Berg, on Spelerpes fuscus, 106

Bert, quoted, 571 n.

Bidder's organ, 49, 52

Biedermann, on change of colour in Hyla, 35

Birds not related to Dinosaurs, 416 f.

Bitis arietans, 639, 639;

B. nasicornis, 640

Black Snake, of Australia, 634;

of North America, 613

Blainville, de, on classification, 7

Blanus cinereus, 566

Blood, shape of red corpuscles, 4;

temperature, 67 f.

Blood-sucker = Calotes ophiomachus, 519

Blum, quoted, 642 n.

Boa, 602;

B. constrictor, 602;

B. dumerili, 602;

B. madagascariensis, 602

Boettger, on influence of climate and country upon reptiles, 492 f.

Boidae, 592, 596 f.;

skull, 596, 597

Boinae, 601 f.

Bombinator, 154 f., 155;

habits, 156 f.;

tadpoles, 157;

abnormal vertebrae, 22;

shoulder-girdle, 25;

urino-genital organs, 49;

B. igneus, 154, 155;

B. pachypus, 155

Bothrops, 647

{653}Boulenger, classification of Amphibia Caudata, 9;

on vertebrae of Pelobates, 20;

on vertebrae of Bombinator, 22;

number of phalanges in Anura, 27;

on poison of Amphibia, 36;

on vocal sacs, 48;

on modes of fecundation and nursing habits, 54, 56;

synopsis of Tadpoles, 59 n.;

on tadpoles of Rana opisthodon, 260;

on classification of Anura, 140, 141;

on Pipa, 152;

on Scaphiopus solitarius, 165;

on Alligator sinensis, 471;

on Lanthanotus, 542;

on aberrant scaling, 495;

on Heloderma, 540 n.;

on classification of Snakes, 592;

on Sea-Snakes, 637;
on Sphargis, 336

Boulengerula, 90

Box-Tortoises, 362, 364, 365

Brachial plexus, of Anura, 39

Brachycephalus, 226, 227;

B. ephippium, 231

Brachylophus, distribution, 501, 528

Brain, of Scaphognathus, 485;

small size of, in Dinosaurs, 425

Branchial arches, of Urodela, 16;

of Anura, 42

Branchiosauri, 80

Branchiosaurus, skull, 80;

B. salamandroides, 80

Brauer, on development of Apoda, 92;

on nursing habits of Arthroleptis, 243