WORD FORMATION PROCESSES AND SPELLING 4. Introduction Morphology is the part of linguistics that deals with word formation processes and _ word structures There are different types of words depending on the elements present. A term typically used in morphology is morpheme. According to O’Grady and Guzmén (2001), a morpheme {s “the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function” (p. 133). In turn, morphemes can be of two types: free and bound. A free morpheme is one meaningful item that can stand alone (=can be used on its own). That is to say, they can be used independently. For example, the following words are themselves free morphemes: cow, trend, part, give. In contrast, a bound morpheme is a word part with meaning and function but which cannot be used by itself. It always depends on some other word part. Consider the items unwise, sensibility, sanity, and preconceive. These words are made up of independent elements (wise, sense, sane and conceive) and dependent elements (un-, -ible, ity; pre-). Words can be classified on the basis of the elements that make them up. If a word is itself a free morpheme, it is known as a simple word, e.g. cow. If a word contains both a free and a bound morpheme, it is said to be a complex word, e.g. childish. Yet a third category is recognized if a lexical item is itself made up of two or more already existent elements. Examples include headband, write-up, short list, down-to- earth, motor neurone disease, to name only a few. These items are known as compound words. English words can be formed by following a number of different procedures, including affixation, compounding, internal change, conversion, acronymy, and blending, ‘among others. In spite of the several word formation processes available, the majority of English lexical items are formed either by affixation or compounding. Below you will find a description of each of these processes and reference to how spelling may be affected in forming words. Next, a series of exercises are provided for you to identify processes and make judgements as to orthographic and morphological characteristics of the words presented. FOTOCOPIADORA CaF Apuntes 4 py i Reve Pa b.. cats,2. Some word formation processes Affixation ‘an extremely common process, affixation refers to the addition of affixes (bound elements) to free elements. There are different types of affixes. Whereas the affixes placed at the beginning of a base are called prefixes, like un- in undo, the ones Attached at the end of the base are known as suffixes, such -ous in poisonous. another distinction necessary for understanding affixation is that between base and root. A base is “a word which an affix is attached to” (Plag, 2003, p. 11). For instance, the base of the word activate is active, to which the verb-forming suffix ~ fate has been added. In contrast, a root is the smallest word part, the one which Cannot be further divided into morphemes.Therefore, for the word mentioned above, the root is act. Obviously, sometimes the base and the root coincide. Notice the make-up of active. There are two affixational processes in English: inflection and derivation. Inflection refers to the addition of suffixes that mark a grammatical contrast. Consider the word drink in the following sentences: She drinks a lot of water in the morning. She has been drinking less water these days. Attaching -s at the end of drink signals the singular form of this verb in the present tense and the -ing form in the second sentence indicates progressive aspect. Therefore, although the form of the word changes, the grammatical category (in this case verb) and meaning remain unaltered. Compare this situation with the use of derivatives of the word act. Any act of violence will be severely condemned. Officials are not planning any drastic action. ‘Are you actively looking for work at the moment? He felt strangely inactive. As you can see, by adding derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes), words change both in terms of grammatical category and meaning. In the chart below you will find the basic differences between these two affixational processes. -encodes lexical meaning ncodes grammatical meaning -is not syntactically relevant -is syntactically relevant-can occur inside derivation -occurs outside all derivation -often changes the part of speech -does not change part of speech -is often semantically opaque -is rarely semantically opaque -is often restricted in its productivity -is fully productive -is not restricted to suffixation -always suffixational (in English) Taken from Plag (2003, p. 17) Compounding ‘As was stated above, compounds are made up of two or more independent elements and belong mostly (though not exclusively) to the grammatical categories of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The following is an exemplificatory list of compounds on the basis of word categories: NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE fire engine spoonfeed nationwide oil well whitewash read hot » afterthought overlook homegrown scrub nurse underestimate sky blue Internal change This refers to the substitution of a word bit for another bit to mark a difference in the grammar. It is important to state that these parts are not morphemes themselves. Consider the following sets: sing sang steal stole drive drove mouse mice foot feet goose geese Conversion This process involves no derivation and, therefore, some authors call it zero derivation. It refers to the use of the same surface form to create a new word with a change of category and meaning. The following are some examples: V>>N to.go go to walk walk toread readNev bottle to bottle file to file skin to skin Anv empty to empty dirty to dirty open to open A>>N poor the poor privileged the privileged unknown the unknown Ady >> V down to down out ‘to out up to up ‘Acronymy ‘Acronyms are created when a new word is made up of the initial letters of a phrase oF name, and they are pronounced as a single word. There are famous and clear examples of acronyms, including NASA, UNICEF, and RAM, among others. In certain cases, the words have been used for a long time and we may not realize the are the result. of acronymy. Consider the items: radar and scuba. With the help of a dictionary, find the morphological sources of these two words. Blending Blend words (also known as portmanteau words) are the combination of parts of two words, for instance, brunch is created by combining breakfast and lunch, and smog is. the result of smoke and fog. This is not considered one of the major important processes but, as Lieber (2009) argues, it “is used quite a bit in English in advertizing, product-naming, and playful language” (p. 52).3. Common derivational affixes Following is a list adapted from (0°Grady & Guzman, 2001). Choose five of them and explain the characteristics of the bases and the function of the affix. For example, the suffix -ity is added to Latinate bases and it forms nouns denoting qualities, states or properties. Suffixes: -(at)ion V>N _ |realization, assertion, protection, persuasion “able/ible|V>A __ |perishable, breakable, discernible N>A___ |reasonable, serviceable, fashionable -age N=N__ [orphanage, voltage, yardage V>N _ |spillage, leakage, coverage vance (ence |V>N __ |riddance, dependence, expectancy, -ancy /ency) presidency, constituency -ant V>N _ |defendant, claimant, inhabitant -ate A>V___ activate, captivate, regulate -ee V>N __ [evacuee, employee, standee A>N [absentee | A>N _ |refugee -eer NN |puppeteer, pamphleteer, mountaineer -en ’A>V |blacken, deaden, quicken, _ strengthen, | N>V lengthen -er/-or V>N _ |teacher, writer, compressor N>N_ |New Yorker, Londoner, New Englander “ey AN bravery, rivalry N>N__ |greenery, cookery, pottery “ess NN |lioness, tigress, waitress ete NN |kitchenette, usherette, leatherette -dom NN [apedom, clerkdom, stumdom ful NN |mouthful, spoonful, fistful N>A _ |beautiful, insightful, purposeful -hood N>N___ |adulthood, childhood, farmerhood | -(ial N>A____ presidential, national, substantialN>A___ |technician, historian, Utopian NA felectric(al), historic(al), economic(al) stimes. with meaning difference -ify A>V___ |solidify, humidify, specify -ing V>N_ | shooting, building, dancing V>A _ |sleeping (giant), blazing (fire) ish NA | childish, Danish, foolish A>A __ |reddish, thirtyish, clearish -ity A>N curiosity, formality, antiquity -ive V>N _ |assertive, predictive, restrictive -ize N>V__ |computerize, hospitalize, crystallize A>V___ |randomize, functionalize, humidify -less N>A___ |expressionless, hopeless, speechless -let N>N _ [booklet, piglet, starlet ty N>A___ [brotherly, cowardly, fatherly A> Ady |happily, stupidly, interestingly -ment V>N ___ |establishment, development, bombardment ~ness A>N silliness, blindness, dryness -ous N> A | poisonous, mountainous, glorious ~yl-ey N>A | dusty, clayey, lovey-dovey ~yl-ie N>N _ |daddy, doggie Prefixes: anti- 7 i ‘A> N| anti-abortion, anti-pollution, anti-capitalistic de- V>V deactivate, demystify, dethrone dis- vv discontinue, disobey, disagree ex: N>N _ lexfriend, ex-wife, ex-president in-(and ‘>A | incompetent, implausible, illegal, irregular variants) mis- V>V___ | misidentify, misplace, misuse re: v>V rethink, redo, restate un- V>V untie, undo; unlock A>A —— |unhappy, unfair, uniteltigent4. Word formation spelling and rules The following spelling rules will help you add suffixes and prefixes to different words in the correct way. These rules apply to both inflectional suffixes, such as ‘ed’, ‘ing’, ‘er’, ‘est? and derivational suffixes, such as ‘ly’, ‘ment’, ‘ness’, ete. In other words, _ they One-syliable Words ending ina CVC combination © When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel double the final consonant run + ing = running sun + y= sunny When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant do not double the final consonant. ship + -ment = shipment NOTE: This rule does not apply to words that do not end in a eve combination. pump + ed = pumped sing + ing = singing b) Two-syllable and longer words ending in a CVC combination e when adding a suffix that begins with @ vowel to a word of more than one- syllable ending in the CVC combination stressed on the last syllable, usually double the final consonant begin + er = beginner prefer + ing = preferring when adding a suffix that begins with a consonant, but do not double the final consonant. commit + -ment = commitment enrol + ment = enrolment © NOTE: This rule does not apply to words that do not end in the CVC combination. intend + -ed = intended contain + -ing = containingExceptions: conference - reference - transferable - transference (The stress pattern of the base word is moved to the first syllable.) «If the word has more than one syllable and ends in a single consonant, but the stress is not on the last syllable, do not double the final consonant. offer + ing = offering benefit + ed = benefited Exceptions: cancellation, crystallize, equipped, excellence, excellent, questionnaire, Notice the difference between American and British English in the spelling of the following words: British English American English travelling traveling cancelled canceled fuelling fueling labelled labeled modelling modeling paralleled paralleled signalling signaling snorkelling snorkeling ae When adding a suffix to a word which ends in a consonant followed by ay, change the ‘y' to''. happy + ness= happiness study + -ed = studied «Ifyou add the suffix ‘ing’ to a word ending in, keep the 'y’. try + ing= trying «if the -y is preceded by a vowel, do not change it destroy + -ed = destroyed Exceptions: daily, dryly, dryness, shyly, shyness, slyly, slyness, gaiety, gaily es «When adding a 'y or a suffix which starts with a vowel to a word which ends in a silent ‘e, drop the silent ‘e’.noise+ y = noisy. like+ ing = liking. love + able = lovable © When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant, keep the -e. love + less = loveless e When adding a suffix beginning with either an ‘2, or an ‘o! to a word that ends in ‘ce’, or ‘ge’, keep the ‘e’. courage + ous = courageous manage + able = manageable notice + able = noticeable outrage + ous = outrageous peace + able = peaceable service + able = serviceable trace + able = traceable Exceptions: argument, awful, duly, ninth, truly, wholly, and wisdom. add “il” to words beginning with [- illogical, illiterate ‘© add ‘im’ to words beginning with m or p- impersonal, immature add ‘ir’ to words beginning with r- irrational, irreparablePractice Activities A. Read the following text carefully. Next, consider the words in bold type and fully analyze the morphological process(es) used to create each of them. Living The world’s best cities for dating by Lindsey Galloway Love knows no borders - and no one knows that better than those who have found romance in another country. If you're looking for a relationship, whether in your roche country BF plored, your cas, Up- yout pits ih places HR, for their vibrant dating scenes. ‘These five cities, which we culled from lists by top travel magazines, include laid- back bars that make meeting people easy, trendy restaurants for that perfect first date, lush parks for romantic walks - and, most importantly, plenty of fun, friendly singles. =| Buenos Aires, Argentina Few places could be more romantic than the capital of Argentina and the birthplace of one of the world’s most sensual dances: the tango. “The nightlife lasts until 8.or even 10 in the morning,” said Catherine Huchan, an American who fell in love with an Argentine and moved to Buenos Aires five years ago. “Everyone lis] sweaty, dancing and so very happy.” Buenos Aires is a city that embraces romance to its fullest. “Everyone from teenagers to viejitos [older people] sit on park benches and gaze into each other's eyes, make out, kiss sweetly, laugh or even chortle,” said Huchan, who is also communications director for Virtual Dating Assistants, a service that helps men build better ontine dating profiles. Outside of park benches, socialising often happens over a bottle of local red wine in a romantic bar or at a downtown disco, with laser and neon lights, and music blasting out, The largest neighbourhood in the city, Palermo has its fair share of restaurants and bars, along with the Buenos Aires Zoo and botanical gardens. For those who want to live in a more historic area, Neoclassical architecture and cobblestoned streets give the city’s oldest neighbourhood, San Telmo in Buenos 10Aires’ east, a romantic European vibe. For an upscale night out, head to Puerto Madero alongside the eastern Rio de le Plata riverbank. Known as the chicest part of town, Puerto Madero also has the city’s most stylish restaurants - including Cabana Las Lilas, which serves its famous Argentinian beef with a view of the docks... ‘Text adapted from http:/ Jwunu,bbc, com! travel/feature/20140612-living-in-the-worlds-best-cities- for-dating B, Form adjectives from the following verbs using the affixes -able, -ing or -ive. you may have to change the forms of some words. desire: relax: cleanse: respond: die: intrigue: invade: strike: conclude: dismiss: commend: avoid: support: assert: pleasing: Adopted from Evans & Dooley (2002) C.. Read the text below. Use the words in the boxes to form one word that fits in each space. The words should be chosen from left to right in the order in which they appear in the boxes. Next, mention the process(es) you used to form the new words. Just after ... Jack looked out of the porthole again. If anything, the sea was looking even than it had been the night before. The wind had and was now accompanied by _ rain. Jack's heart sank. He felt after yet another . night spent trying things down and praying the yacht wouldn't think under the relentless battering of the wind and the waves. With the radio broken, he had no chance of signaling for help and all he had for company was mile upon unending mile of mountainous seas between him and the safety of port. He he was in a desperate situation. SUN CHOP INTENSE TORRENT DREAD SLEEP REAL “Adapted from Walton (7999) "D. Fill in as much of the chart as possible with different word categories. Use a dictionary when necessary. represent supporter colonization defender/defendant tyrant antagonistic Taken from Evans & Dooley (2002) E. Read the text below. Use the words in the boxes to form one word that fits in each space. The words should be chosen from left to right in the order in which they appear in the boxes. Next, mention the process(es) you used to form the new words. Some babies bawl when they have a wet nappy, others carry on gurgling - : teaving their mothers none the wiser and the baby at risk of nappy rash. Now novice British inventor, Paul Kimsey, has come up with a alarm which warns parents when it’s time to change their baby’s wet nappy. The electronic device placed in the nappy alerts the parent by sounding a bleeper carried on a belt or in a bag. Mr Kimsey, 36, came up with the idea seven years ago after witnessing the .. suffered by a relative's baby. He was to develop it at the time as he was busy running the family car mat manufacturing business. He has fine-tuned his idea since that first CONTENT RELY WARN COMFORT = ABLE. CONSIDER ~—BRAIN ‘Adapted from Walton (1999) 12F. Fill in as much of the chart as possible with different word categories. Use a dictionary when necessary. VERB PERSON NOUN: ADJECTIVE ABSTRACT ADVERB NOUN officer industry collaborative administratively organise ‘Adapted from Evans & Dooley (2002) G. Use the prefixes dis-, im-, il-, or ir- to form the opposites of the following adjectives. alanced wnFeputable evocable connected regular H. Read the sentences. Some of the words in brackets require the addition of i; others require y. Complete the words with | or y, as appropriate. 1. Have you (tr-ed) the dessert yet? 2. The baby (cr-ed) throughout the church service. 3. We compared two (theor-es) of evolution. 4. Peggy felt (betra-ed) by her manager. 5. You should be (stud-ing) for Friday's exam. 6. (Lonel-ness) was never a problem for Henry. 7. She (fl-es) on broken wings. 8. Ihave always (rel-ed) on my friends. 9. Please give Mr. Flannery my (apolog-es). 10..t was a (pit-ful) sight. 13|. Some of these words require the doubling of a consonant; others are correct as they stand. ‘The sun was (shin-ing) down like honey. The experiment was (control-ed) by a madman. The region is slowly (begin-ing) to recover. Doug (pour-ed) sugar over Yoddy's oatmeal. She keeps (forget-ing) to call me. Gus (admit-ed) his mistake. They were (sweat-ing) in the classroom. That idea never (occur-ed) to me. paneer ae yn > The bunny went (hop-ing) down to the abattoir. 10.His doctor (refer-ed) him to a dimple specialist. J. Identify the misspelled word and correct it. Refer to the rules seen in the course or consult the dictionary How many words in this quiz are mispelled? He planed to study literature in graduate school. He had commited himself to winning the competition. His constant drunkeness was becomeing an issue. The fact that she preferred Smith was not relevant to the conversation. This September, she'd be enterring kindergarten. The maintenance man was repairring the electrical outlet in the laboratory. She failed to understand why he took his handkerchiefs to the dry cleanners. The admiral orderred them to fire the missiles. gern araeno 0.1'm getting exhausted from tring to remember how to spell all these words. 14H. The following text contain some misspelled words. Identify them and correct thom. Jestly your corrections referring to tha ruins sec in the course. How to Save Petrol and the Environment We are all aware ofthe need to protect the environment but sometimes its difficult for us (0 do the right thing. For example, if you'e a motorrist the convenience of jumping in the car to go aoe we here is balanced against the knowledge of how barmfull each joumey can be. But did you sore that makeing a few simple changes to your driving habits will not only do Tess damage to ie world but will also save you money and could even be good for your health? ‘Do you really need to take the car? ‘Tey making more use of public transport. Ifthe service is frequent and relyable you'll soon get ised to useing busses and trains. Infact, for shorter jourmeis why not take the opportunity to get into shape and go on foot. Share the journey Hoare fen do you see cars with just one occuppant with the driver making the same joumey a5 thers living nearby? Why not car share and half the cost of the journey? There are several Srebsites where people can swap details and make arrangments to mect up. Serviceing Nake sure you carry out basic maintenance like checking the tyre pressure regularly. Finally, keep your car regularly serviced so that it runs as efficiently as possible. Steps like this will save you money and help you do your bit to protect the environment. Text adated from http://www.flo- joe.co.uk/pretiminaryenglish/reading/pet_reading_part_3_practice_test.htm 5. References Evans, V., & Dooley, J. (2002). Upstream proficiency. Students book. Newbury: Express Publishing. Lieber, R. (2009). Introducing morphology. New York: Cambridge University Press. O'Grady, W., & Guzman, ¥. (2001). Morphology: The analysis of word structure. In W. O'Grady, J. Archibald, M. Aronoff, & J. Rees-Miller (Eds.), Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. 4" Edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. Plag, |. (2003). Word: formation in English. New York: Cambridge University Press. Walton, R. (1999). Advanced English C.A.£. Grammar Practice. (2% Ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. 15