Civil Services Preparatory School

for CSS, PMS & SOPE

Current Affairs & Pakistan Affairs

G.M Pitafi
In-charge HoD, Political Science, RWU
Ph.D. Scholar IR (BUIC)
M.Phil. Political Science (PU)
M.A Political Science, Gold Medalist, (UoS)
Cell# 03022012545
 Contents

• Syllabus
• Dissecting Pakistan Affairs: Pre & Post partition
history
• Two Nation Theory
• War of Independence & Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
• Various events till independence 1947
• Initial Problems of Pakistan

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 Syllabus

1. Pakistan Affairs
• Ideology of Pakistan: Definition & Historical Aspects
• Pakistan Movement and Political Developments since
1947
• Defense of Pakistan: Terrorism & Counter Terrorism
• Education & Health system of Pakistan
• Geography of Pakistan: Land, People, Natural
Resources, Environment, Global Warming& Natural
Disaster, Ethnicity, Rural & Urban tendencies &
Agriculture G M PITAFI 03022012545
2. Current Affairs
• Pakistan’s relations with neighbors: India,
Afghanistan, Iran and China
• Pakistan’s relations with Muslim world
• Pakistan relations with: the USA, Russia, UK &
European Union
• Pakistan’s relations with Central Asian states, ASEAN
& Africa
• Pakistan’s role in international and regional
organizations
• WTO & GSP Plus
• Issues in Pakistan Politics
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G M PITAFI 03022012545
Ideology of Pakistan

Two Nation Theory

 Ideology
• It is a Greek word:
• Ideao means Idea
• Logos means studies
• So, it means study of ideas
• Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of
a group and a nation.
• It is a set of principles, a framework of action
and guidance system that gives order and
meaning to life and human action.
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 Ideology of Pakistan
Two Nation Theory

• The ideology of Pakistan came from the instinct

of the Muslim community of South Asia to
maintain their individuality in the Hindu society.

• The Muslims believed that Islam and Hinduism

are not only two religions, but are two social
orders that produced two distinct cultures. There
is no compatibility between the two
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• Hindus and Muslims are two different nations on
the basis of :

• Culture
• Religion
• Social order/system
• Economic system
• Political system
• History

• So, they can not live together in sub continent.

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• They demanded that the areas where they were in
majority should be constituted into a sovereign
state, where they could order their lives in
accordance with the teachings of Holy Quran and
Sunnah of Holy Prophet (PBUH).

• The Two-Nation Theory served as the basis of

demand for Pakistan by the Muslims in British India.

• There are two major nations in British India. The

Muslims are not a community but a nation with a
distinctive history, heritage, culture, civilization, and
future aspirations. G M PITAFI 03022012545
• The Muslims wanted to preserve and protect
their distinct identity and advance their interests
in India. They wanted to order their lives in
accordance with their ideals and philosophy of
life without being overwhelmed by an
unsympathetic majority.

• Initially, they demanded safeguards,

constitutional guarantees and a federal system of
government with powers to the provinces for
protection and advancement of their heritage,
identity and interests.
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• Later, they demanded a separate state when
neither the British nor the Hindu majority
community was willing to offer those guarantees
and safeguards.

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 Evolution of Two Nation theory

• It began since Muslims came in sub continent

712 during Muhammad bin Qasim.

• Later, Shah Waliullah, Syed Ahmed Shaheed,

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Allama Iqbal and Quaid
e Azam gave it practical shape.

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 Discussion

➢Two Nation Theory still relevant …?

➢Separation of east Pakistan (Bangladesh) in

1971 and relevance of two nation theory…?

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 Shah Waliullah (1703-1762)

❑ He was born in Delhi

❑ Original name Syed Qutub Din

❑ Muslim reformer of 18th century.

❑ He worked for the true education of Muslims

according to Islamic teachings.
Conditions of Muslims in 18th century…
❑ Muslims’ rule was declining in sub-continent during
the era of Mughals due to their austerity.

❑ Different Hindu movements were started to sabotage

Muslim rule. Like Bhagti movement.

❑ Hindus Marathas were making their roots strong to

snatch Muslim rule in sub-continent.

❑ King Akber’s ‘’Deen e Ilahi’’ was an attempt to merge

Hindus and Muslims as single identity.

❑ It was opposed by religious scholars.

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❑ Muslims of sub-continent were going
backward:

❑ Politically
❑ Economically
❑ Socially
❑ Religiously

❑ Shah Waliullah made an attempt to make the

Muslims’ conditions better.

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 Religious

Services of
Political Shah Economic
Waliullah

Social

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Shah Waliullah’s Services for Muslims of Sub-
continent…
1. Religious services:
❑ He translated Holy Quran into Persian.
❑ He composed Tafseer of Holy Quran as Muslims
could understand Islam properly.
❑ He tried to bring all sects of Islam under single
platform for the protection of Islam.
❑ He opposed ‘’Akber’s Deen e Ilahi’’ arguing it
was contrary to Islamic fundamnetals.
❑ He proposed Ijtehad against Taqlid.
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2. Political services:

❑ He wrote letters to Mughal emperors for the

betterment of their government.

❑ He trained Muslims for Jihad against Marathas.

❑ He invited Afghan Muslim ruler Ahmed Shah

Abdali to attack against Marathas.

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3. Social Services:

❑ He opened different branches of his Madrressa in

sub-continent to train Muslims socially.

❑ He stressed Muslims to get education.

❑ He opposed and informed Muslims about the

involvement of Hindu culture in Islam.

❑He believed on social justice and just society.

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4. Economic services:
❑ He forced Muslims to make their economical
position better.

❑ He believed in Socialism according to that wealth

should be distributed equally among every person
of the society.

❑ He favoured farmers and trained them against

wealthy people who were exploiting them.

❑ He wrote letters to Mughal rulers for reducing

their extra expanses and stopping corruption.
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 Conclusion
❑ Shah Waliullah woke up Muslims in sub-
continent.

❑ He purified Islam from Hindu influence.

❑ He rescued Muslims from moral downfall.

❑ He brought consciousness in Muslims in sub-

continent.
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 Syed Ahmed Shaheed Braelvi
(1786-1831)
❑ Syed Ahmed Shaheed was born at Rai Barailly.

❑ He received his education from the son of

Shah Waliullah.

❑ He worked for the reformation and revival of

Muslims in sub-continent.

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 Contributions for Muslims in Sub-continent

❑ He challenged the increasing role of non-

Muslims (Sikhs) in sub-continent.

❑ He started ‘’Mujahid Movement’’ against Sikh

ruler Raja Ranjit Singh and defeated him.

❑ He was killed in Balakot during fight against non-

Muslims in 1931.

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 Importance
❑ He was first who fought against anti-Muslim
forces and foreigners sub-continent.

❑ He formed Jihad movement which united

Muslims in sub-continent against non-Islamic
forces.

❑ His efforts were for the protection of Islamic

culture and norms.

❑ His Mujahid movement later gave birth to

Pakistan movement.
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 18th Century and Sub-continent
❑ In the middle of 18th century Mughal rule
became weak due to corruption,
mismanagement and foreign intervention.

❑ Finally, in 1843 British occupied Sindh and

sub-continent came under the rule of Britian.

❑ Indians (Muslims and non-Muslims) started

movement against British in 1857 called as
‘’War of Independence’’
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War of Independence (1857)
❑ War of Independence is an important landmark in the
history of Sub-Continent.

❑ This War was fought in 1857 by Indians against the

British in order to get rid of their domination.

❑ When British occupied most of the regions of sub-

continent the Mughal empire and their rule was
declining.

❑ It was a war after that British captured sub-continent

completely and replaced old systems with new.
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 Debate…

1857 War

Independence Mutiny/ Rebellion

For Indians For British

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 Causes
Militarily

War 1857
Economic Religious
Causes

Political

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1. Military Revolt:
❑ Indians were discriminated in British military.
❑ British hurted Indians religious sentiments in
army.
❑ There was a huge difference between Indians
and British salaries in military—Indians 7 rupees
and British 27 rupees at that time.
❑ Indians were not given promotions.
❑ British preached Christianity in cantonments.

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2. Religious
❑ East India company was only trade company but it
also brought Christianity and propagated that.

❑ Indians were stressed to convert in Christianity.

❑ Christian missionaries were allowed to preach.

❑ Christianity was given official patronage/ support in

which Indians sub-ordinates were forced to listen and
attend sermons.

❑ Hence, local people against British.

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3. Political Causes
❑ British defeated Mughal rulers badly.
❑ British wanted to wipe out all legacies of Islam
and Muslims from sub-continent as Muslims
could not regain their lost power again.
❑ British presented Muslims as barbaric and wild.
❑ Hindus were presented as innocent—Divide and
Rule….????
❑ British wanted to remove Bahadur Shah Zafar the
last Mughal emperor and Muslims prestige.
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4. Economic Causes
❑ Before East India Company’s occupation all posts
were hold by Indians—Hindus and Muslims
❑ But after Company rule Indians faced two
hardships:
1. Indians were banned from jobs.
2. Officers were not Indians rather British who
visited England on the wealth of sub-continent.
❑ Local property of Indians was undermined by
introducing new laws.
❑ British destroyed local industries i.e. silk
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 Immediate Cause
❑ British introduced Enfield Riffle in 1852.
❑ Cartridges greased shells made up from the fat of
cow and pork were used as ammunition in riffle.
❑ Soldiers had to open those cartridges with
mouth.
❑ Cow sacred for Hindus and Pork unlawful for
Muslims.
❑ A low caste sweeper told about this secret.
❑ It made Indians emotional and they rebelled
against British under the command of Mangal
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G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Outbreak of the War
❑ Soldiers of Meerut cantonment refused to use
those cartridges as a result Company sent all
rebels into jail.
❑ Other soldiers from different places also join
rebellion and it finally began.
❑ Communication wires, government places and
British soldiers were targeted.
❑ Moreover, Bahadur Shah Zafar also joined and
he led the war.

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❑ Company had advantage as it controlled all
means of communication.

❑ Moreover, Sikh Gorkhas also supported

Company.

❑ It remained three weeks.

❑ Finally, it failed!

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 Causes of Failure
1. Change in plan:
❑ Initially it was decided that they will start war
with plan and slowly but Cartridge issue caused
immediate action before plan.
2. Absence of active leadership:
❑ There was no any active leader.
❑ Bahadur Shah Zafar was old and he was
suddenly nominated for that.
❑ He was surrounded by many foes linked with
Company.
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3. Treachery of Sikhs:
❑ Sikhs provided every support to Company
❑ They also financially supported Company.
4. Company’s control over means of
communication:
❑ Company had telephone wire by which it could
informed all other cantonments.
5. Economic:
❑ Company had money and other financial
resources but B.S Zafar demanded money from
public to fulfil war expenses.
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 Results/ Effects
❑ It was first direct and collective challenge to
British rule in sub-continent by Indians.
❑ Common people challenged colonial master.
❑ Inspiration for coming anti-British people.
❑ Ended Mughal rule and British managed direct
control over whole sub-continent.
❑ East India Company was abolished and a
Secretary of State for India and a Council to
assist him was introduced.
❑ British started to wipe out Muslims and a new
Phase was started in the history of sub-continent.
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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898)
Aligarh Movement
Muslims in Sub-continent after 1857…
❑ After War of Independence Muslims became the major target
of British.

❑ Muslims’ only Mughal declined.

❑ Muslims’ social, political, economical and educational

conditions became worst.

❑ British accused Muslims for war and sided with Hindus

against Muslims—divide and rule.

❑ Muslims had not dare to talk with British at that time but Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan came forward and worked for the
betterment of Muslims.
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Life of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan…

❑ He received his early education in Holy Quran,

Arabic and Persian.

❑ He was an expert in Holy Quran, history, science

and Politics.

❑ He wrote about 42 books.

❑ He worked for the awakening of the Muslims in

sub-continent after war of Independence 1857.
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Contributions of Sir Syed for Muslims…
❑ British held only Muslims responsible for War of
Mutiny in 1857 and cooperated with Hindus even
they were also equally participated with Muslims.

❑ Sir Syed carefully evaluated the conditions of

Muslims who were going backward economically,
politically, educationally and socially.

❑ He started a movement in order to rescue Muslims.

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 Intellectual

Aligarh
Political Movement Social
Contributions

Educational

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 Sir Syed’s Aligarh Movement
(1858-1898)
❑ Sir Syed’s Aligarh Movement was based on two
principles:
1. Modern Education for Muslims
2. Co-operation with British
❑ He believed that Modern English scientific
education was the matter of life and death to
compete with Hindus.
❑ He advised Muslims to cooperate with British in
order to gain power and participation in various
posts.
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❑ He took practical steps to implement those principles
for the betterment of Muslims in sub-continent.

1. Intellectual Services:
❑ He wrote 42 books

❑ He wrote famous book ‘’Khutbaat e Ahmedia’’

in the answer of a English man who wrote book
against Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.

❑ He wrote an other booklet ‘’Causes of Indian

Revolt’’ in order to create goodwill between
British and Muslims after War of 1857.
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2. Social and Educational Services:
❑ He published ‘’ Tehzib ul Akhlaq’’ magazine for the
moral correction of Muslims in sub-continent.

❑ He attempted to create good contacts between Muslims

and British.

3. Educational Services:
❑ He saw the survival of Muslims in getting modern,
English and scientific education only.

❑ At that time Muslims did not send their children into

English schools but he insisted them to admit.

❑ He believed that Muslims could only compete with

Hindus and British through modern western education.
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❑ He established Scientific Society in Muradabad in
1864, whose main objective was to translate books
from foreign languages into Urdu in a journal
namely ‘’ Aligarh Institute Gazette’’ in 1866. it
was published in two languages—Urdu and
English.
❑ He established Muhammadan Anglo Oriental
School (M.A.O School) in 1875 where modern
English, history , mathematics and geography
education was taught. This School later became
M.A.O College in 1877 and finally Aligarh
University in 1920
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4. Political Services:
❑ After War of Independence 1857 the political
conditions of Muslims were pathetic and merciful.

❑ Mughal rule declined and Hindus sided with

British eventually Muslims remained in isolation.

❑ Therefore, Political survival was necessary for the

survival of Muslims in sub-continent.

❑ He asked Muslims to avoid from politics and

attain modern education.
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❑ He strongly prohibited Muslims from joining
Indian National Congress 1885, which was
formed by a retired British civil servant A.O.
Hume, because it was dominated by Hindus.

❑ He said to Muslims that they should not trust on

Hindus because they could not friends of Muslims.

❑ He first time openly advocated Two Nation Theory

that Hindus and Muslims are different in every
aspect of life and they can not live together.
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 Analysis
❑ Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is considered as the most
controversial personality of sub-continent between
Progressives and Orthodoxes.
According to Progressives:
✓He worked to make Islam and modernity
compatible with each other.
✓ He was not against Islam.
✓ He contributed to modernize Islam.
✓ He re-interpreted Islamic values in a redefined
social, political and cultural framework.
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According to Orthodoxes:

✓ He tried to westernize Islam.

✓ He was against Islam.

✓ He was loyal with British.

✓ He tried to mix up Islam with western values and

frameworks.

✓ Religious orthodox strongly opposed his

contributions.
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The Partition of Bengal
(1905-1911)
❑ Early Hindus and Muslims lived together in sub-
continent.

❑ But an eye-opening event happened in the history of

sub-continent.

❑Partition of Bengal is considered as the most

important development in the history of sub-
continent.

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 Causes of Partition

Populated

Causes
Difficult to Long
administer of boundaries
Partition

Difference
b/w East
and West
areas
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 Causes of Partition

1. The Most Populated Province:

❑ It was the biggest populated province with 78
million population.

❑ It was difficult for British government to take care

of whole population.

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2. Long Boundaries:
❑ Bengal had longest boundaries in the sub-
continent.

❑ It had total area was about 1,89,000 miles.

❑ Difficult to manage.

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3. Administrative Problems:
❑ There were difficulties to manage and administer the
functions for government.

❑ Due to long boundaries law and order condition was

worst.

❑ Due to more population government was unable to

provide socio-economic and other facilities.

❑ Only one Governor was responsible for whole

province.
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4. Inequality between East and West Areas
❑ Bengal province consisted two areas: east and
west.

❑ East Bengal was dominated by Muslims while

West Bengal was dominated by Hindus.

❑ West Bengal was developed it had good system of

railway, communication, education, press,
economy and port i.e. Calcutta.
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❑ Where as East Bengal (dominated by Muslims)
was marginalized/ under developed.

❑ It was totally ignored.

❑ Muslims lacked behind in education, health,

railway, communication, economy other all basic
needs as compare to Hindus.

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❑ Finally, Vicory Lord Curzon announced the
Partition of Bengal in 1905.

❑ That Partition favoured Muslims where as Hindus

strongly opposed that decision of British govt.

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G M PITAFI 03022012545
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Hindu Reaction
❑Hindus strongly opposed that decision.

❑ Different segments of Hindus i.e. Lawyers,

doctors, intellectuals and civil society observed
protests, boycotts and strikes.

❑ Hindu newspaper strongly opposed and aware

Hindus about the cost of partition for Hindus.

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❑ Hindus of West Bengal feared that then Muslims
might run any movement for their rights and they
would be more aware about their rights.

❑ They observed Black Day for separation.

❑ Congress also opposed decision (Sir Syed…??)

❑ They started religious movements against Muslims

and separation.
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 Swadeshi Movement
❑ This movement was started by the Hindus of West Bengal
against British government.

❑ In this movement Hindus boycotted external foreign imported

goods and supported Hindu domestic industry in order to give
economic loss to Britain.

❑ This movement gained momentum when it was slowly turned

anti-Muslims.

❑ Hindus wrote various dramas, poetry and plays against

Muslims.

❑ Separate classes were arranged between Hindus and Muslims.

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 Reaction of Muslims
❑ Muslims considered separation as blessing and
welcomed it.
❑ They were given rights which were ignored earlier.
❑ Muslims gained following benefits:
1. Economic: Chitagang port was developed and new
opportunities were open for Muslims in East.

2. Political: Muslims aware about their rights.

3. Social: Muslims’ social morale became high and they

progressed in education because new schools and
colleges were established.
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❑Moreover, railway, communication system and
health system were also introduced in east Bengal.
Annulment 1911
❑ After 6 years due to the strong opposition of Hindus
the then King George V decided to annulled
Partition of Bengal in 1911 while visiting Delhi.

❑ Hindus celebrated its annulment.

❑ Muslims shocked and condemned its annulment.
❑ But it gave a new dimension to Muslims for their
rights in sub-continent against Hindus.
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 The Shimla Deputation (1906)
❑ The political scene of sub-continent was very against
Muslims because of:

❑ Congress was dominated by Hindus and it was talking

about the cause of Hindus.

❑ Hindus opposed Partition of Bengal.

❑ Hindus started anti-Muslim movements (Swedeshi)

❑ As a result, Muslims thought for their separate identity

and wanted to talk directly with British.
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❑ Therefore, some Muslim leaders made a systematic
attempt in 1906 to present their demands front of
British govt. and stressed for its acceptance.

❑ Shimla Deputation was consisted on 35 members

and it was lead by Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk.

❑ The delegation met with viceroy and put their

demands.

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 Demands
✓ Representation more than their population
because of their importance as second bigger
population.
✓ Right of Separate electorate should be given.
✓ Reservations of Muslims seats in government jobs.
✓ Special share in Municipal or district boards
University senates and syndicates
✓ Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive
Council.
✓ Muslim University at Aligarh.
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 Reaction
❑ Viceroy convinced from their demands and encouraged
them to form any political organisation like Congress.

❑ It was highly criticized by Congress.

❑ Muslims realized and became confident that they could

make a platform for their rights.

❑ Muslims seriously worked to form any political party.

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Formation of All India Muslim
League (1906)
 Background
Muslims in confusion
1. Sir Syed asked them to away from politics.
2. Hindu active movements and reforms.

During this situation various segments of Muslim

society demanded for a separate political party.

Finally, in December 1906 AIML was formed.

Nawab Waqar ul Mulk first president.
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 Causes
• 1. Muslims sense of a separate identity.

• 2. Hindu character of Congress that did not allow

Muslims to participate in politics.

• 3. Hindus agitation against partition of Bengal.

• 4. Muslims desire to have their own separate

electorate.
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 Objectives of AIML

• 1. To promote Muslims’ goodwill and loyalty

with British.

• 2. To protect Muslims’ political rights.

• 3. To protect Muslims from the hostility of other

communities—Hindus.

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 Reaction of Hindus

• Hindus opposed

• Congress opposed

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The Minto-Morely Reforms (1909)

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 Background

• Chaos in sub-continent due to partition of

Bengal.
• British had to pacify Indians.
• Lord Minto believed that Indians must be given
constitutional rights to carry British rule.
• 1909 reforms were aimed to give maximum
representation to the maximum segments of
society in order to win their support for British
Govt.
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 Salient features
1. Governor General’s executive council was
increased from 16 to 60 members.
2. Muslims were given the right of separate
electorate.
3. The powers of G.G Executive council were
increased and members could move resolutions
and ask supplementary questions.
4. Members could move resolutions but G.G was
given the power of veto—grant or reject.
5. First time Indians were included in Vicory’s
executive council—Hindus and Muslims.
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 Analysis

• Muslims/ AIML welcomed

• Congress opposed

• It gave Indians participation in govt

• Muslims voices were heard—separate

elections

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The Lucknow Pact (1916)

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 Background
• Quid e Azam joined AIML in 1913 and new
intitiated new policies.
• World War 1 was started in 1914 in which Britain
was a major actor.
• New politics in sub-continent started in which
Hindu-Muslim unity was advocated in order to
pressurize British govt. during war situation.
• Many sessions were called between Congress and
AIML.
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• Quaid and Gandhi attempted to unite Indians
against British govt.

• A first ever pact was sign in 1916 namely

Lucknow Pact.

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 Important Features

• 1. Hindus agreed to the right of separate electorate

for the first time.
• 2. Hindus admitted Muslims’ One-third
representation in Imperial legislature
• 3. A Weightage formula was proposed under
which Muslims got less representation than their
population in those provinces where they were in
majority and more in provinces where they were in
minority.
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• 4. Powers of Secretary of State should be
curtailed and given more autonomy to
provinces

• 5. Powers should be divided between centre and

provinces

• 6. Half of the members of the Vicory’s

executive councils must be Indians.

• 7. Judiciary must be separated from legislature

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 Reaction of the Muslims and Hindus
• Mix reaction
• Hindus of U.P opposed due to the acceptance of
separate electorate.
• Muslims divided—Sir Syed followers opposed as
they were not agree for any cooperate with Hindus
where as those Muslims who were in the favour of
cooperation with Congress supported it.
• Bengali Muslims strongly opposed as their
majority became minority.
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 Importance

• Hindus first and the last time accepted separate electorates

however Bengali Muslims paid heavy price.

• Congress accepted AIML as sole Muslim representative

party in sub-continent.

• Showed political maturity between AIML and Congress.

• Quid e Azam was called ‘’ The Ambassador of Hindu-

Muslim Unit’’ by Sarojni Naidu.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Jalianwala Bagh Tragedy
Rowlatt Act (1919)
• Indians untimely struggled for self-rule against
British as it was busy in WW1.
• As a result British formed strategy to counter
revolutionary activities in sub-continent against her.
• Finally, they introduced Rowlatt Act bill in which
administration and were given unlimited powers.
Accused neither had right to appeal nor could take
the services of any lawyer and govt. could put
anyone under house arrest wathout any reason.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
• As Indians dreamed of self-rule and supported
British in WW1, but their aspirations vanished
away with this act.
• Indians became angry and started agitation and
protests everywhere against British govt.
• Sir Michael O’Dwyer was the Governor of
Punjab at that time and he banned all political
activities in Punjab strictly.
• Many leaders were arrested and people gathered
to protest for their release in Jalianwala and
General Dwyer ordered for firing.
• 379 innocent people got killed.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
(1919)
• Indians started a movement of self-government
during WW1.
• Hindu-Muslim unity due to Lucknow Pact.
• Indians more aware politically.
• In order to pacify Muslims British Govt. sent Lord
Chelmsford as G.G in sub-continent.
• Montague, Secretary for India, announced reforms
for India after every 10 years.
• Reforms primary aim was to train Indians for self-
govt. G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Salient features
1. Number of Indians in G.G executive council was
increased up to three times.
2. A bicameral legislature was set up:
Lower house--- Indian Legislative Assembly
Members:145 Term: 3 years
Upper house--- Council of States
Members: 60 Term: 5 years
3. Subjects/ departments were divided into central
and provincial levels:
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Central subjects--- defense, foreign affairs, customs,
railway, communication and currency.
Provincial subjects--- local government, health,
education, irrigation, agriculture.
4. Right of separate electorate was kept intact.
5. Secretary of State for India was given salary from
British finance earlier he got from Indian finance.
6. Most important feature was introduction of
Dyarchy System—double rule, a system of
government in which powers were divided
between two authorities in provinces.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Reserved subjects were managed by elected
ministers from provincial assemblies.
• Transferred subjects were managed by
Secretaries of Indian Civil Services.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 An Assessment
• Indians were introduced with partial self-
government.
• Dyarchy unique development.
• Indians dissatisfied.
• Certain events intensified Indians emotions
against British govt i.e. Jalianwala tragedy,
Rowlatt Act, WW1, British occupation over
Turkey Ottoman Empire etc.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Background
• In WW1 Ottoman Empire decided to side with
Germany against Allies—Britain, France, Italy
• WW1 was won by Allies

• Muslims emotional attachment with Ottoman

empire because of last Islamic Khilafat and they
feared about its lost future by British

• Indian Muslims were given assurance by British

that Ottoman empire would not be abolished and
its sovereignty will be protected.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• In order to record their demands about 15
thousands Muslims gathered in Bombay in March
1919 where a Committee was formed namely
All-India Khilafat Committee later its branches
were also opened in coroner of sub-continent.
• Objectives of AIKC:
1. Muslims should not participate with British in
WW1 war celebrations .
2. Muslims would start no-cooperative stance if
Turkey was treated unjustly.
3. A delegation to be formed to convey Muslims
fears before British about Ottoman empire
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Moreover, Khilafat Committee met with Congress
and both agreed to put demands before British.
• After all, a joint delegation was formed by
Congress and Khilafat Committee namely
Khilafat Delegation in 1919 that had to put
demands before British govt
• Khilafat Delegation Demands
• 1. Sultan of Turkey and Khilafat should be kept at
same position
• 2. Muslims Holy places should be protected
• Sub-continent should be given independence
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Eventually, British did not pay any heed to the
demands of Indians and signed a treaty namely
Treaty of Sevres in 1920.
• According to that treaty Turkey was divided and
Sultan’s authority was curtailed as result Ottoman
empire came into an end.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)
After the disintegration of Ottoman empire Muslims
along with Congress decided to bring a new
strategy in order to pressurize British govt.
As a result they started non-cooperative movement.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Objectives of movement
• 1. Withdraw from all executive and legislative
councils
• 2. Boycott of courts
• 3. Boycott of all government schools and colleges
• 4. Renouncing from government titles
• 5. Resigning from government jobs
• 6. Boycotted all British and foreign goods

• Vacuum was filled by Hindus!

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Hijrat Movement (1920)

• During this period some of Muslim religious

leaders issued a fatwa that Muslims of India
should migrate from India to Afghanistan
• More than 30,000 Muslims left their homes and
sold properties for migration.
• All properties were purchased by Hindus!
• Initially, Afghanistan welcomed migrants but
later closed borders because of huge figures.
• Muslims suffered in Hijrat Movement.
• Was it an emotional decision…????
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Moppila Revolt (1921)
• It was an incident took place in Madras
• Moppilas were basically Arabian who settled in
Madras during early Islamic period.
• They worked under Hindu feudal lords
• They were extremely religious and emotional
• Knowing this, British govt. imposed ban on
Khilafat committee in this area
• But later when some Muslim leaders wanted to
organize committee there, British govt. arrested
those leaders that intensified Moppilas.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Govt. arrested many Moppilas, in reaction they
killed police and also Hindu feudals.
• Chaos in province, govt imposed martial law

End of Khilafat Movement

• 1. It was suddenly brought by Gandhi who was
leading Khilafat movement
• He denounced movement due to Chora Churi
incident in 1922 in which 20 police constables
were burnt by movement supporters mob, which
disappointed Gandhi
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• 2. Moreover, in 1924 Turkish leader Mustafa
Kamal Ataturk himself denounced Khilafat
institution and declared to establish democratic
govt. in Turkey, hence Indian people lost interest
in movement and it came into end.
Effects
• Criticized that it was foreign issue not Indian
• Indians wasted their energies on foreign issue
• Quiad e Azam also opposed
• Muslims lost their properties, and jobs etc as a
result came backward
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• It created political consciousness in Indians
particularly in Muslims
• It trained Muslims for agitational politics—
protests, arrests, strikes etc
• Students and religious leaders first time came out
and participated against govt.
• A credible cadre of political leadership came after
this movement.
• Muslim women also participated
• Hindu-Muslim cooperation also remained intact
in this movement.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
The Delhi Muslim Proposals (1927)
Background…
• The Hindu-Muslim cooperation which started
after Lucknow Pact, was came into end when
Gandhi suddenly denounced Khilafat Movement
in 1924.
• Moreover, soon after that some Hindu extremist
movements emerged which created hatred and
communal conflicts between two communities in
sub-continents.
• Hindu extremist movements included:
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• 1. Hindu Mahasabha 1921: it was aim to convert
Muslims into Hinduism forecefully.
• 2. Shuddi: means ‘’to pure’’ it was aimed to
convert Muslims into Hinduism through force and
by all means.
• 3. Sanghtan: means an ‘’alliance’’ it was a militant
movement in which military training was given to
Hindus against Muslims.
• Moreover, Hindus initiated planned propaganda
against Muslim leaders and personalities.
• Additionally, Hindu Mahansabha and like minded
people took the leadership of Congress.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
• New extremist Congress leadership wanted to
create more hatred and it strongly condemned
Muslims Separate electorates which were
accepted by Congress in 1916.
• As a result, Nehru requested Quaid e Azam to
withdraw from the demand of separate electorates
then Congress will accept Muslims other
demands.
• Quid e Azam took serious Congress offer and
called AIML meeting in Delhi 1927 and
discussed.
• Finally, AIML presented some proposals in the
place of separate electorates known as Delhi
Muslim Proposals. G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Proposals

1. Sindh should be separated from Bombay.

• 2. Reforms should be introduced in Balochistan
and N.W.F.P and they should be given the status of
provinces.
• 3. Muslims should be given 1/3 seats in central
legislature.
• 4. Muslims should be given representation in
Bengal and Punjab according to their population.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
• Effects:

• AIML was divided in which Sir Muhammad Shafi

opposed Delhi proposals and formed separate
faction of AIML namely AIML Shafi group.
• The Congress and its Hindu leadership in the
beginning welcomed proposals but after 6 months
strongly opposed.
• Muslims knew that Hindus did not want political
solutions rather want to establish their hold in sub-
continent.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Simon Commission (1927)

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Background
❑ It was said in 1919 reforms that British would
introduce new reforms after every 10 years.

❑ Hence, British appointed a Commission consisting

of 7 members to give recommendations after
visiting and meeting Indian people for coming
reforms.

❑ Commission was not included any single Indian.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ British argued about the exclusion of Indians that
if two or three Indians were included they did not
represent whole communities and if all
communities’ members were included then it
would have been impossible for Commission to
function properly.

❑ Eventually, Commission reached in India and

visited twice in 1928.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Simon Commission and Indians
❑ Indians (AIML & Congress) collectively opposed
Simon Commission and observed protests while
its arrival in sub-continent.
❑ Indians showed full opposition before
Commission when it reached and slogans were
chanted ‘’Go Simon Go…’’
❑ However, some Indians also favoured the
Commission arguing that it would only prepare
recommendations for coming reforms and if
Indians boycotted it would damage their
interests. G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ AIML was divided into two factions during this
time:
❑ ‘’Shafi group’’ supported the Commission while
‘’Jinnah group’’ strongly opposed it.
Simon Commission Report
❑ Finally, Simon Commission published its report in
1930 which said:
1. Dyarchy system should be abolished and all
departments should be handed over to Ministers
and the powers of Central government and
Provincial governors should be reduced.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
2. Federal system of government should be
introduced in India.
3. The right to vote should be extended to more
people. (Restricted franchise)
4. An expert committee should be appointed
regarding the separation Sindh from Bombay.
5. The Muslims demand for the equal status of
N.W.F.P and Balochistan was neglected.
Reaction…
❑ Indians, including all communities, strongly
rejected this report.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 The Nehru Report (1928)
Background…
❑ 1919 reforms promised to frame constitution
after every 10 years.
❑ Britain sent Simon Commission which was
rejected by Indians on the grounds of their
inclusion and its recommendations.
❑ British government challenged Indians to agree
and give their own recommendations which was
accepted by Indians.
❑ Finally, all Indian political parties gathered.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ After many deliberations among different political
parties a Committee was appointed who was
tasked to make recommendations for constitution.

❑ Pandit Moti Lal Nehru was nominated as its head

and Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru as Secretary.

❑ Moreover, two Muslim members were also

included namely: Sayyid Ali Imam and Shoaib
Quereshi.

❑ Committee completed its task in three months in

1928 which was known as ‘’Nehru Report’’.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Report
1. India should be given Dominion Status with the.
Parliamentary form of Government.
2. There should be a bi-cameral legislature consisting of
senate and House of Representatives. The senate will
comprise of two hundred members elected for seven
years, while the House of Representatives should
consist of five hundred members elected for five years.
3. Governor-General will act on the advice of executive
council. It was to be collectively responsible to the
parliament.
4. There should be Federal form of Government in India
with Residuary powers to be vested in Centre.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
5. There will be no separate electorate for minorities.

6. System of weightage should not be adopted for any province.

7. There will be no reserved seats for communities in Punjab and

Bengal. However, reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in
the provinces where Muslim population should be at least 10
percent.

8. Judiciary should be independent from the Executive.

9. There should be 1/4th Muslim Representation at Centre.

10. Sind should be separated from Bombay provided it proves to

be financially self sufficient.

11. Reforms should be introduced in NWFP

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Reaction
❑ The report was not acceptable to Muslims.

❑ Both the Muslim members of the Committee did

not sign it.

❑Syed Ali Imam, due to bad health could not attend

the meetings of the Committee.

❑ While Shoaib Qureshi refused to sign the report.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Quaid-e-Azam’s 14 Points
❑ In order to counter the proposals made in the
Nehru Report, Jinnah presented his proposal in
the form of Fourteen Points.

❑ He insisted that no scheme for the future

constitution of the government of India will be
satisfactory to the Muslims until and unless
requirements were made to safe guard their
interests.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Fourteen Points
1. The form of the future constitution should be federal, with
the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces.

2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all

provinces.

3. All minorities should be given adequate and effective

representation in every province.

4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not

be less than one third.

5. Separate electorates should be maintained.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
6. Any territorial redistribution shall not in anyway affect
the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the
NWFP.
7. Full religious liberty i.e. liberty of belief, worship, and
observance, propaganda, association, and education,
shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or resolution or any part shall be passed in any
legislature or any other elected body if three fourths
of the members of any community in that particular
body oppose the bill.
9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay
Presidency.
10. Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and
Balochistan on the same footing as in other provinces.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
11. Muslims should be given an adequate share
along with the other Indians in all the services of
the State and in local self-governing bodies.
12. Adequate safeguards for the protection of
Muslim culture and for the protection and
promotion of Muslim education, language,
religion and personal laws should be given.
13. No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should
be formed without there being a proportion of at
least one-third Muslim ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the Constitution by
the Central Legislature except with the
agreement of the States constituting the Indian
Federation.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Reaction
❑ Gandhi personally accepted but Congress totally
rejected.

❑ Hindus rejected.

❑ First direct and articulated demand by AIML.

❑ Muslims morale became high.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 The Allahabad Address (1930)
❑ Political events had taken an worrying turn.

❑ There was a two-pronged attack on the Muslim

interests.

❑On one hand, the Hindus offered a tough opposition

by proposing the Nehru Report as the ultimate
constitution for India.

❑On the other, the British government in India had

totally ignored the Muslim demands in the Simon
Commission report.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Muslims strongly demanded the protection of
their separate identity.
❑ At that time, Allama Iqbal realized the critical
conditions of the Muslims in sub-contitnent.
❑ Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to
crystallize his thoughts.
❑He returned to India in 1908 and started work on
the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism
to uplift the Muslims.
❑He reminded them to follow the teachings of the
Holy Prophet (PBUH) practically as the ideal
leader.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Allama Iqbal and the Allahabad Address

❑ He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and

principles of Islam.
❑He sought salvation through Islam.
❑ He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in
the lives of Muslims of British India.
❑He said that the European view of duality of
religion and state does not apply here in the
Indian society.
❑Rejecting the secularism he said, religion is not a
totally personal affair.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ He explained that Islam offers an ethical order,
socio-political structure, legal framework, code of
life, culture and civilization.

❑It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound

impact on the lives of Indian Muslims.

❑The Muslims are not willing to submerge their

religious individuality.

❑ They have lack of trust, fear of domination from

Hindus.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Features
✓ If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in
accordance with their Islamic civilization and
tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their
lives for India.

✓Federalism cannot succeed without recognizing

the national identity of the Muslims.

✓ Islam is a people building force in India that has

given moral consciousness and political identity
to the people.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
✓ Punjab, NWFP, Sind and Balochistan be
amalgamated into a state, self government within
the British empire or without it.

Importance

❑Iqbal’s address was a forceful and logical

presentation of the Muslim case in India that they
should be treated as entity rather only minority.

❑ Redistribution of territory developed later on

concept of Muslim homeland (Pakistan).
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Round Table Conferences (1931-32)
Background…
❑ Deadlock on future reforms.
❑ Indians rejected Simon Commission report.
❑ Congress Muslim mutual differences on any
single point.
❑ Congress under Gandhi started Civil
Disobedience Movement
❑ Situation became chaotic in sub-continent
❑ British called RTC in London to discuss future
reform agenda with all communities.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 First Round Table Conference (1930)
❑ All parties were present except for the Congress,
whose leaders were in jail due to the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
❑ Hindus forced to implement Nehru Report,
include strong central government, abolition of
separate electorate system.
❑ Muslims stressed to maintain Separate
electorates, extended franchise, lose federation
and more autonomy to provinces, reforms in
N.W.F.P and Balochistan and separation of Sindh.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ British government sat up 8 committees to look
at these matters and give final suggestion for
future constitution.

❑ It was ended without any result due to the

absence of Congress.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
❑ After the conclusion of the First Round Table
Conference, the British government realized that
the cooperation of the Indian National Congress
was necessary for further advancement in the
making of the Indian constitution.
❑Thus, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an
invitation to Gandhi for talks.
❑Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience
Movement without laying down any
preconditions.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Salient Points of the Pact
✓The Congress would discontinue the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
✓The Congress would participate in the Round
Table Conference.
✓The Government would withdraw all ordinances
issued to curb the Congress.
✓The Government would withdraw all prosecutions
relating to offenses not involving violence.
✓The Government would release all persons
undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their
activities in the civil disobedience movement.
❑ It showed govt. was anxious to bring INC in RTC!
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Second Round Table Conference (1931)
❑ INC participated but Quaid e Azam did not
participated.
❑ Major issue remained on the settlement of
Minority Communities—Muslims, Christians, Sikhs,
Lower caste Hindus etc .
❑ Gandhi stressed that INC represented the whole
Indians and neglected other communities.
❑ But minorities did not admit such claim of INC and
Gandhi.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ On the concluding day, the British Prime
Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to the
Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement.

❑ Failing to do so, he said, would force the British

government would take a unilateral decision.

❑ Third RTC was ended without any final result.

❑ On his return to India, Gandhi once again started

Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly
arrested.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Third Round Table Conference (1932)
❑ It was short and unimportant.
❑The Congress was once again absent.
❑Reports of the various committees were
scrutinized.
❑The conference ended on December 25, 1932.
❑ The recommendations of the Round Table
Conferences were embodied in a White Paper.
❑ It was published in March 1933, and debated
and analyzed in British parliament.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 The Communal Award (1932)
❑ British govt. made many attempts to bring
Indians on single platform for future constitution
i.e. Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences
etc.
❑ But it was impossible to resolve Communal
Problem in sub-continent.

❑ Hence, British announced its own unilateral

award for the Indians of sub-continent.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Features
✓ Retained separate electorate for Muslims and all
other minorities including untouchables.
✓ Retained weightage system for all minorities/
Muslims majority to minority in Punjab & Bengal.
✓ The right of separate electorate was also given to
the Untouchables.
✓ The right of separate electorate of the
untouchables under this award was highly criticized
by Gandhi and he said that if this right was not
taken back then he will die with observing the fast/
Bharat G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Result

❑ It was supported and accepted by all minorities

including Muslims.

❑ Hindus were divided as scheduled caste/ Dalits

were also given separate electorate right.

❑ Gandhi and INC strongly opposed it.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
Poona Pact (1932)

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (B.R. Ambedkar), an
active leader of Dalit (untouchables) favoured the
Communal Award given by the British Government
to provide separate electorate for the oppressed
classes (Dalit) in sub-continent.

❑ Gandhi strongly opposed it that the Communal

Award would give power to the oppressed classes
(Dalit) and it will disintegrate Hindu society.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Dalits were treated as untouchables in Hindu
society and they were denied from their basic
rights.
❑ Eventually, Gandhi went for an indefinite hunger
strike from September 20, 1932 against the
decision of granting communal award to the
depressed classes in the constitution for
governance of British India.

❑ Dr. B.R Ambedkar agreed to sign a Pact with

Gandhi which is known as Poona Pact.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Features
✓ There shall be seats reserved for the Depressed
Classes in the provincial legislatures.
✓ Elections to these seats shall be by Joint
Electorates.
✓ Representation of the depressed classes in the
central legislature shall be 18 percent on the
principle of joint electorates and reserved.
✓ In every province, depressed classes shall be
given due part in providing educational and other
facilities.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 An Assessment…
❑ Hindus and British accepted the separate
identity of untouchables in sub-continent.

❑ Untouchables gave up the right of separate

electorates.

❑ Untouchables managed to achieve reserved

seats in central, provincial assemblies as well
various fields i.e. education, health etc.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
The Government of India Act 1935
❑ After the failure of the Third Round Table
Conference, the British government gave the Joint
Select Committee the task of formulating the new
Act for India.

❑The Committee comprised of 32 members from

British, 20 representatives from sub-continent
Indians and 7 from the princely states.

❑After a year and a half of deliberations and

discussions, the Committee finally came out with an
Government of India 1935.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Salient features of Govt. India Act 1935
1. Federal form of Government:
✓ consisting bi-cameral legislature having Upper
house/ The Council of States and Lower house/ the
Indian Legislative Assembly.

✓ Powers were divided between Centre and Provinces

into three lists i.e. federal list, provincial list and
concurrent list (used by both).

✓ A Federal Court (Supreme Court) of India was set

up.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
2. Dyarchy system was abolished from provinces and
introduced in the centre.
3. Governor-General were given unlimited powers:
✓ He could manage financial matters of govt.
✓ Responsible for maintaining law and order.
✓ Appointing judges of Federal Court.
✓ He could veto bills passed by central legislature.
✓ Appointing and removing ministers.
✓ He could suspend constitution.
4. Provincial Governors were also given same powers
in provinces.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
5. Federal Public Service Commission was set up for
competitive exams and higher recruitment.
6. The powers of Secretary for India were curtailed
and given to Governor General.
An Assessment
✓ It could not satisfy Indians.
✓ It did not transfer important powers to Indians rather
Governor General of India and provincial Governors.
✓ Congress and AIML opposed this act arguing that it
was hurdle in the autonomy of sub-continent rather a
way forward.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 The Congress Ministries (1937)
The Congress Raj (1937)
✓ Muslims since Sir Syed Ahmed Khan remained
doubtful and fearful about the intentions of Hindus for
Muslims.

✓ Muslims mainly leaders predicted about the Hindus

hate for Muslims and they believed that Hindus could
never live with Muslims.

✓ Such predictions, doubt, fear and vision of Muslims

proved right in 1937 when Congress formed govt. in
sub-continent. G M PITAFI 03022012545
✓ Elections were held in March 1937 after Govt. of India
Act 1935.

✓ Two major political parties INC and AIML contested

elections.

✓ Congress won in 8 province out of 11 and AIML 4

provinces.

✓ Finally, Congress formed its government in India

without the consultation of AIML.

✓ INC started hatred against AIML and Muslims soon

after forming government through various means:d
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Congress ministers were not responsible before
parliament rather before CONGRESS leadership only.

❑ Congress tried every attempt to impose Hindu

nationalism on Muslims.

❑ They prohibited Muslims to slaughter cow and called

them Mother cow.

❑ They tried to humiliate Muslims and Islam with the

support of govt.

❑ They interpreted Azan and pushed pigs to the mosques

and Muslim populations.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ They declared Bande Matram as official anthem in
which hateful words were used against Muslims and
they forcefully sing from Muslim students in school.

❑ They started Wardha Scheme in which Hindu culture

and heroes were promoted and preached among youth,
Gandhis picture was worshiped.

❑ They also started Widdia Mander Scheme in which

new Hindu worship places were established and
Muslims specially children students forcefully
converted and influenced in Hinduism.

❑ They promoted Hindi instead of Urdu language.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ They issued orders to hoist Three-coloured flag on
government places which showed Hindu
dominancy.

❑ They supported Hindu extremist groups and

attacked were made on the honour, properties,
religion and self esteem of Muslims.

❑ Congress started an organized campaign to contact

with Muslim masses and perused them to join
Congress and leave AIML by giving various
discounts, threats and offers.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 End of Congress Raj/Ministries
❑ The WWII began in 1939, British fought against
Germany.
❑ British wanted help from Indian political parties to
support in war.
❑ Congress put various demands condition to help in
WWII which included:
✓ British should explain the objective of war.

✓ British should announce that central legislature

should draft future constitution (majority of Congress
in assembly)
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ The acceptance of these demands ultimately meant that
future constitution should be framed according to the
wishes of Congress.

❑ However, in order to pacify INC and AIML British

assured to give Dominion status for India.

❑ But Congress did not believe on British government

and decided to resign from ministries as a protest in
1939.

❑ With the resignation of Congress ministries Muslims

took a sigh of relief and Quaid-e-Azam announced to
observe Day of Deliverance on 22nd December 1939.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 An Assessment
❑ Congress cruel role against Muslims.

❑ Two nation theory proved.

❑ Muslims fear became reality.

❑ Muslims disappointed from Congress.

❑ Muslims finally decided to part their ways from Congress and

struggled for separate homeland.

❑ Explicit expression of separate homeland came in 1940 Lahore

Resolution. G M PITAFI 03022012545
The Pakistan Resolution (1940)

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ The Congress attitude in 1937 compelled Muslims to
seriously think about partition.

❑ Therefore, Muslims openly demanded for separation

homeland during British rule thinking that after may be
Congress and Hindu domination.

❑ Chaudhari Rehmat Ali, a student of Cambridge

University, gave the scheme of separate homeland for
Muslims.

❑ He coined the word PAKISTAN in which P stood for

Punjab, A for Afghan (NWFP/ KPK), K for
Kashmir, S for Sindh and Tan for Balochistan.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ The word PAKISTAN itself means the Land of Peace.

❑ Finally, AIML called its session at Minto Park Lahore

(now called Iqbal Park) on 22 March 1940.

❑ Molvi Fazal ul Haq known as Sher e Bengal

presented the resolution and then Quaid e Azam
addressed and demanded separate homeland.
The Resolution

❑ Lahore Resolution described Hindus and Muslims and

two different nations from every aspect—social,
political, economical, cultural, historical, lingual and
political (Two Nation Theory).
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ It further demanded that Muslims will never accept
any constitution until those areas (NWFP, Punjab,
SINDH, East Bengal and Balochistan) would be
separated as a new state where Muslims are in
majority.
Importance
❑ A landmark in the history of sub-continent because
it decided future of it.
❑ Muslims apparently convinced that they would no
further live under Hindu domination and Muslims
also decided to get separate homeland for Muslim
identity free from Hindus.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Muslims united under the dynamic leadership of Quaid
e Azam.

❑ Muslims gained new hope and confidence for the

separation of homeland and identity.

❑ Muslims convinced that there was no other solution but

separation of India.

❑ They demanded Pakistan as separate homeland.

❑ The acceptance of Lahore Resolution straightened the

Two-Nation Theory which was the base of Muslims
struggle for independence.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Cripps Mission (1942)

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ British was busy in WWII and it was looking the
chaotic condition of sub-continent.

❑ Therefore, Britain decided to pacify Indians and tried

to bring constitutional reforms in India.

❑ But deadlock between AIML and Congress because

AIML wanted separate homeland and congress United
India.

❑ Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India who met with

AIML and Congress leaders, discussed about future
constitution recommendations.

❑ He finally submitted his proposals.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Proposals
✓ During the course of the WWII, the British would retain their
hold on India. Once the war finished, India would be granted
dominion status with complete external and internal autonomy.

✓ At the end of the war, a Constituent Assembly would be set up

with the power to frame the future constitution of India.

✓ The provinces not agreeing to the new constitution would have

the right to keep itself out of the proposed Union. Such provinces
would also be entitled to create their own separate Union.

✓ During the war an interim government comprising of different

parties of India would be constituted. However, defence and
external affairs would be the sole responsibility of the viceroy.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Reaction
❑ Congress rejected it arguing that British should give
full independence.

❑ AIML also rejected arguing that the demand of

separate homeland (Pakistan) was not included and
ignored in proposals.

❑ However, Gandhi and Congress demanded full

independence of sub-continent and tried to
pressurize British govt.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Quite India Movement (1942)
❑ The Congress in order to put pressure on British
government started that movement because British was
busy in WWII.

❑ In this movement civil disobedience and non-

cooperation was observed.

❑ Many Congress leaders were arrested.

❑ AIML strongly opposed this movement arguing it was

an attempt to sabotage the demand of separate
homeland and eastablishing Hindu hegemony.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Elections 1945-46
❑ The WWII finally ended in August 1945.

❑ British govt. conducted elections in central and

provincial legislatures in sub-continent.

❑ AIML and Congress contested in elections fully

because these elections had to decide the future of sub-
continent.

❑ Results showed AIML victory in Muslim areas in both

central and provincial legislatures (446/495)
❑ Congress also won majority in Hindu areas.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ 1945-46 Elections proved that AIML was the only
representative of the Muslims of India.

❑ These results increased the hostility of Congress

towards Muslims.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ 1945-46 Elections proved that AIML was the only
representative of the Muslims of India.

❑ These results increased the hostility of Congress

towards Muslims.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
❑ After elections 1945-46 as per policy Indians
had to formulate Interim government and
constitution for India.

❑ But there was again a deadlock between

Congress and AIML on constitution making
because both won their respective areas/
provinces.

❑ WWIII came into end in 1945.

❑ British tried to solve this issue by bringing both

major political parties on single platform.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Both—Congress and AIML were firm at their
opposite positions: Congress wanted United India
where as AIML wanted divided India on Muslim
majority areas.

❑ Eventually, British sent a mission consisting on 3

British Cabinet members, Lord Pathic Lawrence,
Stafford Cripps and A.V Alexander, to discuss
future constitutional matters with Indians namely
The Cabinet Mission Plan in 1946.

❑ It came and discussed with the leaders of both

parties and issued its plan for India.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Plan
❑ The Cabinet Mission Plan suggested three-tier
constitutional mechanism as following:

1. There should be a Union of India consisting on

various states/ provinces as a British Dominion.
Union should be given subjects i.e. foreign
affairs, defense, finance and communication and
rest of subjects should be given to satiates.
Moreover, there will be central legislatures and
provincial legislatures.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
2. Sub-continent should be divided up into three
parts:
Section A would be the Hindu majority provinces.
Section B would be the western Muslim provinces
i.e. Punjab, Sindh, N.W.F.P and Balochistan.
Section C would be Bengal and Assam.

3. The constitutions of the Union and of the Groups

should contain a provision whereby any Province
could by a majority vote of its Legislative
Assembly call for a reconsideration of the terms of
the Constitution after an initial period of 10 years
and at 10- yearly intervals thereafter.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Reaction
❑ The Congress accepted the proposals related to
the Constituent assembly.
❑ But it rejected the idea of the Interim
Government.
❑Congress also rejected the idea of a weak centre
and division of India in small states.
❑Congress was against the maximum power of
provinces and wanted strong centre instead of
powerful states.
❑ It wanted united India not divided.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ The Muslim league first approved the plan because
it suggested the division of India into three sections.

❑ But it later rejected the plan because the demand

separate homeland (Pakistan) for Muslims was not
accepted in it.

❑ Muslim League made clear that Pakistan was the

only solution for the problem of India and AIML
would achieve it at any cost.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Interim Government (1946-47)
❑ After a long discussion British convinced AIML
and Congress to form interim government in order
to form new constitution.
❑ Initially, both parties showed reservations but
later both agreed to become the part of interim
govt.
❑ Total 14 Members/ Ministers were included in
interim government including:
❑ Congress: 6 members
❑ AIML: 5 members
❑ Minorities: 3 members
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Steps for Transfer of Power to Indians
❑ Britain was exhausted after WWI and it was unable
to hold its colonies in the world and same was with
sub-continent.
❑ A new government came in Britain which decided
to set free India.
❑ New government appointed Lord Mountbatten as
the new Vicory for India and he was given task to
frame plan for the partition of India.
❑ After a long discussion with AIML and Congress he
finally presented a plan for partition.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
3rd June Plan

G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ The British government finally decided to divide
the country into two separates states after all the
efforts of keeping Hindus and Muslims together in
a single state went in vain.

❑ Though the plan was deliberately kept secret from

the Indians yet Nehru grabbed the chance of seeing
the plan before it was put before the Indians.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Features
1. The British Government would divide India into two
separate states.

2. Dominion status would be given to the successor

governments of the two states.

3. A Boundary Commission would be appointed to

demarcate the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal provinces
as there lived two communities—Hindus and Muslims.

• The Sindh Legislative Assembly would be authorized to

join whether Pakistan orG MIndia.
PITAFI 03022012545
5. A Referendum would be conducted in the North
West Frontier Province (N.W.F.P/KPK) to know
the public opinion on the question of joining the
new state of Pakistan.

6. Baluchistan would be granted freedom of choice.

7. 635 Princely States would be given choice

whether to join Pakistan or India.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Importance
❑ 3rd June Plan materialized the dream of Iqbal of a
separate state for the Muslim of the Sub-Continent.

❑ Therefore, the Muslim League accepted the Plan.

❑According to the Plan, the British Government

transferred the Power to the governments of the two
New States of Pakistan and India.

❑ Congress accepted reluctantly.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
Radcliffe Award (1947)
Boundary Commission
❑ It was provided in 3rd June Plan that a Boundary
Commission would be sat up to demarcate the
boundaries of Punjab and Bengal provinces.

❑ According to provision a Boundary Commission

was sat up under the Chairmanship of a famous
London based lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe.

❑ The Commission included an equal number of

members from India and Pakistan and one or
more an impartial members.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ However, It was difficult that both India and
Pakistan could reach any agreement, so it was
proposed that boundary demarcation should be
handed over to UNO but Nehru refused.

❑ Quaid e Azam wanted three impartial Lords from

London to be appointed in Boundary Commission
but Vicory Mountbatten refused and insisted on
Radcliffe to head.

❑ Finally, Boundary Commission was sat up which

included:
G M PITAFI 03022012545
1. Punjab Boundary Commission members
➢ Justice Din Muhammad ……………..Pakistan
➢ Justice Muhammad Munir………… Pakistan
➢ Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan………India
➢ Justice Tej Singh………………………….India

2. Bengal Boundary Commission Members

➢ Justice Abu Saleh Muhammad……Pakistan
➢ Justice M. Akram……………………….Pakistan
➢ Justice C.C Biswas……………………….India
➢ Justice B.K Mukerjee…………………..India
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Award/ Boundary Demarcation
Controversy in division of Punjab
❑ In the division of Punjab, the award was unfair and awarded a
number of Muslim majority areas to India.

❑ In Gurdaspur district two contiguous Muslim majority Tehsils of

Gurdaspur and Batala were given to India along with Pathankot
tehsil to provide a link between India and the Stat of Jammu and
Kashmir.

❑ The Muslim majority tehsil Ajnala in the Amritsar district was also
handed over to India.

❑ In Jullundur district the Muslim majority areas of Zira and

Ferozepur in the Ferozepur distirct, were also given to India.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
Controversy in division of Bengal
❑ Similarly, in Bengal the most important question
related to the future of Calcutta that was given to India.
❑It was the capital of the province. Although the
Muslims formed only a quarter of the population of
Calcutta, a large section of its population consisted
scheduled castes that were allied with the Muslim
League.
❑ The city of Calcutta was the biggest industrial,
commerce and educational centre. The entire
development of Calcutta was based on Muslim
peasantry of Bengal.
❑ The Congress leaders were determined to get Calcutta
by all foul or fair means. Eventually, Calcutta was
awarded to India ignoring the claim of the Muslim.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Reaction
❑ Unfair and biased boundary demarcation.

❑ Congress immediately accepted.

❑ Muslim League also accepted but record their

grievances upon unjust and unfair division.

❑ It became the major cause of communal riots and

refugees soon after the partition.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Indian Independence Act 1947
❑ After boundary demarcation Vicory Lord
Mountbatten announced this act on radio.
Features:

1. Two Independent dominions (India and Pakistan)

were to be set up on 15 August, 1947.

2. Pakistan will comprise of Sindh, Baluchistan,

N.W.F.P., West Punjab and East Bengal.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
3. Until the formation of new constitution, existing
legislature will work on the basis of Government of
India Act 1935.

4. Each Dominion was empowered to modify this Act,

through its Governor-General up to March 31, 1948
and thereafter by its Constituent Assembly.

5. Princely States were given power to join either

Pakistan and India on their desire.

❑ This Act openly granted freedom of both states.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Transfer of Power/New States
❑ Finally, Britain granted freedom of India and Pakistan
on 15th August 1947.

❑ Mountbatten wanted to become the G.G of Pakistan

but Quaid refused because he knew his warm relations
with Congress and Nehru.

❑ Quaid e Azam was appointed as first Governor General

of Pakistan on 15th August 1947.

❑ Pakistan came into being as free and sovereign first

Islamic state on the map of world.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
G M PITAFI 03022012545
 Initial Problems of Pakistan after
Independence
❑ From its very inception, Pakistan faced a large
number of problems i.e.

1.Choice of Capital and Establishment of Government

The first problem that Pakistan had to face was to
choose a capital to form a Government and to
establish a secretariat so Karachi was chosen as the
capital of Pakistan.

G M PITAFI 03022012545
2.Unfair Boundary Distribution

A boundary commission was set up under a British

Chairman, Sir Cyril Redcliff. He misused his powers and
handed over Muslim majority areas like Gurdaspur,
Ferozpur, Jullander to India hence providing them a
gateway to Kashmir.

3.The Massacre of Muslim Refugees in India

On the birth of Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs became
more furious .Muslim properties were set on fire and
they were compelled to leave India for Pakistan.
Millions of refugees were killed before they reached
Pakistan. Many migrants were looted and had to be
provided boarding immediately as they reached
Pakistan.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
4. Division of financial Assets
Pakistan was promised to get Rs.750 million but the
Indian Government refused to give. Pakistan
received only 200 million and some amount later
on was given due to the protest of Gandhi .

4. Division of Military
Pakistan also did not receive the due share of the
military assets. More cantonments were in India.
Pakistan was given outdated weapons and
machinery. This dishonest attitude put Pakistan into
great difficulties.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
5.Canal Water Dispute

Most of the river flowing in Pakistan have their

origin in India. In 1948,india stopped water supply
to Pakistani canals to damage the Pakistani
agriculture. However on 9th September ,1960 on
agreement called "Indus Basin Treaty" was signed
between the two countries.
6. Administrative Problems
Due to lack of infrastructure and human resource it
became difficult to regulate official work in new
state. There were no offices, furniture and
stationary for offices.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
7. Kashmir Dispute

Kashmir dispute is the most important and

unsolved problem. Kashmir is the natural part of
Pakistan because at the time of partition 85% of the
Kashmir's total population was Muslim. The Hindu
Dogra rule ,who was secretly with the Government
of India declared Kashmir as a part of India. Pakistan
has continuously insisted that Kashmir must get
their right of self determination but due to non-
cooperation of India, Kashmir issue still remain
unsolved.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
8. Annexation of Princely States

All Indian princely states were given the right to link up with
either of dominions. However, the fate of following states
remained undecided

Junagadh
The Muslim Nawab governing Junagadh favoured in acceding
to Pakistan. But Indian Government sent Army troops towards
Junagadh and occupied the state by force in November,1947.

Hyderabad Deccan

Hyderabad Deccan was the largest and richest state ruled by

Muslim ruler Nizam who decided to remain independent. But
pressure tactics began to be applied by Indian Government
and Mount Batten .India attacked Hyderabad on 13th
September 1948 and forcibly annexed this state to India.
G M PITAFI 03022012545
9. Constitutional Problem
❑ After getting independence Pakistan had to
formulate new constitution.
❑But conflict occurred between east Pakistan and
West Pakistan over the nature of constitution.
❑ East Pakistanis wanted a constitution that should
be included:
1. Secular constitution,
2. Representation according to population
3. Maximum provincial autonomy
4. Bengali as a national language
G M PITAFI 03022012545
❑ Where as West Pakistan wanted that
constitution should be included:

1. Islamic Constitution
2. Representation on the basis of area
3. Minimum provincial autonomy and strong
centre
4. Urdu as a national language

G M PITAFI 03022012545
Post-Partition
Part
Approaches/ Paradigms

Cultural/
Historical

Rational
Structural/
Choice/
institutional
individual
 Significance of 1947-58 Period

Delay in constitutional Dominancy of military &

making process bureaucracy

Delay in elections and

Hurdles in
transition in political
democratization
power sharing

Formulation of foreign Emergence of ethnic

policy conflicts
 Independence, Political Instability &
Pakistan’s First Experiment with Democracy
(1947-58)

• Following independence, it took three Governor

Generals, four Prime Ministers, two constituent
assemblies (1947-1954 & 1955-1956), and nine
years of prolonged constitution making process to
produce the first constitution of Pakistan in 1956.

• On contrary India remained stable

• Quiad became G.G and president of national assembly
where as Liaquat Ali Khan first P.M after
independence.

• Quid died in 1948 and Khawaja Nazimuddin (short

time later P.M) and Malik Ghulam Muhammad
(retired bureaucrat) became G.G of Pakistan who
issued:

• The first constituent assembly passed the

controversial Public and Representative Office
Disqualification Act (PRODA), 1949, that provided for
trial of public office holders and disqualification from
holding public office for up to 15 years.
 Objective Resolution 1949

• The first major step in framing a constitution was

the passage by the Constituent Assembly of the
Objectives Resolution of March 1949, which
defined the basic principles of the new state.

• Till new constitution Objective Resolution was

promulgated by P.M Liaqaut Ali Khan in 1949
 But…

• Minorities ministers and members protested but it was

considered necessary for Islamic rules in Pakistan

• It later became the preamble of succeeding constitution

still in 1973 amended constitution.

• However, in 1949 Basic Principles Committee (BPC) was sat-

up who was assigned task to visit East and West Pakistan
and present recommendation for future constitution.

• BPC visited and presented 3 reports known as Basic

Principles Reports (BPRs)
1st BPC Report 1949 2nd PBC Report 1952

Major issues

East Wing West Wing

Secular versus
Representation
Religious

Provincial autonomy Language

• Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated in 1951 and
Khawaja Nazimuddin became P.M in 1951.

• G.G removed Khawaja Nazzimuddin and

appointed Muhammad ALI Bogra as PM of
Pakistan—who was working as F.M

• M.Ali Bogra tried to formulate new constitution

and presented his famous Bogra Formula in 1953-
54.

• It is also known as Third BPC Report

• Both Houses were to have equal powers in all
matters. There was a provision for a joint session
of the two for the election of the Head of the State
and for the disposal of votes of confidence.

• In case of a difference of opinion between the two

Houses, a joint session of the two Houses would be
called and the matter would be decided by a
majority vote, provided that the majority included
thirty percent of the members from each zone.

• Urdu and Bengali both national languages

• It maintained the principle of parity between East
and West Pakistan in combined Houses, with 175
seats for each zone. So in total, both the wings
were to have 175 seats each in the two Houses of
the Legislative Assembly.

• The two houses of the Legislative Assembly formed

the Electoral College for the Presidential elections
and the President was to be elected for a term of 5
years.

• Constitution on the name of Islam

 Reaction
• Criticized on equal powers of both houses

• It was said since the lower house represented

people it could be given more powers

• It settled the issue of national language

• However, as compare to earlier reports it was

accepted by everyone and the process of
constitution making started
 One-Unit Scheme (1954)
• Nevertheless the rulers of Pakistan tried to solve the
issue of disparity which was being faced by East
Pakistan.

• The then Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra

brought the concept of one unit under discussion.

• The leaders of the viewed that the disparity and

hopelessness of East Pakistan could be removed by
merging all four units of West Pakistan into one unit.
• In this way equality east and west would come on
the surface. On 30 September 1954 a bill was
passed in assembly in the favor of one unit and it
was imposed.

• Further more Lahore was declared the capital of

one unit.

• Most provinces specially Sindh opposed this

scheme arguing dominancy of Punjab and center.

• It further created issues in provinces/ ethnic

divided
• G.G dissolved first constitutional grounds that it could
not frame constitution for which it was sat-up
therefore it had lost confidence of public in 1954.

• It was also dissolved due to violence in relation to

religious conflict between those of Islamic and
Ahmadiyya faith (a religion, contradictory to Islam)
and efforts by the assembly to limit his power, G.G
Ghulam Muhammad declared a state of emergency,
dissolving the elected body of the Constituent
Assembly. (Molvi Tammizzuddin case)

• Ghulam then appointed Muhammad Ali Bogra to be

Prime Minister and formed a new cabinet called
“Ministry of Talents.”
Molvi Tammizuddin Case 1955
• Maulvi Tameez-ud-Din was president of the CA. So
he challenged the proclamation in the Sind Chief
Court on grounds of writ of Mandamus and a writ
of Quo Warranto.

• Writ of Mandamus : to restraint respondents from

giving effect to the proclamation and from
interfering with the exercise of his functions as
President of CA.

• • Writ of Quo Warranto: to oust ministers of the

Cabinet (respondents 2-10) appointed by the
Governor General.
• Govt’s Reply: Section 6 (3) of the Indian Independence Act,
1947 gave the GG of each of the new dominions full powers
to assent to any law of the legislature of the dominions. So,
the Sind Chief Court has got no jurisdiction to issue any writ.

• Situation on Ground: The laws or any amendment made in

the Govt of India Act, 1935 were never sent for approval to
Governor General from 1947 to 1954. So many laws were in
operation and many cases had been decided or were under
trial in this regard.

• Governor General was not having power to dismiss

Assembly and to issue Emergency Power Ordinance,1955
under Govt. of India Act, 1935.

• Under the Indian Independence Act,1947, Governor General

was bound to give his assent to the laws made by the CA till
the new Constitution.
• Sindh Chief Court’s Decision: Sind Chief Court decided in favour
of Maulvi Tamizuddin.

• The proclamation issued by the Governor General was

invalidated on the grounds that CA was a sovereign body and was
not subject to checks and balances.
• CA had powers to repeal not only S.6 (3) of Indian Independence
Act but the whole of the Act itself.

• Govt’s Appeal: Govt filed an appeal to Federal Court headed by

Justice Munir. The Federal Court decided in favour of the Govt on
21st March, 1955.

• Federal Court’s Decision: FC did not go into the question that

whether CA was rightly dissolved. It held that enactments of CA,
in the capacity of legislative or constituent body, required the
assent of GG.
• 4 out of 5 judges in govt. favor Justice Carolinas against
 Implications of the case
• Weakened institutional capacity when Pakistan
was in nascent stage when CA was about to issue
constitution.

• Established Doctrine of Necessity

• Made questionable the role of judiciary

• Established precedent to dissolve assembly which

remained in following years
• In 1955, Ghulam resigned as G.G out of health
concerns and was replaced by Major General Syed
Iskander Ali Mirza.

• Mirza, feeling that Pakistan was not ready for true

democracy, dismissed P.M Bogra and the national
assembly and replaced him with a new Prime
Minister, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali.

• One of Chaudhry’s major acts as Prime Minister was

the Constitution of 1956. He was the true architect of
formulating 1956 constitution of Pakistan.

• Pakistan’s first constitution was adopted in 23rd March

1956
• After the promulgation of 1956 constitution,
Iskander Mirza was supposed to hold elections as
promised.
• He replaced following PMS in his tenure:

• M.A Bogra—Ch.Muhmmad ALI—Hussain Shaheed

Suherwardi—I.I Chundrigar—Malik Feroz Khan
Noon (first West Pakistani from Punjab)
• Political consitions became chaotic as a result he
included Ayub Khan (Army chaief) as defense
minister in his cabinet—Bureaucracy-Military
nexus
• Iskander Mirza was not ready to conduct elections
because the performance of ruling Muslim League
was very poor.

• East Pakistanis protested and demanded as a

result he announced emergency but finally Auyb
Khan, who was the defense minster at that time,
imposed first martial law in 1958.

• Ayub Khan abolished constitution, banned political

parties and presented his own agenda.
 Constitution of 1956
Salient Features
1. A Written and Lengthy:
• The 1st Constitution of Republic of Pakistan was
written in nature. It consisted of 234 Articles and 6
Schedules.

2. Preamble:
• Objective Resolution was made a part of the
constitution of 1956 which declared that the all
sovereignty belonged to Allah.
3. Federal form od state:
• It was federal in which powers were divided between
center and provinces.
4. Parliamentary Form of Government:
• It was parliamentary form of government in which
President was the nominal head of state where as P.M
actual head of government who was elected and
responsible to legislature.
5. Unicameral Legislature:
• The legislature would consist of a single house. Both
the wings of the country were given representation in
the National Assembly. The National Assembly
consisted of 300 members. 150 members were drawn
from each wing.
6. Fundamental Rights:
• Included freedom of movement, freedom of
speech and expression, freedom to choose
profession and freedom to profess religion. Right
to life, liberty, and property.
7. Language:
• Urdu & Bengali as national languages where as
English as official language.
8. Flexible:
• It was a Flexible Constitution and two third
members of the Assembly could bring amendment
in the constitution.
Causes/ Reasons/ Explanations

Civilian leaders were

Rational Choice
responsible

Cultural Historical legacies

Structural Geography factor

 1. Civilian Leaders
• This depicts the politicians as bringing the country
to its knees through misuse of power, corruption,
and factional conspiracy.

• It asserts that the profound anti-democratic

sentiments of such bureaucrats as Iskander Mirza
(President 1956-8) and Ghulam Muhammad
(Governor-General 1951-5) paved the way for the
coup by their distrust of politicians and willingness
to dismiss elected governments.
• It is argued that their early career development in the
colonial bureaucracy had nurtured these sentiments.

• In many respects, Ghulam Muhammad’s 1954 dismissal of

the Constituent Assembly was a major turning point in
Pakistan’s post independence development.

• Allen McGrath, in his work on these events, is highly critical

not only of Ghulam Muhammad but of Chief Justice
Muhammad Munir for providing legal cover for this
action—Molvi Tammizuddin Case

• The bulk of Pakistan’s democratic failure to the ‘misfortune’

of having such seasoned bureaucrats elevated to positions
of authority.
 2. Role of Muslim League
• Alternatively, Pakistan’s failing parliamentary
democracy has been attributed to the decline of
the Muslim League.

• Certainly unlike its Congress counterpart in India,

having won freedom, it did not evolve as a pillar
of the post-independence state.

• This stemmed from the fact that it was a ‘late-

comer’ in the Pakistan areas.
• Without a tradition of rule or firm institutions, it had
to accommodate the leading landlord elites in order to
make a political breakthrough in such key provinces as
Punjab.
• The cost in achieving freedom in this way was the
strengthening of patron- client political relations,
which inhibited subsequent democratization. (no
middle class)
• Its political recruitment process was not
institutionalized
• Organization was not up to mark
• Served only landed aristocracy
• It was exploited by leaders
• Mostly leaders joined it later—not ideally compatible
 3. Geography and International Choices

• Indian factor—India as arch rival on Kashmir and

other princely states issues
• Afghanistan arch rival—issue on Durand line
border
• Cold war—choice where to join USA or USA
• Pakistan’s economic conditions worst—how to
sustain it
• To create a better and responsible image in
International community being first Muslim state
 Historical Inheritances
• The army’s increasingly predominant position in
post-independence Pakistan had its roots in the
colonial state’s military recruitment policies in the
late nineteenth century.

• These made the Punjab the main army centre.

This decision accorded with the ideology of the
‘martial races’, but also ensured a steady stream
of recruits from an area which was largely
untouched by Indian nationalism
• The Punjab’s ‘loyalty’ at the time of the 1857
revolt encouraged the development of strategic
alliances between the British and military
contractors exemplified by the Tiwanas of the Salt
Range region—Jhelum, Khushab, Chakwal etc.

• Paternalism—the wide discretionary powers

afforded to bureaucrats, and the personalization
of authority.

• ‘Viceregalism’ (first used by K.B Sayeed) to sum up

the authoritarian ethos of governance which was a
legacy of colonial rule in the future Pakistan areas
• N.W.F.P and Baluchistan region security areas for
British against Czarist expansion therefore British
delayed political process there and recruited army.
British adopted parentalism in those areas—FCR.

• Until Simon Commission 1927 it was suggested for

reforms—self-governing. It is a reason those areas
supported Congress

• Later this legacy was carried by Pakistani bureaucrats

in Pakistan—same security conditions after partition
i.e. threat from India and Afghanistan strengthened
bureaucrats and army.
• Muslim League was highly centralized body
• According to Avesha Jalal the scarce government
resources at partition time were diverted from
building representative institutions to seeking
administrative and military solutions to the
refugee problem and the emerging conflict with
India over Kashmir.

• The priority of building up the armed forces was

spelled out by Liaquat Ali Khan in a broadcast to
the nation on 8 October 1948: ‘The defence of
the State is our foremost consideration... and has
dominated all other governmental activities.’’
• The aftermath of Partition also encouraged
authoritarianism by creating tensions between the
provinces and the centre regarding refugee
resettlement.

• Finally, the traumas of Partition have impacted on

both the Indian and Pakistan states’ longer-term
responses to sub-national movements. This has
resulted in the violent suppression of ethno-
nationahst movements.

• Kashmir issue remained main bone of contestation

between India and Pakistan which created security
dilemma for both states
 Conclusion
• Pakistan encountered political, economical and
strategic instability since its inception which still
dominates its political fabric. However, there are
various arguments that can be put forward to
explain them because there is no any single
explanation.
Any Query?
 State versus Dosso Case (1958)
• Dosso v. Federation of Pakistan was the first
constitutional case after the promulgation of
Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 and an important
case in Pakistan's political history.
Introduction:
• Dosso was the tribal person from district
Loralai in Baluchistan then under Provincially
Administered Tribal Areas who committed a
murder and got arrested by tribal authorities and
handed over to Loya Jirga which convicted him
under Frontier Crimes Regulation.
• Relatives of Dosso challenged the decision in
Lahore High Court the then West Pakistan High
Court which ruled in favour of Dosso.

• Federal Government went on to the Supreme

Court of Pakistan which reversed the High Court's
decision by referring to the Hans Kelsen theory of
Legal positivism famously the Doctrine of
necessity.
 Case Facts
• Dosso a resident of tribal district Loralai
committed a murder and got arrested by the Levis
Forces which handed him over to the tribal
authorities where he was trialed by Loya Jirga.
• He was charged for murder under the section 11
of the FCR 1901 and was convicted for it by Loya
Jirga.
• Dosso’s relatives challenged the decision of Loya
Jirga in Lahore High Court. The High Court
considered the case according to the 1956
constitution of Pakistan and ruled in favour of
Dosso.
• The High Court declared that FCR is against the
constitution and Dosso is entitled to equality
before law under article 5 & 7 (fundamental
rights) of the constitution.

• Loya Jirga’s decision was declared null and void.

• High Court decided the case in favour of Dosso
and declared that FCR is against the 1956
Constitution.

• The Constitution of Pakistan ensures the equality

and protection of citizens and declared the
proceedings of Loya Jirga as null and void.
• The Federal Government of Pakistan went into an
appeal in SC against the verdict of the Lahore High
Court.
• The Supreme Court decided 13th October 1958 as
the date for hearing the case. But prior to that on
October 7, 1958, 1st martial was Imposed in the
country and Ayub Khan abrogated of the 1956
Constitution.
• After three days of martial law, an order named Laws
Order 1958 was issued by CMLA Ayub Khan.
• This order was a new legal order which replaced the
old legal order—The Constitution of Pakistan 1956.
The legal order validated all the laws other than
constitution of 1956 and restored the jurisdiction of
all courts.
• Martial law impacted the case significantly and
raised some technical points that:
➢ if Supreme Court maintains the decision of Lahore
High Court, it meant that constitution was still in
force because the Lahore High Court decided the
case under article 5 and 7 of the Constitution of
Pakistan 1956.
➢Also if the constitution was still in force then what
will be the status of martial law regulations and
Laws Order 1958 as it also challenged the martial
law administration.
➢What will about previous cases?
• The Supreme Court after restoration decided the
case unanimously against the decision of Lahore
High Court and in favour of federal govt.
• Supreme Court based its decision on Hans Kelsen
theory of Legal positivism/pure theory of law:
• Natural law
• Positive law—Pure law
 Implications
• The judgment legitimized the martial law of
1958 as a bloodless coup and a kind of peaceful
revolution which was not resisted or opposed by
the public implied that public is satisfied with this
change or revolution, so therefore this martial law
is legitimized.
• Presented Doctrine of necessity
• The decision of the Supreme Court of
Pakistan was a serious blow to the independence
of judiciary and judiciary.
• Future martial laws were imposed on this basis
 Ayub Khan’s Regime (1958-69)
Objectives
1. Pakistan’s foundational problems with respect to
authoritarian traditions of governance, political
institutionalization, centre-province relations, and the role
of Islam in public life

2. How the army expanded its reach into Pakistan’s state

and society

3. How both diplomacy and the patronage of Islamic

groups were deployed to counteract India s predominance
in the enduring rivalry between the two states
 Background…
• Ayub Khan was a General in Royal Army
• Army Chief after partition
• Defense Minister in Iskander Mirza’s cabinet
• Situation became worsened during Ikander Mirz’s
rule as he refused to hold elections
• Imposed emeregency and finally martial law in
1958
• Ayub Khan abrogated 1956 constitution, banned
political parties and seized fundamental rights .
 Ayub’s Governance and Depoliticization
• Ayub revived the viceregal tradition inherited
from the British.
• He asserted that democracy was not suited to the
intellect of the people’.
• His distrust of the political class
• He blamed the uncontrollable politicians for
Pakistan’s ills.
• According to him, they had waged a ceaseless
and bitter war against each other regardless of
the ill effects on the country
• Ayub Khan promulgated Basic Democracy scheme
in 1959 reintroduced 19th century colonial ideas of
political tutelage through indirect elections and
official nomination of representatives.

• He drove this system from French political system

• Purpose of BD System was:

1. Legitimize his authority as lawful ruler
2. Authority to the door step of people
3. Electoral college for upcoming elections
4. Electoral college for presidential elections
• Ayub relied more on the Civil Service of Pakistan
(CSP). The CSP played an increasingly important part
in his regime as a result of the central role accorded
to Commissioners and Deputy Commissioners in the
B.D scheme and the control over development funds.

• The indirect elections to the newly constituted

National and Provincial Assemblies in 1962 were held
on a ‘party-less’ basis.

• This further deep-rooted the power of the local

landholders and biraderi heads who were hostile
to the development of grassroots political
organization.
• Ayub introduced the Public Offices (Disqualification)
Order (PODO) and the Elective Bodies
(Disqualification) Order (EBDO) respectively in
March and August1959.

• Those accused had the option of trial by a tribunal for

‘misconduct’ or voluntary withdrawal from public life.

• Persons found guilty under EBDO were to be

automatically disqualified from membership of any
elective body until after 31 December 1966.

• At the most conservative estimate, 400 political

leaders were disqualified. (reason of regime
longevity)
• Censorship further undermined the opposition.
Ayub not only used the Public Safety Ordinances
but in 1963 promulgated the Press and
Publications Ordinance in order to make the press
conform to recognised principles of journalism and
patriotism

• Ayub’s actions not only undermined resistance to

his particular brand of authoritarianism, but
hampered the long-term development of civil
society.
 Centre-Province Relations
• Ayub favoured a centralized state.
• Despite his considerably constitutional
implementation he significantly made no effort to
modify the One Unit Scheme.
• The 1962 Constitution devolved some additions
powers to the provinces, such as control over
industries and railway; but hedged around this so
much that little in reality was conceded.
• The biggest challenge involved the de-emphasizing
of the distinctiveness of Bengali.
• Ayub suggested that this task could be better by
promoted introducing the Roman script for all
Pakistan’s languages.
• The central government played down the 100th
anniversary celebrations of the birth of that great
Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
and later banned the broadcasting of his poetry.
• Activists retaliated by changing street signs and
name plates from Urdu to Bengali throughout
Dhaka.
• Ayub regime saw Punjabi-Pakhtoon domination
against Mohajirs and other ethnic groups like
Sindhi.
• The federal capital from Karachi to the new city
of Islamabad, deep in the Punjab beside the
Margalla Hills and adjacent to the army
headquarters at Rawalpindi.

• Sindhis, Bengali and Mohajirs opposed that

decision. The main leaders of these provinces
became the major victim of EBDO.

• Moreover, rapid but uneven economic

development increased this alienation. Rather it
could created national unity, it created differences
 The Role of Islam
• Ayub did not play with Islam as a form of
legitimization as some politicians had done earlier in
the decade.

• Modernization was to be the hallmark and

justification of his regime. This involved not just
economic development but modernization of Islam
itself.

• The 1962 Constitution significantly dropped the title

‘Islamic’ from theRepublic of Pakistan title but later it
was added.
• Another significant change was the rewording of
the Repugnancy Clause. This dropped the earlier
direct reference to the Quran and Sunnah and
merely stated that no law should be enacted which
was repugnant to Islam, thereby encouraging the
modernist conception of ijtihad.
• Ayub sought to introduce ‘secular influence into
the functioning of marriage and inheritance
through the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance.
• His modernist approach was due to his education
in Aligarh.
• Being the part of British army
• Ayub’s modernist Islam was practical and based
on common sense rather than any theological
interpretation.
• Ayub was soon forced to backtrack in the face of
resistance from Islamist groups. He turned to the
traditionalist Islam of the Sufi shrines.
• The ulama opposed the 1962 Constitutional
changes. He was forced to retreat on the name of
the country and it was restored the name ‘Islamic
Republic of Pakistan’.
• Rather than conflicting Ayub appeased Islamic
groups and they became major actors in political
landscape of Pakistan.
 Expansion/ the Rise of Army under
• Milbus—armed forces’ Ayub
intrusion into the state’s
economy. (the term coined by Ayesha Sidiqqa).
• Army’s entrenched role in Pakistan’s business and industrial
life.
• The rise of Milbus has led to the army being conceived
as a pressure group with its own agenda and motives for
intervention in the political process.
• The Ayub era saw the extension of the army s colonization’
of the Pakistan society and state.
• This was rooted in the colonial practice of providing grants
of land for ex-servicemen in the newly irrigated areas of
West Punjab and Sindh.
• The establishment of the Fauji Foundation in 1954 in
which servicemen’s welfare funds began to be
diverted into large-scale commercial activities later it
became larger business class.

• It was exempted from taxation.

• The Frontier Works Organisation (FWO) was

established in 1966— the army involved itself in
infrastructural activities i.e. most famous
construction of the 805 km Karakoram Highway
linking Pakistan and China by FWO.
• It is still working—Motorways and CPEC
construction.
• The Ayub era also saw the beginnings of the army
welfare structure—the Fauji Foundation were
turned over into the construction of schools, and
hospitals for the use of military personnel.
• Ayub regime also saw an extension of the earlier
policy of rewarding servicemen with agricultural
land specially in Sindh.
• Ayub initiated the policy of the induction of army
officers into the bureaucracy which was to be
greatly expanded by Zia and Musharraf.
• It was based on the army’s self-perception that it
was the most effective state institution.
• In sum, Pakistan’s first martial law period marked
the formative years of the military’s penetration
into the economy.

• The senior officers Were the main beneficiaries,

but the lower ranks also received the rewards for
service in terms of social welfare and land
acquisition.

• The army ns an institution embarked upon the

creation of an economic empire which was to
strengthen both its capacity and motivation for
other political intervention.
 The Enduring Rivalry with India
• 1965 war—freedom of IOK

• Operation Gibraltar

• Preparing and supporting Jihaddist

• Miscalculation in operation
 Implications of 1965 War
• Tashkent Agreement 1966
• Division between him and his foreign minister Z.A
Bhutto—making of PPP (1967)
• Popular opposition and protests
• Fall of Ayub regime
• Instable relations with USA—Pakistan allied
before
• Support and allience between Army and
Jihadists—still Pakistan facing its consequences
 Conclusion
• Unique characteristics.
• A decade of high rates growth but growing
inequality
• Pakistan security state amidst the chaos of
Partition and its solidification under later military
rulers.
• It saw both the formative period of Milbus and
the beginnings of the nexus between the army
and Islamic groups.
• Ayub retained the commitment to a centralized
state and cultural integration
• A transitional era from one in which the state was
largely a mohajir enterprise to that of Punjabi
domination with the Pakhtun a junior partner.
• The Sindhi and Bengali elites were shut out of
power. Attempts at cultural integration further
alienated them.
• Although Ayub sought to modernize the Pakistan
state and society, he was unable to resolve
decisively the role of Islam in public life.
• Defensive against religious class who allied with
ethnic-nationalists and liberals against him.
• The impacts of regime in up coming years to still
obvious.
Any Query?
 Yahya Khan & Disintegration of East
Pakistan (1969-71)
• Step down of Ayub & Yahya’s assuming
Objectives
• power 1969

• Politics of Legal Framework (LFO) 1970

• First general elections in the history of Pakistan

1970
• Elections result , unrest, martial law &
• separation 1971
 Step down of Ayub & Yahya’s assuming
power (1969)
• Ayub Khan step down in 1969 due to popular
demand and protests.
• He authorized the then Army Chief General Yahya
Khan who imposed martial law.
• Yahya abrogated 1962 constitution and
announced new general elections in 1970 on
adult franchise base
• As 1962 constitution was abolished he issued
Legal Framework Order (LFO) in 1970 for future
political setup of Pakistan.
 Politics of Legal Framework (LFO) 1970
• Keeping in view the political chaos he announced
new elections on the basis of LFO
• After elections, elected assembly would make
new constitution
• He knew there was a huge difference of opinion
between east and west Pakistan
• In order to regulate state affairs he issue LFO in
Pakistan as provisional constitution until new
constitution came into being.
 LFO Provisions
• 1: The National Assembly of Pakistan will consist of 313
seats with 13 seats reserved for women. Out of 313, 169
seats were to be for East Pakistan, 85 for Punjab, 28 for
Sindh, 19 for NWFP, 5 for Baluchistan and 7 seats were
allotted to the tribal areas.

• 2: Each province will have a provincial assembly consisting

of elected members. East Pakistan provincial assembly will
have 400 members, Punjab 186, Sindh 62, Baluchistan 21
and NWFP 42.

• 3: The elections for National Assembly will be held on 5

October 1970 and for provincial assemblies not later than
22 October.
• 4: The new constitution of Pakistan will follow these
principles:

• a: Pakistan will be a Federal Republic and will be known as

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

• b: The head of the Pakistan state would be a Muslim and

the divinity of Islam will be preserved.

• c: The principles of democracy will prevail by holding free

elections for federal and provincial legislatures on the basis
of adult franchise. Independent judiciary will be made
possible along with fundamental rights for the citizens.

• d: All provinces will be given maximum autonomy while

the centre will also remain strong.
• e: The citizens of the country will be able to
participate actively in the affairs of the state and the
state will try to eliminate economic disparities in the
society.

• f: The constitution of the country will make it possible

for the Muslims of Pakistan to live their lives
according to the teachings of Islam. The minorities
will be free to follow their own faiths and will be able
to enjoy the benefits of citizenship along with their
fellow Pakistanis.

• h: Within 120 days of the first meeting of the

National Assembly, it would form a constitution bill
and if it fails to do so, it will dissolve.
 Politics
• Yahya knew very well about the wide division of
both wings
• He knew both wings would not agree on single
agenda for constitution
• As a result they would not be able to agreed
upon on constitution in 120 days given in
constitution
• Finally, he will undermine all process and will
become only authority legally and popularly
justified.
 Elections 1970
• The electoral rolls were printed both in Bengali and
Urdu for East and West Pakistan respectively.

• Initially, the elections were due on 5 October 1970

for the National Assembly and 19 October for the
provincial assemblies.

• But theses elections were postponed till December of

the same year because of the severe monsoon floods
in the eastern wing in August.

• The new dates announced were 7 and 17 December

1970.
• Still, elections for nine seats of National Assembly
and eighteen for provincial assemblies were held
next year on 17 January 1971 due to cyclone in
East Pakistan.

• The elections were held on party basis and from 1

January 1970 the political parties were allowed to
start campaigning.

• A total of 24 political parties participated in the

elections. There were mainly two types of parties,
religious and secular.
• The religious parties included: Convention Muslim
League, Qayyum Muslim League, Pakistan Muslim
League, Pakistan Democratic Party, Jamiat-ul-
Ulama-a-Islam, Jamiat-ul-Ulama-a-Pakistan and
Jamiat-a-Islam Party.
• These religious parties called for the Islamization of
the country. But though having common attitude
they were absolutely different from one another
and that is why could not unite on a single
platform.
• The regime of Yahya Khan was supporting the
religious parties for their conservative attitude.
• The secular and most prominent political parties
were two and they both were regional—Pakistan
Peoples Party of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Awami
League of Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman.
• Their prime focus was on economic issues. They
both got immense public support as compared to
all other parties.
• Their supporters belonged to all the sections of
the society. Consequently, these two turned into
mass movements.
• Sheikh Mujib was the cause of AL’s supreme
popularity of that time in the eastern wing. AL
manifesto was 6 points.
 Six-Points of Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman
1: There would be a federal parliamentary system
based on direct adult franchise and representation of
provinces would be on the basis of population in the
federal legislature.

2: The federal government will be restricted only to

foreign affairs, defense and currency. And even
regarding foreign affairs, the dealings of economic
matters would rest with the provinces.

3: There would either be two different currencies for

the two wings or a single one with separate Federal
Reserve systems for each wing.
4: The power of implementation and collection of
taxes would lie with the provinces. The federal
government will be given enough shares to fulfill its
tasks of foreign affairs and defense.

5: There would be separate accounts of foreign

exchange earnings for each wing.

6: The East Pakistan would be given the authority to

have a militia or paramilitary force solely under its
provincial government.
• Like AL, PPP also became popular mainly because of
the popularity of Bhutto.

• Like AL, PPP was also restricted to its region, mainly

West Pakistan provinces of Sindh and Punjab.

• The PPP popularized Islamic Socialism in Pakistan. The

PPP was also a great advocate of Kashmir cause, unlike
AL. This cause brought popularity to PPP by the west
Pakistanis, since it was an emotional topic for them
and had little appeal for east Pakistanis.

• Bhutto and his party promised economic prosperity to

the nation. The slogan of roti, kapra or makan indeed
brought commoners under the PPP’s flag.
• Finally, the elections were held peacefully and 60
percent registered voters cast their votes.
 Aftermath of Elections
• As per LFO, after elections newly elected parties
first session and then within 120 days new
constitution.
• But AL and PPP were ready to sit and convene
session
• Both leaders hold extreme positions however AL
won majority
• Bhutto didn’t want to sit even Shaikh Mujeeb
wanted session
• Bhutto opposed any session
• In a desperate bid to break the political deadlock,
Yahya Khan announced that National Assembly
session will be held in Dacca on 3 March 1971 for
seeking the solution of constitutional matters.

• AL and PPP denied

• Later in March East Pakistan province went on

tremendous strike and huge civil disobedience.

• Thereupon the army was called to curb their civil

disobedience. But the conditions further deteriorated
and there was a great massacre due to clashes that
occurred to and fro between the Mukti Bahini and
the Pakistan military.
 Civil War & Martial Law
• After many attempts, at that stage Yahya Khan was
suggested by his close associates to go for direct
military action to curb the uprising of the Bengalis
once and for all.

• Accordingly the “Operation Searchlight” was launched

at midnight on 25 March 1971 under Lieutenant-
General Tikka Khan, the newly appointed Martial Law
Administrator and governor of the eastern wing.

• Al Badar and Al Shamas armed organizations by JI.

 Mukti Bahini
• Mukhti Bahini also termed as the Freedom Fighters
collectively referred to the armed organizations that
fought against the Pakistan Army during the ciivl war
in east wing.
• It was dynamically formed by Bengali regulars and
civilians after the proclamation of Bangladesh‘s
independence on March 26, 1971.
• After the war Mukti Bahini became the general term
to referred to all forces military and civilian of former
East Pakistani origin fighting against the Pakistani
armed forces during the east wing civil war.
• Often Mukti Bahini operated as an
effective guerrilla force against Pakistan army.
• The Pakistani government was facing many problems
including shortage of goods, inflation mainly because
IMF and the World Bank had ceased to support
Pakistan’s economy.

• Geographical factor—long distance

• At that crucial time when Pak army was already too

down in the dumps, Indian military intervention
followed on 3rd December 1971and a full fledged war
broke out on the Eastern front of Pakistan.

• Mukti Bahini and the public in general fully supported

intrusion of the Indian army that was duly aided by
the Indian Air Force.
• Worldwide appeals were made for ceasefire but
Indian army continued the war that lasted for
nearly two weeks.

• At length Pakistani commander Lieutenant-

General Niazi in East Pakistan had to surrender on
the orders of his superiors along with his 93,000
troops at Dacca on 16 December.

• In this way dismemberment of East Pakistan to

Bangladesh happened on 16th December 1971
• Yahya Khan step down and transferred all powers
to Z.A Bhutto in 1971 whose PPP won majority in
West Pakistan.

• Bhutto became first Civilian Martial Law

Administrator of Pakistan, President and then
Prime Minister.

• Bhutto had to face many challenges after such

disaster…
 Analysis/Conclusion
• The story of the twenty-four years of the union of
East and West Pakistan is tense with grave
misunderstandings, distrust and suspicion.

• It cannot be denied that it was a difficult and unusual

political union from the very beginning, which could
only be kept together by a Constitution that ensured
justice in order to engender mutual trust between
the people of the two wings of the country.

• The commonality of religion was not enough to keep

the two regions together.
• With more than a thousand miles of land and about three
thousand miles of sea between the two wings and a diversity
of languages, ethnicity and cultures, the two parts of
Pakistan could only stay together under a Constitution that
was acceptable to the peoples of both the regions.

• It needed honesty and sincerity on the part of the leaders

and determination to live together. Unfortunately, this was
not the case and Pakistan fell into the hands of narrow-
minded and self-serving generals, politicians and
bureaucrats.

• The State became the handmaiden of vested interests in

West Pakistan, which alienated the people of East Pakistan,
eventually culminating in the disaster of1971.
• It is indeed both tragic and ironic that Bengalis
seceded from the union of Pakistan which they had
sacrificed the most to achieve.

• It was the arrogance of the West Pakistan

establishment which alienated the people of East
Pakistan, ultimately pushing them into the arms of
a demagogue like Mujib, leading to the separation
from West Pakistan.

• The establishment in West Pakistan (now the

'Islamic Republic of Pakistan') should learn from
such painful experience.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Era (1972-
Discussion77)
Objectives
Historical inheritances—challenges &
opportunities
How his civilian interlude remains different
from past legacies ?
How his regime tackled long-term state problems &
identity formation & why his populist approach was not
suited to resolve them ?
Governance—center provinces relations, role
of Islam, politics of nationalization and land
reforms

His fall
Historical inheritances—Challenges &
opportunities

Low morale of the nation after

separation of east Pakistan

Pakistan's 9300 prisoners and

land in the hands of India
West Pakistan's economic
political and constitutional
affairs
Degrading image of Pakistan as
responsible state in the world
• 20 December 1971, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto formally
replaced yahya Khan as President and Chief Martial
Law Administrator Pakistan.

• Following the lifting of Martial Law and the national

Assembly’s approval of a new Constitution, he
became Prime Minister in August 1973.

• During the following four years held power in a

regime which remains a source both of controversy
and of definition for contemporary Pakistan. Bhutto
as presented with an opportunity to set Pakistan on a
path with respect to civilian supremacy over the
military, political institutionalization, center-state
relations, and the role of Islam in public life.
 Consolidating Civil Rule over Military
• The military debacle and the break-up of the
country provided
Bhutto with a major advantage in asserting civilian
primacy over
the army. (Hassan Akari).
• During Operation Search Light and Martial Law in
east Pakistan, military faced serious challenges.
• Surrendering of 93000 prisoners was a big set back
• As a result the Pakistan army’s traditional unity
cracked in these
circumstances.
How should the country be ideologically
reconstructed—identity?
• The emergence of Bangladesh dealt a body blow to the Two
Nation Theory, which had provided the official underpinning
for the Pakistan demand and the state’s construction.
• The Bengali elites had shown that a common adherence to
Islam was insufficient to keep them in the federation, when
their separate linguistic and economic interests were
threatened by ‘Punjabi imperialism’.
• Bhutto, because of his Sindhi background, was at one level
well placed to re-craft a Pakistani identity based on
pluralism rather than its former centralizing adherence to
one language and one religion.
• While he was personally liberal, he still felt
compelled to talk in terms of ‘Islamic socialism’.
• As his regime moved away from its radical roots and came
under more pressure from the status quo he increasingly
made concessions to Islamist groups.

• The 1973 Constitution—Islamic, Ahmedis Kafir, good ties

with Islamic states

• He directed Pakistan more towards the Islamic cultural world

and encouraged increased trade and investment with the
Organisation of the Islamic Conference states (OIC)

• The new contours of the post-1971 Pakistan state signified

Punjabi domination.

• Its first leader however was a Sindhi. This offered the

prospect for establishing a new' decentralized and plural
politics which could banish fears of Punjabi domination.
 Bhutto and Centre-Province
• Bhutto came fromRelations
a minority province—Sindh and
he had often
expressed sentiments in favour of provincial
autonomy.

• The 1973 Constitution granted more provincial

autonomy than Pakistan’s earlier constitutions. It
also created a Council of Common Interest (CCI) to
resolve economic disputes between the federating
units.
• Bhutto’s dismissed of the NAP-led provincial
government (Attaullah Mengal ogvt. ) in
Balochistan.

• Intensified Baluchistan nationalism—ordered

operation there

• Dismissed NAP govt. in NWFP on same grounds

claiming it worked against state (Iraqi Embassy
issue).
 Bhutto and Political Institutionalization
• Authoritarian in PPP, factions within PPP, no party elections,
patronage, ignored ideology, fired old loyal and ideological
members of the party, placed land owners and opportunists—
hopes vanished
• Established Federal Security Force (FSF) in order to counter rivals
• Rivals were jailed and various cases were initiated against them
• Politics of nationalization—apparently socialism but in actual way
wanted to curb industrialist class who were against Bhutto
• Politics of land reforms— apparently in favor of poor but in
actual way wanted to curb landed aristocracy, landlords who
were against him
• Brought labor reforms
• His government became known as danda (stick) raj rather than
an awami (people’s) raj. (Bonapartian state)
• Bhutto did not accpet Opposition as legitimate
 Bhutto and Islam
• Being liberal it meant that Bhutto was never
going to entertain seriously the idea of using
Islam as an ideological glue in the wake of the
discrediting of the Two Nation Theory.

• Just as his regime was merely creeping

authoritarianism, it was also marked by the
opening of space for the Islamic redefinition of
Pakistan. This was not just in response to his
personal excesses, but resulted from his efforts to
restore Pakistani pride by linking it more firmly to
• Left Common Wealth organization and other Pacts with
West

• Called OIC Summit in Lahore

• Good relations with Islamic world—Saudi Arabia, Libya,

Egypt and other Islamic states (good and responsible image
of Pakistan)—economy boasted

• Entrained Tehrik e Khatm e Nabuwat (TKT) movement and

brought 2nd amendment in 1973 constitution in which
Ahmedis were declared kafirs .

• Bhutto turned to Sufism as an alternative source of Islamic

legitimacy. He patronized the shrine of the Sindhi saint Lai
Shahbaz Qalandar—golden gate.
 Bhutto and the Army
• Bhutto’s initial removal of army officers had put the military on the
back foot.
• His moves to create competing forces in the shape of the Federal Security
Force and the People’s Guards were a source of resentment—established
to assist police but for personal use (guard of honor)—army’s displeasure
• Further resentment arose over the slow pace of deportation of prisoners
of war from India. This was a factor in the abortive plotting by a number of
army and air force officers to overthrow Bhutto in March-April 1973.
• He reduced the tenure of the Chiefs of Staff to three years.
• He also sought to dilute the army chief’s power by creating a permanent
post of
Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.
• The third schedule of the 1973 Constitution civilian supremacy
• Despite the PPP’s initial commitment to what
might be termed human developmental goals, the
traditional policy of directing scarce resources to
the army was maintained.

• Pakistan’s defence expenditure (twice)rose by

over 200 per cent during the Bhutto era due to
Indian nuclear explosion in 1973-74.

• Article 245 defined high treason as any attempt to

abrogate or subvert the Constitution—to resist
future martial law
• While the Bhutto government followed the
pattern of earlier regimes regarding defence
allocation, it did not repeat the use of Islamic
proxies i in the enduring rivalry with India over
Kashmir due to its liberal mind, opposition with
domestic Islamists etc.
 Bhutto’s Populism: Hopes and Ruined
Expectations
• Bhutto’s sudden rise in popularity from 1967 onwards
owed much to the hope he brought of a dramatic
break with Pakistan’s past.

• He held out for the masses the prospect of economic

as well as political empowerment. If this had been
achieved, it would have provided him with an
infinitely stronger safeguard against military
intervention.

• Bhutto’s land reforms, nationalization measures and

labour laws did not, however, transform Pakistan for
good. They merely added to the number of enemies
generated by his authoritative political style.
• Various explanations for the failure of Bhutto’s
populism:

➢His personal failures and on the logical

inconsistency of a hugely privileged Sindhi feudal
landlord preaching the virtues of socialism.

➢Improperly institutionalized regime if properly

then reforms could
have been better implemented.
 Fall of Bhutto 1977
• 1977 general elections
• PPP and an alliance—Pakistan National Alliance (PNA)
• PPP won majority and PNA blamed elections rigging
• PNA did not accept elections results as a result called
protesters and sittings
• Bhutto’s all victims joined those protests
• Tehrik e Nizam e Mustafa
• Bhutto wanted to negotiate with PNA
• The then Army Chief General Zia ul Haq overthrew his
rule and imposed martial law in 1977
•
Conclusion
Bhutto had sought to transform Pakistan, His rule witnessed
tumultuous events, but at its close much remained the same.

• Despite the claim that he would abolish feudalism, the large

Punjabi and Sindhi land downers continued to wield power.

• The promise to empower the poor had achieved only limited

success.

• Politics remained personality counted for more than ideology

or party institutionalization.

• The party system displayed instability and immaturity, rather

than vitality and development, thereby opening the door for
military intervention
• Centralization was turned to as in the past, in an
attempt to shore up the state.
• While Punjabis were dealt an even more
favorable hand after 1971, Sindhis emerged for a
short time as successful players in the Bhutto
political dispensation.
• Despite his ‘secular’ predilections, Bhutto made
concessions to Islamist demands.
• Bhutto had not only been unable to restructure
civil-military relations, but he had failed to resolve
once and for all the tensions between the centre
and the provinces.
• Successful in improving Pakistan’s better image
 Zia-ul-Haq Era (1977-88)
1. Pakistan at the time of Zia—Bhutto’s legacies

2. Zia’s Authoritarianism

3. Zia and Islamization—judicial, economic & educational

reforms

4. The Politics of Ethnicity in Zia’s era

5. Zia and Army

6. Zia and the Afghanistan Conflict (F.P)

7. Conclusion
 Pakistan at the time of Zia—Bhutto’s
legacies
• Bhutto had threatened established interests and
excited the masses with the glimpse of a more
egalitarian society.

• But the impact of his reforms had been largely

cosmetic i.e. in land reforms Bhutto accommodated
feudal class rather undermining it and in
nationalization reforms he alienated a business class.

• Therefore, Zia ul haq turned to them (landlords &

private enterprise) for legitimacy of his authoritarian
regime. Example—Nawaz Sharif
• In 1977 Pakistan also hold regional, urban-rural and
gender imbalances.

• Although Bhutto didn’t bring any radical change but it

attempted to change those—quota for women in
different services i.e. Foreign Services of Pakistan etc.

• Therefore, Zia abandoned such steps and created

discrimationary laws against women in order to
satisfy traditionalists—Chadar o Chudewari concept.

• Population increased, unemployment raised,

urbanization grew and people migrated to larger
cities like Lahore but specially Karachi—ethnic
conflicts increased between Sindhi, Mohajir, Punjabi,
Pakhtoon and Baloch
• Zia created politics of ethnicity in Karachi by creating MQM
from APMSO in order to resist Sindhis specially PPP, MRD

• Being Arain (rfugee) from Jallunder he sought support from

his native men—ISI head, Chief Justice and other Generals
who supported him in coup and rule

• Major Pakistani diaspora who lived foreign sent money to

Pakistan as a result economy boasted—caused Zia regime’s
longevity

• During Ayub’s land reforms most of the military officials

were given lands in Punjab and Sindh rural—it gave rural
support to Zia as he maintained those
• Himself Deobandi, attended their sermons. Many of his
colleges/officers also belonged to Tableeghi Jamat. From
there he took the inspiration of Islamization commitment.

• Regionally, Iranian Revolution appeared in 1979 witch

created leadership battle between Sunni led Saudi Arabia
and Shia led Iran—Zia being Sunni supported Saudi—Sunni

• He officially supported Jamiat Islami (JI) being Sunni

Deobandi

• Soviet intervention in Afghanistan also gave Zia chance to

make close ties with USA which were abandoned during
Bhutto on nuclear issue

• Later it also created many problems in Pakistan—militancy,

drug trafficking, refugee problem and kilshankov culture
 Zia’s Authoritarianism
• Zia’s rule is known as one which damaged
institutions, acted arbitrarily, hampered
democratization and undermined law.
• Zia s rule had an especially malicious impact,
because of both its longevity and its severity.
• Banned press, political activity and other anti regime
activates could be punished with lashes—no debate
• Opponents of the regime were routinely tortured,
military crackdowns that it attracted international
condemnation.
• It also became exalted in the creative writings of
what became known as ‘resistance literature’
• The 1979 Motion Pictures Ordinance censored film
productions on the grounds of both immorality and
undermining religion or Pakistan’s ‘integrity or
solidarity as an independent state’.

• The state was able to control educational curricula

and textbook production—Pakistan Studies was
introduced as a compulsory subject from secondary
school to university level.

• Government-approved texts provided not only a one-

sided version of history but encouraged xenophobia
and the glorification of military struggle to an
impressionable younger generation.
• Zia sought to rewrite history.
• Jinnah was portrayed as upholding Islam, while the
ulama whose influence had been marginal to the
creation of Pakistan were elevated to a vanguard role.

• To emphasize that Quaid-i-Azam’s main motivation

for founding Pakistan was to form an Islamic state as
had been established by the Martial Law regime.

• Two Nation Theory linkage of Pakistan’s genesis with

the emergence of Muhammad Bin Qasim.

• The film was never publicly released, despite its

considerable production costs.

• Cinemas were closed

• To hold elections which were then postponed—
anxiety that the PPP would triumph in polls.

• Zia’s decision to solve the ‘Bhutto problem’ by his

‘judicial murder’ similarly resulted from Zia’s sense of
self-preservation.

• In the wake of the Movement for the Restoration of

Democracy campaign in Sindh in 1983, Zia extended
ban on political activity by PPP members and others to
ten years.

• Like Ayub, Zia also took some civilians (bureaucrats) in

his cabinet for good image
• Zia adopted a two-pronged strategy with respect to
elections:
• Firstly, he sought to bolster his own position as
president by means of holding a national referendum.
• Secondly, he determined that any polls should be held
on a ‘partyless’ basis.
• Muhammad Khan Junejo as P.M
• From assembly got passed the 8th Amendment:
• The discretionary power to dismiss the Prime Minister
and dissolve the National Assembly.
• The President also retained the power to appoint
provincial governors and the chief of the armed forces.
• This created an important legacy which was used by
Zia’s successors as President to fetter democracy.
 Zia and Islamization
• Islamization was the cornerstone of the Zia regime.

• Opinion remains divided as to whether it was a

genuine product of Zia’s Deobandi-influenced piety or
a suspicious trick to acquire legitimization.

• In August 1983, the Advisory Council of Islamic

Ideology conveniently pronounced that a presidential
form of government was the ‘nearest to Islam, political
parties were non-Islamic.

• Zia’s Islamization increased tensions between different

expressions of faith—Shias, Sufis etc.
• Initially it was the lay activists of JI who were at
the forefront of the Islamization process and later
the traditional ulama as represented in the JUI and
JUP also joined Zia.
• Islamization—shariatization debate
1. Judicial reform
• Federal Shariat Court which was established in
1980.
• In 1984 Qazi Courts, in which cases could be tried
according to Islamic law
• The shariat benches—to implement Islamic laws—
Purdah rules
• Islamic Penal Code was introduced according to it:

• Criminal offence for Ahmadis to pose as Muslims and to use

Islamic terminology or Muslim practices of worship.

• Hadood Ordinance

• Law of Evidence

• Law of inheritance

• Zina Ordinance

• Women protested against

• The legal reforms also contributed to sectarian divisions, as
the fact that no Shia judges were appointed to the Federal
Shariat Court led the community to refuse to accept any of
its judgements.
2. Economic reform
• The state’s enforcement of Islamic taxes, which were
previously offered as voluntary acts of piety, created bitter
sectarian divisions.

• The Shias saw' the Zakat Ordinance (designed to implement

the obligatory Islamic alms tax) as part of an attempt to
achieve the ‘Sunnification of Pakistan’’

• The Tehreek-i-Nifaz-i-Fiqh Jafria (TNFJ, or Movement for the

Implementation of Shia Law) was founded to oppose
attempts to Islamicize Pakistan in keeping with Sunni
jurisprudence
• It was also from this time onwards that the Zia
regime began to patronize Sunni madaris in order
to contend with the Shia problem.
• The TNFJ was led from February 1984 onwards by
Allama Arif Hussain, who had imbibed many of
Khomeini’s teachings while studying in seminaries
in Iran and Iraq. Shias formed Sipah-i-Mnkammad
Pakistan (SMP)
• Various Sunni groups were created in order to
counter Shias i.e. Sipah-i-Mnkammad Pakistan
(SMP), Sipah- i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), Sunni
Tehreek, Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LJ), Harkat-id-Ansar
(HUA) etc. Those later in Jihad
 3. Educational reform
• The most important educational legacy of the Zia era
was the mushrooming of mosque schools. Many were
financed out of zakat funds.
• Madaris degree equivalent to university degree and
others.

• In 1947, there had been only around 250 mosque

schools in the whole of Pakistan where as by 1983-4
alone over 12,000 were opened.

• Many schools were loosely linked to the main

Deobandi, Barelvi, and Akl-e-hadith Islamic traditions
with which they were associated.
• Boasted sectarianism
• Zia deliberately patronized some institutions in the
context of advancing the Afghan jihad. The Taliban
movement was to emerge later from this
educational milieu with its radical ‘neo-
fundamentalist’ outlook and trans-national
commitments to jihad.

• Zia’s attempt to place Islam at the forefront of

Pakistan s public life widened sectarian fissures.

• Contemporary Pakistan continues to suffer from

the fruits of these divisions.
 The Politics of Ethnicity in Zia’s
Pakistan
• Zia s conception of Pakistan as an ideological state
founded on Islam and culturally unified by Urdu
exaggerated the longer-term homogenizing trends
in state construction.

• Inevitably, it was resisted m ethnic nationalists

from the smaller provinces.

• Zia was skilful able to manage the situation in

Balochistan and the North West Frontier Province,
although Sindh proved conflicting.
• Co-option in Balochistan involved the release of
the 9,000 odd prisoners who had been
incarcerated since the insurgency against Bhutto.
• While nationalist leaders such as Khair Bux Marri
and Attaukllah Khan Mengel remained in exile,
and continued to argue for independence and a
Greater Balochistan.
• Many sardars returned to their homes and re-
entered the political mainstream through
involvement with the Pakistan National Party
• Co-option of the Pakhtun nationalists was vital to the
ongoing Afghanistan conflict, but was also assisted by
it.

• Pakhtuns were increasingly recruited into the army and

the bureaucracy. By the end of the Zia era, Pakhtun
representation in the army stood at around 20 per
cent; even in the bureaucracy it was around 10
percent.

• The elderly Pakhtun leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan was

released and allowed to return to Afghanistan.
• His son Wali Khan was similarly released.

• The ANP stood aloof from the MRD agitation as it

focused its energies on the struggle in Afghanistan.
• Sindh was at the forefront of the campaign against
Zia launched by the disparate grouping of
opposition parties which came together under the
umbrella of the Movement for the Restoration of
Democracy.
• The struggle intensified in 1983 with leadership
being provided by the PPP and the peasant-based
Sindhi Awam Tehrik.
• The insurrection secured the greatest support in
the rural areas of Thatta, Dadu, Larkana, and
Sanghar.
• It was only quelled following the deployment of
three army divisions backed up with helicopter
gunships.
• The Zia era witnessed the emergence of a new
mohajir ethnic political identity in Sindh.

• This was institutionalized in the MQM which was

run from the outset by students who had been
active from the late 80S in APMSO.

• The mohjjirs had become displaced from their

dominant role in Pakistan by the Punjabi elites.

• ISI sponsored the MQM under Altaf Hussain which

emerged in March 1984 in order to weaken the
PPP and MRD in Sindh
 Zia and Army
• Zia believed that only army has capacity to deal
with state problems

• Ayub relied heavily on the bureaucracy

for his regime where as Zia relied on army and
ensured bureaucracy that it only played the
role as partner.

• He introduced a military preference in the

federal quota recruitment system as well as
providing senior officers with lucrative posts.
• Senior appointments, not only in government
departments and public services but in the welfare
foundations, were at the discretion of the service
chiefs.

• Zia’s survival instincts meant that, despite his

personal piety, he did not make officers
accountable for their financial dealings, but rather
winked at corruption, by increasing their financial
autonomy.

• Corps Commanders were, for example, allowed to

operate secret regimental funds which had no
auditing checks.
• Officers used the opportunity to acquire land cheaply
for housing development and then sell it on at a
profit.

• The Milbus mushroomed as the welfare organizations

of the army took on an increasing array of
commercial activities. In 1977 and 1982 respectively,
welfare organizations were founded for the Pakistan
air force (Shaheen Foundation) and Pakistan navy
(Bahria Foundation).

• They operated on a smaller scale than the Fauji

Foundation and Army Welfare Trust but also
developed a wide range of business activities.
• The Bahria Foundation ran everything
from bakeries and travel agencies to its own
university.

• The senior welfare organization, the Fauji Foundation,

moved into new areas of the economy such as
fertilizer production, in which its first plant was set up
in 1982; it also entered the oil and gas sectors of the
economy.

• Zia, introduced the practice of serving officers having

extended employment in the welfare organizations.

• The army’s entrenchment under Zia made the future

consolidation of democracy much more difficult than
it had even been in the Ayub era.
 Zia and the Afghanistan Conflict
• The Afghanistan conflict lies at the heart of many
of the inheritances from the Zia regime.

• Indeed, without its existence it is debatable

whether his rule would have been as prolonged.

• During USA-USSR Cold war, USSR invaded

Afghanistan and promoted Communism.

• Therefore, Zia saw the US involvement in the

region as a means to forward Pakistan s goals.
• The US decision to use Islamic proxies against the
Soviet occupying forces in Afghanistan put its strategic
relationship with Pakistan at a premium.

• Pakistan was an important staging ground for the

training of the mujabadin. The CIA worked closely with
ISI, through the National Logistics Cell, in the supply of
weapons.

• The ISI greatly expanded its influence and

capabilities49 as a result of the Afghan conflict.

• Indeed, some writers even speculated as to whether it

developed capabilities for independent actions from
the army in pursuit of strategic goals.
• Zia brought Mujahideen from various Muslim states
and trained them. Later sent them to fight with USSR
forces in Afghanistan.

• Zia supported Afghan leader Gulbaddin Hikmatyar

whose group had close links with JI in Pakistan.

• When USSR withdrew from Afghanistan, Pakistan

faced serious issues of refugees and militancy.

• Mujahideen insurgency was again used in Kashmir

• Still legacy
 Conclusion
• Zia attempted to resolve Pakistan’s long-standing
quest for stability by means of Isiamization and
depoliticization.

• The result was mounting sectarian violence and

increased ethnic conflict, both of which were to
assume major proportions in the decade
following his death.

• Zia s rule also further widened the divide

between Western-educated elites and the mass of
conservative population with potentially destabilizing
consequences.
• Military rule also exacerbated tensions between
the smaller provinces and Punjab.

• Long-term ethnic opposition to the perceived

Punjabi-dominated state in Balochistan and Sindh
was not repelled by Isiamization.

• In the Frontier, however, in the context of the

Afghan War, the circumstances had been created
for a Pakthun-Muslim communal identity to be
gradually replaced by a Pakhtun-Islamic one.
• The army entrenched itself still further into
administration and business activities.

• The ISI greatly increased its capabilities and scope tor

autonomy.

• Zia established closer links than ever before between

the army and Islamic parties.

• Civil society was exposed to the destructions of

censorship, prayer wardens and public beatings.

• Zia regime have long been acknowledged to include

the flood of drugs and weapons into Pakistan and its
impetus to intolerance and brutalizing violence.
• These developments were greatly assisted by the
US need for the frontline Pakistan state’s support
in the struggle against the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan.

• Washington turned a blind eye to Pakistan’s

pursuit of its nuclear weapons programme.

• Economy boasted—GDP, GNP

• Strong Military
Pakistan’s Democratic Interlude
(1988-99)
1. Workings of democracy (1988-99)

2. Centre-provincial relations

3. Civil-military relations

4. Explanations of failure of democracy

5. Conclusion
 Introduction
• The transition to democracy following Zia’s death
raised hopes that Pakistan would enter a new era
with the beginnings of a modern democratic
system—the addressing of long-standing social
inequalities and he ending of the centre-state
problems which had plagued the country.

• Advent of Benazir Bhutto as Pakistan’s youngest and

first female Prime Minister also raised the possibility
that gender inequalities would be addressed and
Pakistan would move towards becoming a
progressive and tolerant Muslim society
• Such hopes were to be cruelly ruined.

• The alternation of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz

Sharif k office was marked by political infighting,
financial scandals, limited legislative enactment,
and economic failure.

• Poverty increased as the result of sluggish growth,

despite Nawaz Sharif s attempt to liberalize the
economy.

• Democratic consolidation stalled.

• The sudden demise of Zia-ul-Huq in an air crash on August
17, 1988, ushered in a new era in the political history of
Pakistan.

• It was an era of hope and suspicion. Hope in a sense that it

would bring long awaited democratic, social, economic and
political changes in Pakistan. The suspicion part provided
the sense of thinking as to who was the main pillar of
strength that moulded the whole stream of events.

• It was the Civil–Military bureaucracy, for sure, that proved

to be the main molder of events during this democratic era.

• There were certain foreign policy goals, such as Kashmir,

Afghanistan and the Nuclear Issue.
 Benazir Bhutto’s First Era 1988-
1990
• Democracy returned again in 1988 after the
general elections which were held after the death
of President General Zia-ul-Haq.

• The elections marked the return of Peoples Party

back into the power whose leader, Benazir Bhutto,
became the first female Prime minister of Pakistan
as well as the first female head of government in a
Muslim-majority country.
• This period, lasting until 1999, introduced the
parliamentary system and competitive two-party
democracy in the country, featuring a fierce
competition between centre-right conservatives led
by Nawaz Sharif and centre-left socialists directed by
Benazir Bhutto.

• Benazir Bhutto presided over the country during the

penultimate times of Cold war, and cemented pro-
Western policies due to common distrust of
communism.

• Her government oversaw the successful troop

evacuation of Soviet Union from neighboring
Communist Afghanistan.
• Soon after the evacuation, the alliance with U.S.
came to end when the secret of a successful
clandestine atomic bomb project was revealed to
world which led to imposition of economic
sanctions by the United States.

• The country significantly entered in era of

downturn during this period, and her government
was soon dismissed by the conservative President
Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
 Nawaz Sharif’s First Era 1990-1993
• The 1990 General elections allowed the right-
wing conservative alliance, the Islamic Democratic
Alliance (IDA) led by Nawaz Sharif, to form the
government under a democratic system for the
first time in history.

• Attempts to end the stagnation, Sharif launched

the privatization and economic liberalisation
while on the other hand, adopted a policy of
ambiguity on atomic bomb programs.
• Sharif intervened in Gulf War in 1991, and ordered
an operation in Karachi in 1992.

• Institutional problems arose with president

Ghulam Ishaq Khan, whose attempt was to dismiss
Sharif on the same charges as he had pressed on
Benazir Bhutto.

• Through the Supreme Court judgement, Sharif was

restored and together with Benazir Bhutto ousted
President Ishaq Khan from the presidency.
 Second Benazir Era 1993-1996
• During the general elections, Benazir Bhutto secured
the plurality and formed the government after
appointing a hand-picked president (Farooque
Leghari) for the presidential office and a new cabinet.

• Approving the appointments of all four-star chiefs of

navy, air force, army and chairman joint chiefs, the
internal policies were exercised on tough stance to
bring political stability in the country; her tough
rhetoric her a nickname "Iron Lady" by her rivals.
• Proponents of social democracy and national pride
were supported at an extreme level while the
nationalization and centralization of economy
continued after the 8th Plan was enacted to end the
historical era of stagnation.

• Her foreign policy made an efforts to balance the

relations with the Iran, United States, Western world,
and socialist states.

• Relations with India and Afghanistan worsened in

1995 when allegations were leveled of Pakistan and
other countries providing economic and military aid to
the group from 1994 as a part of supporting the anti-
Soviet alliance.
• Pakistan was one of three countries which
recognized the Taliban government and Mullah
Mohammed Omar as the legitimate ruler of
Afghanistan.

• Benazir Bhutto continued her pressure on India,

pushing India on to take defensive positions on its
nuclear programme.

• Benazir Bhutto clandestine initiatives modernized

and expanded the atomic bomb programme after
launching the missile system programs
• Despite her tough policies, the popularity of Benazir
Bhutto waned after her husband became allegedly
involved in the controversial death of Murtaza Bhutto.

• Many public figures and officials suspected even

Benazir Bhutto's involvement in the murder, although
there were no proves.

• In 1996, seven weeks passed this incident, Benazir

Bhutto's government was dismissed by her own hand-
picked president on charges of Murtaza Bhutto's
death.

• As a result her government was dissolved on

corruption basis.
 Second Nawaz Era 1997-1999
• The 1997 election resulted in conservatives
receiving a heavy majority of the vote, obtaining
enough seats in parliament to change the
constitution, which Prime minister Sharif amended
to eliminate the formal checks and balances that
restrained the Prime Minister's power.
• Institutional challenges to his authority - led by
the civilian President Farooq Leghari, chairman
joint chiefs general Jehangir Karamat, chief of
naval staff admiral Fasih Bokharie, and Chief
Justice Sajjad Ali Shah - were put down and all
four were forced to resign.

• Problems with India further escalated in 1998,

when the television media reported the Indian
nuclear explosions, code name Operation Shakti.
When news flooded in Pakistan, a shocked Sharif
called for a national security meeting in Islamabad
and vowed that "she (Pakistan) would give a
suitable reply to the Indians ...".
• After reviewing the effects of tests for roughly two
weeks, Sharif ordered PAEC to perform a series of
nuclear tests at the remote area of Chagai Hills in
1998 itself. The military forces in the country were
mobilize at a war-situation level on Indian border.

• Under Nawaz Sharif's leadership, Pakistan became

the seventh nuclear power country, the first
country in the Muslim world, as well as a declared
nuclear-weapon state.
• The government also adopted environmental policies
after establishing the environmental protection
agency.

• The next year, Kargil war 1999 threatened to escalate

to a full-scale war and increased fears of a nuclear war
in South Asia.

• On 12 October 1999, Prime minister Sharif's daring

attempt to dismiss General Pervez Musharraf from the
posts of chairman joint chiefs and chief of army staff
failed after the military leadership refused to accept
the appointment of ISI director Lieutenant-General
Ziauddin Butt as chairman and army chief.
• General Musharraf returning to Pakistan from a
PIA commercial airliner, Sharif ordered the Jinnah
Terminal to be sealed to prevent the landing of the
PIA flight, which then circled the skies over Karachi
for several hours.

• A counter coup was initiated, the senior

commanders of the military leadership ousted
Sharif's government and imposed martial law in
1999.
 Various Explanations of Failure
Rational Choice
Role of Civilian leaders
Approach

Structural Approach Burden of History

Cultural Approach Role of Army

 Role of Leaders
The Problem Political Institutionalization
• Weak political institutionalization has been a major
impediment to democratic consolidation in
Pakistan.

• Leaders have preferred to reach on personal

charisma and patronage networks to mobilize
support.

• Mass political mobilizations have not been

institutionalized; politics revolve around personalities
and patronage, not ideas and institutions.
Pakistan under Parvez Musharraf
(1999-2008)
Arrival—LFO, PCO, Referendum & General Elections

Governance—Enlightened modernization Local govt.

system, reforms

Centre-Provincial relations, Islam & Civil-military

relations (Milbus)

Fall of Musharraf

Analysis/ implications
 Introduction
• Imposed martial law and ousted Nawaz Sharif in 1999

• He remained Chief Executive instead of Martial law

administrator

• Chief of Army Staff under Nawaz and SSG Commando

• Main strategist of Siachin plot and Kargil War 1999

• He was migrant, liberal like Ayub because of his

education in Aligarh institute
 Arrival
• Imposed martial law and abrogated 1973
constitution.

• Reformed National Accountability Bureau (NAB)—

legacy of PRODA, PODA, EBDO

• Issued PCO and courts allowed him

• Issued LFO in order to gain legitimacy and

conducted referendum and general elections
 Musharraf’s Seven Point Agenda
1. Re-building of national confidence and morale;
2. Strengthening of the federation by removal of inter
provincial disharmony and restoration of national
cohesion;
3. Revival of economy and restoration of investors‘
confidence;
4. Ensuring law and order and dispensing speedy
justice;
5. Depoliticization of state institutions;
6. Devolution of power to grass-root level, and
7. Ensuring swift and across-the-board accountability.
 Referendum
• In order to stay in power, General Musharraf announced the
plan of referendum on 8 April 2002.

• But according to 1973 constitution the President could not

be elected through referendum. He must be elected by the
Parliament and the Provincial National Assemblies.

• The Supreme Court did not challenge the referendum

process. Military regime brought Election Commission to its
command and conferred on it the responsibility to conduct
and supervise the referendum.

• The Election Commission was no longer an independent

body. The outcomes of the referendum were surprising for
Musharraf. He secured 97% of votes to his favour.
 Legal Framework Order 2002
• After referendum, Musharraf promulgate Legal
Framework Order (LFO) on 21 August 2002. Through
LFO he done certain constitutional amendments.

• i) Every political party shall hold intra-party elections

to elect its office-bearers and party leaders.

• ii) Chief Executive to President after for 5 years term

• iii) There shall be 342 seats of the members in the

National Assembly, including seats reserved for
women and non-Muslims– 10 seats reserved for Non-
Muslims through proportional representation
• 4. If any party elected member joins an other party
for any purpose he can be removed from his party by
party leader

• 5. Article 58 (2) (b) was provided in which president

was given powers to dissolve assemblies and
appointments of key officials (Pseudo-parliamentary
form of govt.)

• 6. there shall be a National Security Council whose

chairman shall be the President in order to serve as a
forum for consultation on strategic matters pertaining
to the sovereignty, integrity and security of the State,
and the matters relating to democracy, governance
and inter-provincial harmony.
• The Proclamation of Emergency of the 14th
October, 1999, all President's Orders, Ordinances,
Chief Executive's Orders, including the P. C. O. ,the
Oath of Office (Judges) Order 2000, the
Referendum Order and all other laws made
between the October 12, 1999 and the date on
which this Article comes into force, are hereby
affirmed, adopted.

• It gave mostly powers to President

 General Elections 2002
• Musharraf announced general elections
• Politics of NAB
• Formed PML (Q) (King’s Party) from PML-N & PPP
members threatening by NAB
• Collation of 6 religious political parties Mutahida
Majlis e Amal (MMA) in NWFP & Balochistan
• Both made National Alliance (NA) and won majority
• Through horse trading and other political
maneuvering PML(Q) remained successful in swelling
its ranks.
• Mir Zafarullah Jamali from Balochistan was elected as
Prime Minister with 172 votes and then Shoukat Aziz
 Governance— Authoritarianism
• Pervez Musharraf termed the post-Zia era a period
of ‘sham democracy’ because of corruption,
economic incompetence, and disunity

• Benazir remained in political exile in London and

Dubai. Nawaz Sharif was found guilty in July 2000
of charges of corruption, kidnapping, and
hijacking.
• Wanted to by pass patrimonial politics by local
govt. system but again joined by traditional feudal
elites (Choudharis etc.)

• Political activity was curbed not just by the NAB.

• Freedom of association was curtailed, an order was

Produced banning public rallies, demonstrations
and strikes.
 Politics of Local Government
• System
Local government reform was overseen by a new
National Conciliation Bureau headed by
Lieutenant-General (retd) S. Munwir Naqvi.

• The new district administration system gave

considerable power to the elected district Nazims
at the expense of the bureaucracy and the
provincial-level politicians.

• Elections were held on non-party basis.

• Bureaucracy powers curtailed under Nazims

• Zila Nazims were unable to manage adminstration

due to new experience

• Nazims cashed in their new-found opportunities

wealth and rose to become provincial-level
politicians.

• The reforms further encouraged patronage rather

than issue-based politics
• The reforms did not increase administrative efficiency.
• Administrative reforms localized politics and further
politicized local administration.
• Depoliticization at the provincial level boosted the
politics of identity and patronage-based politics, as
had happened in the Zia era.
• The kutchery style of politics was extended upwards
from the local bodies.
• On the contrary, the weakening of bureaucracy and
the failure to follow through the promised police
reform promulgated in the ordinance of 2002
contributed to a further decline in governance
• Rather than addressing the issue of weak
institutions which had beset the state since its
foundation, Musharraf contributed to what has
been termed the ‘graveyard of institutions’ in
Pakistan.
• There was a decline in the reach of the state, not
only in the traditionally lightly controlled FATA
region, but in parts of the North West Frontier
Province abutting the Tribal Areas and in South
Punjab.
• This encouraged the activities of militant groups
who had been initially patronized by the state, but
increasingly pitted themselves against it.
• At the same time as restricting opponents, Musharraf
cultivated ties with the Islamic parties and the more
opportunistic elements of the Punjab’s rural elite
(Choudharis).

• The religious parties’ unprecedented electoral

success, which saw them gain 45 per cent of the votes
and 29 National Assembly seats in NWFP, arose in
part from the inflaming Pashtun sentiment following
the US military intervention in Afghanistan.

• No Islamic party had previously obtained more than 5

per cent of the national vote.
 Centre-State Relations
• Military-backed government raised again the old
claims of Punjabization.

• Musharraf adhered to centralization as much as

any previous military ruler, despite his talk of
devolution.

• Gawadar port establishment also opposition

• Cantonments in Baluchistan post 9/11

• Shazia rape case by an army officer

• Operation in Baluchistan, killing of Akbar Bugti

• Calabagh dam issue—opposed by Baluchistan,

Sindh NWFP

• In NWFP increased religious extremism through

various organizations

• Drone attacks

• In Sindh, Kalabagh issue and patronage to MQM

 The State and Islam
• Musharraf portrayed Pakistan as a moderate Islamic state
which would act as a source of stability in a volatile West
Asia region.

• He launched the concept of Enlightened Moderation at the

2002 OIC conference in Malaya.

• He also emphasized Sufi teachings as a

counter to extremism—launched a National
Sufi Council in Lahore

• Education sector reforms sought to modernize the

curriculum of religious schools, with $50 million allocated to
pay the salaries of teachers of nonreligious subjects.
• Instead religious extremism raised
• Suicide attacks
• He also supported religious alliance MMA which
supported some religious extremist organizations
• World knew Pakistan as terrorist and religious
extremist country
• Indian-Afghanistan factor—cross-border support
• Enlightened Modernization versus MMA support
• Extremist literature was circulated
• Good Taliban versus Bad Taliban debate.
• A combination of Musharraf’s own liberal attitudes,
mounting sectarian conflict, and the need to secure a
favourable international image for his regime led him
initially to attempt to roll back some of the
Islamization measures which had been introduced
from the Zia era onwards.

• In May 2000, Musharraf attempted to introduce a

limited reform to take away the power of local police
officials to respond to blasphemy charges.

• There had been a number of cases directed against

the Christian minority which revealed that the
blasphemy ordinance was being used maliciously.
• Refresh thought on Hadood ordinance

• Formed National Commission for Human Rights

• The government introduced the Women’s Protection Bill

• Reformed Madaris due to the pressure of International

Community

• Insurgency in FATA—Swat and Lal Masjid issues

• While the military operation was successful, it resulted in

an intensification of the insurgencies in the Tribal Areas
under the umbrella of a newly formed TTP
 Civil-Military Relations and Milbus under
Musharraf
• Under Ayub and Zia, the military role in the running
of the state grew apace, although its power was
never hegemonic, both because military regimes
failed to acquire political legitimacy and because they
had to rely to a degree on civilian allies drawn from
the rural elite, the Islamic establishment and the
bureaucracy.
• Under Musharraf, military control increased at the
expense of the bureaucracy, although the Islamic
parties remained allies in comparison with the more
prone land owners.
• Musharraf institutionalized its role at the heart of
politics—this was achieved firstly by restoring the
powers of the President to dismiss the Prime
Minister and assemblies (17th amendment) which
had been a feature of Zia’s legacy.

• This measure was important as Musharraf once

again restored a direct linkage between the
presidency and the military by virtue of his dual
office holding as COAS and President.

• Musharraf gave the military a permanent role in

governance through the passage of the National
Security Council Act in 2004.
• The idea that the military should have a permanent
presence in deliberation of national policymaking
drew inspiration from the Turkish model of civil-
military relations.

• Musharraf’s introduction of the National Security

Council revealed both the long-term suspicion of the
army that the state s functioning could not be left to
elected politicians and an established pattern of
intervention to safeguard its interest.

• The direct military association with power opened it

up to corruption, which reduced its standing in the
public’s eyes.
• This declined further as Musharraf’s own popularity
slumped whilst he continued to hold the dual offices
of President and Chief of Army Staff.
• The army regained its high standing as a result of its
tackling militancy and the disastrous floods in
July/August 2010.
• Most military enterprises were run reasonably
efficiently. The Fauji Foundation’s support for ex-
servicemen and their dependants not only provided
the conditions for the steady supply of recruits and
its educational facilities enabled the army to act as
the only meritocratic institution in Pakistan.
• General Kayani—son of constable
 Musharraf's Decline and Fall
• Musharraf, like his military predecessors, lacked
legitimacy and cast about for ways to secure a
popular mandate.
• He was more skilled at political manipulation than
Ayub, but lacked Zia’s native cunning.
• By 2007, the year in which he needed to secure
re-election and parliamentary elections were
scheduled, he faced mounting unpopularity
because of hiss perceived pro-American stance.
• Similarly, Western allies also urged him to deal
with Benazir and Nawaz
• Wanted indirect re-elections as President which
was opposed by opposition parties
• Chief Justice Iftekhar Choudhary increased
independence and he was feared—his steps illegal
• Fired CJ and imposed emergency—damaged and
questiuonaed his internal and external legitimacy
• Benazir and Nawaz returned—hard opposition
• Lawyers Movement plus Lal Masjid issue
• Assassination of Benazir and elections
• PPP won in majority
• Impeachment process started and he step down in
18 August 2008
 Conclusion/ Analysis
• Musharraf era exemplifies three long-running themes
in Pakistan’s post-independence history:

• Firstly, that military governments are ultimately

unable to modernise society, governance and the
economy because of their lack of legitimacy.

• Secondly, that Pakistan’s utilization of Islamic proxies

has derailed relations with its neighbours and come at
an increasing domestic cost.

• Thirdly, that military rule is likely to increase ethnic

tensions within the smaller provinces of Pakistan.
• General Musharraf, the fourth military dictator
ruled Pakistan for nearly nine years.

• His assumption of power on 12 October 1999 was

followed by sacking of half the Supreme Court on
26 January 2000.

• It was then followed by the judgment of 12 May

2000 by a hand picked Supreme Court which
legitimized his military government on the
touchstone of the doctrine of necessity.
• Civilian institutions like the parliament, judiciary
and bureaucracy were sidelined and made subservient
to the will of the military ruler.

• His seven point agenda which promised good

governance, economic progress, inter-provincial
harmony, clean politics and accountability disappeared
into thin air; with the benefit of hindsight it now
appears that he was never sincere about any of them.

• The hallmark of t he Musharraf regime was its distrust

of civilians, civil society and civil institutions, and
induction of retired or serving officers from the armed
forces in all spheres of administration and at all levels.
• He ensured the absence of the two main political
leaders, Benazir and Nawaz, before the general
elections of2002 and employed manipulating tactics
to obtain a majority for his party of collaborators.

• The Constitution was selectively restored by keeping

the provisions of the Constitution against floor
crossing in abeyance.

• Employment of this mechanism resulted in horse

trading and defection of members of the opposition
parties to the ruling coalition.

• The judiciary in Pakistan suffered the most during

this period
• He introduced National Accountability Bureau (NAB)
under a law for accountability and used it for
victimization of his political opponents and to assist
him in forming a majority for his own party, PML(Q).
• One of the greatest crimes against humanity and
human rights was the abduction of thousands of
Pakistanis and their handing over to foreign
intelligence agencies, particularly CIA, with or without
a price.
• Musharraf played a dangerous double game to
perpetuate himself in power. Outwardly, he acted as a
stooge of the US Administration but reportedly kept
secretly dealing with the elements that were involved
in terrorist activities.
• The law and order situation throughout the
country, particularly in the provinces of
Balochistan and NWFP spun out of control.
 References

1. Trek to Pakistan by Ahmed Saeed

2. Struggle for Pakistan by Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi
3. Pakistan: A New History by Ian Talbot
4. Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan by
Hamid Khan
5. Pakistan the Formative Phase by K.B Syeed

G M PITAFI 03022012545
Thank
You
G M PITAFI 03022012545