Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation

DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Module Name: Electrical Measurement and
Instrumentation
Module Code: EET 04214
Number of Credits: 9
 Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation

Introduction
Measurement means to monitor a process or an operation and using an
instrument, express the parameters, quantity or a variable items of
meaningful numbers.
The measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act or results of a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and unknown
quantity to be measured. The physical, chemical, electrical quantity, properly
process, variable or condition to be measured is referred as measurement
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Cont.…
For the meaningful measurements first the comparison standard should be

accurately defined and commonly accepted and second the procedure and

instrument used for obtaining the comparison must be provable.

The major problem with any measuring instrument is error. Hence it is

necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and ,measuring

procedure which minimizes the error

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Cont.…
Nowadays, the measurement of electrical quantities is an essential part of

almost any measurement. It can be realized as a measurement, whose results

indicate directly a value of measured electric quantities, such as voltage,

current, resistance, capacitance, electrical power, Intensity etc., or a

measurement, where measurement of electrical quantities is only an internal

function of an electronic measurement system measuring any other physical

quantity
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Cont.…
Instrumentation is a branch of engineering that deals with the measurement
and control of different parameters. Simply instrumentation is defined as the
art and science of measurement and control
Measuring instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power
and energy etc.
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Basic Electrical Quantities

The basic electrical quantities are electrical current and voltage, electrical
charge, resistance, capacitance, inductance and electric power. Electricity is a
flow of free electrons carrying negative electric charge from a place of their
excess (the place with negative charge) to a place of their deficiency (the place
with positive charge).
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Basic Electrical Quantities Units and Symbols

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Electrical Measuring Instruments

Ammeter
Measures the intensity (i.e. amps) of current circulating through an electrical
circuit.

Ohmmeter
Records the ohms, or the electrical resistance, in a circuit.

Multimeter
A meter that brings together the capabilities of the other meters: it incorporates
the tools necessary to measure voltages, resistances, capacitances, etc.
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Galvanometer
Indicates the intensity of flow of current trough the circuit

Voltmeter
used to measure the potential difference between two points of a closed
electrical circuit or the electromotive force of a battery. This instrument must
have high electrical resistance so that, when it’s connected to the circuit, it does
not generate consumption that alters the result and accuracy of the
measurement.
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Spectrum analyzer
A measuring equipment that displays the components and spectral ranges of
electrical signals coming from any wave, whether electromagnetic, mechanical,
acoustic, or optical.

Oscilloscope
A measuring instrument and graphical display of electrical signals that vary
over time. This tool makes it possible to visualize transient phenomena and
facilitates the diagnosis and analysis of an electrical circuit’s operation, as well
as its possible failures.
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Principles of Good Measurement

The right measurements
Measurements should only be made to satisfy agreed and well specified
requirements
The right tools
Measurements should be made using equipment and methods that have
been demonstrated to be fit for purpose
The right people
Measurement staff should be competent, properly qualified and well informed
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Cont.…
Regular review
There should be both internal and independent assessment of the technical
performance of all measurement facilities and procedures
Demonstrable consistency
Measurements made in one location should be consistent with those made
elsewhere and across time
The right procedures
Well-defined procedures consistent with national or international standards
should be in place for all measurements
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Functional Elements of an Instrumentation System

Most of the measurement contain three main functional elements, These are

primary sensing , variable conversion and data presentation elements

Primary Sensing Element

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary

sensing element of a measurement system.

Variable Convention Element

It converts the output of the primary sensing element into suitable form to

preserve the information content of the original signal.

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Data Presentation Element

The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to

the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or

analysis purpose.
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Evolution of Instruments
a) Mechanical Instruments

b) Electrical Instruments

c) Electronic Instruments

Mechanical Instruments
These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But their

disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of

dynamic and transient conditions.

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Electrical Instruments

It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than mechanical

methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The

response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

Electronic Instruments
It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak

signal can also be detected

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Methods of Measurement
a) Direct Comparison Method
b) Indirect Comparison Methods

Direct Comparison Method

In this method unknown quantity is directly compared against a standard and
result is expressed as numerical value and unit. It is not possible, feasible and
practicable inaccurate because they involves human factors and not sensitive.
Not preferred and rarely used
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Examples of the instruments used in the direct method include digital

voltmeters for measuring the voltage, digital thermometers for measuring
the temperature, and pressure gauges for measuring the pressure.

Indirect Comparison Methods

In this method the parameter to be measured is compared with standard
through the use of a calibrated system.
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Examples of indirect methods are measuring the resistance of any unknown

resistor by determining the voltage/current across it. Calculating the flow rate
of a fluid through a pipe by measuring the differential pressure drop across a
restriction like an orifice

Classification of Measuring Instruments

Generally instruments are classified in to two categories
.
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Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be
measured in terms of the instrument parameter. This instrument is really used,
because each time the value of the measuring quantities varies. So we have to
calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically which is time
consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer and Absolute electrometer.
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Secondary instrument
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly.
Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with another
standard secondary instrument. Examples of such instruments are voltmeter,
ammeter and wattmeter etc.
Secondary Instruments are classified into four categories.
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Indicating Instrument
This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring
quantity. The pointer indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
The examples are ammeters, voltmeters etc.
For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument , three
forces are necessary. These forces are
i. Deflecting force
ii. Controlling forces
iii. Damping forces
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Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero
position. To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary
which is known as deflecting force. A system which produces the deflecting
force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting system converts

an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

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Controlling force
To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is
necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force.
This force is known as controlling force. A system which produces this force is
known as a controlled system. When the external signal to be measured by the
instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position. This
is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a
steady value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
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Damping force
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro
mechanical. Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates
about it final steady position before coming to rest. The time required to take
the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is quickly, a damping
force is necessary.
 This force can be air friction damping, fluid friction damping or eddy current
damping
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Recording instrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be
measured continuously over a specified period of time. The examples are x-y
plotter and recorders like magnetic tape recorders etc.

Integrating instrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be
measured over a specified period of time. The example is household energy
meter
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Performance Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two
categories:
a) Static characteristics
b) Dynamic characteristics

Static Characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not
vary with time, is called ‘static characteristics
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The various static characteristics are:

Accuracy
It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches
the true value of quantity to be measured. This can be expressed in accuracy
as percentage of full scale reading, accuracy as percentage of true vale,
accuracy as percentage of scale pan and point accuracy.
Precision
It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. It denotes
the closeness with which individual measurements are departed or distributed
about the average number of measured values.
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Characteristics of precision include conformity and number of significant

figures
Mathematically
Precision(P) is given by
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Error
The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
quantity to be measured.

Sensitivity
It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which
the instrument responds.
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Dynamic Characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with
time, is called dynamic characteristics.

Speed of response
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity.
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Dynamic error
It is the difference between the true value of quantity changing with time and
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static is assumed
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Electronic Instrument
Is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles for its
measurement function.
These instruments have higher sensitivity, faster response and greater
flexibility than electrical and mechanical instruments. Electronic instruments
includes analogue and digital instruments
The deflecting instruments with a scale and movable pointer are called analog
instruments
Digital instruments are those which use logic circuits and techniques to obtain
a measurement and then display it in numerical reading form.
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Advantages Electronic Instrument

Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the electrical or
electronic signals
An electrical or electronic signals can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed,
sampled and measured.
The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for
automatic analysis and recording
The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of
cables or radio links without ant loss of information
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Cont.…
Many measurement can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid
succession
Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure
the events of very short duration as well.
Electronic Versus Electrical Instruments
 Electronic instruments have built-in device to increase amplitude of quantity
being measured.
Control action of moving electrons is more effective in electronic instruments
than in electrical instruments
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Cont.…
Electronic instruments are highly sensitive due to presence of amplifying
circuit.
They can monitor remote signals
Fast response and flexibility

Essentials of an Electronic Instruments

Transducer
This is first sensing element and required only when measuring a non
electrical quantity
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Signal Modifier
 To make the incoming signal suitable for application to the indicating device.
For example voltage dividers for reducing the amount of signal applied to the
indicating devices.
Indicating Device
For general purpose instruments like voltmeters, ammeters or ohm meters.
 Electrical Measurement & Instrumentation

Essential Requirements of an Instrument

Deflecting system
The deflecting system must overcome the following
i. The inertia of moving system
ii. The controlling torque provided by controlling system
iii. Damping torque provided by damping systems
The deflecting system uses one of the following effects provided by current or
voltage to produce deflecting toque
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Cont.…
Magnetic Effect
When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a force which causes to move it. This effect mostly used in
moving iron attraction and repulsion type, permanent magnet moving coil
instruments etc.
Thermal Effect
The current to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it
to cause raise in temperature which is converted to an e.m.f by thermocouple
attached to it
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Electrostatic Effects
When two plates are charged , there is a force exerted between them, which
moves one of the plates. This effects is used in electrostatic instruments
which is normally voltmeters.
Induction Effects
 When a non magnetic conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field
produced by electromagnets which are excited by alternating current, an
emf is induced in it. If the closed path is provided, there is a flow of current in
the disc. The interaction between induced currents and the alternating
magnetic fields exerts a force on the disc which causes to move it.
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Hall Effect
If a bar of semiconducting material is placed in uniform magnetic field and if
the bar carries current, then an emf is produced between two edges of
conductor.
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Controlling Force
The controlling force can be provided by the following mechanisms
Spring Control
Two hair springs are attached to the moving system which exerts
controlling torque.
The spring should be non magnetic, free from mechanical stress, should
have small resistance and sufficient cross sectional area and also low
resistance temperature coefficient.
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Cont....
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Gravity Control
This type of control consists of small weight attached to the moving system
whose position is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling torque due to
gravity. This weight is called controlling weight.
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Damping System
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro
mechanical. Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates
about it final steady position before coming to rest. The time required to take
the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is quickly, a damping
force is necessary. This force is produced by different systems
i. Air friction damping
ii. Fluid friction damping
iii. Eddy current damping
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Air Friction Damping

The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting
rod. The pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the
pointer oscillates in clockwise direction, the piston goes inside and the
cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the piston upwards and the pointer
tends to move in anticlockwise direction.
If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and
the pressure of the air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is
more than that of the internal pressure. Therefore the piston moves down
wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise direction.
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Air Friction Damping

.
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Fluid Friction Damping

This method is similar to air friction damping, only air is replaced by working
fluid. The friction between the disc and fluid is used for opposing motion. This is
more advantageous than air friction damping because it provide more
damping, fluid can also be used for insulation purpose etc.
.
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Eddy Current Damping

An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle. This disc is made to move in
the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping
magnet. An emf is induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents
are established in the disc since it has several closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the
current carrying disc produced a force in a direction opposite to oscillating
force. The damping force can be varied by varying the projection of the
magnet over the circular disc.
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Eddy Current Damping

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Types Of Instruments
i. Permanent magnet moving coil
ii. Moving iron
iii. Electro-dynamometer type
iv. Hot wire type
v. Thermocouple type
vi. Induction type
vii. Electrostatic type
viii. Rectifier type
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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instrument

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument.
Construction
A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is
provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet.
Coils are wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the
spindle. This spindle is supported with jeweled bearing. Two springs are
attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of the moving coils are
connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving
coil and spring 2
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Cont.…
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.
Control: Spring control is used.
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Principle of Operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it.
When the current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a
force. This force produces a torque and the former rotates. The pointer is
attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the pointer moves over
the calibrated scale.
When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in the opposite direction.
The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite
direction.
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Cont.…
Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument. If A.C. is
supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous
deflection. Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.
Torque developed by PMMC
Let Td =deflecting torque
TC = controlling torque
θ = angle of deflection
K=spring constant
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l=height of the coil or length of coil

b=width of the coil
N=No. of turns
I=current
B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
F = BIL sinθ
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Cont.…
When ° θ = 90
For N turns, F = NBIL
Torque produced Td = F× ⊥r distance
Td = NBIL×b = BINA
Td = BANI
T is proportional to I
Advantages
Torque/weight is high
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Scale is uniform Damping is very effective

Power consumption is less
Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
Range of instrument can be extended

Disadvantages
Use only for D.C.
Cost is high
Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present
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Extension of Range of PMMC Instrument

Case-I: Shunt
A low shunt resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter to extent the
range of current. Large current can be measured using low current rated
ammeter by using a shunt.
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Cont.…
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Case (II): Multiplier

A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier. A large
voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.
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Cont.…
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Cont.…
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Moving Iron (MI) Instruments

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement
is moving iron instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument
which are attraction type and repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. Instrument
Construction
The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil. The
pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported
with jeweled bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
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Principle of Operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is
flow through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic
induction the moving iron gets magnetized. The north pole of moving coil is
attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force is produced
due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle,
the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the
force of attraction depends on the current flowing through the coil.
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Cont.…
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change with
respect to the fixed electromagnets.

Advantages
MI can be used in AC and DC
It is cheap
Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
 Simple construction
Less friction error
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Disadvantages
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
Scale is not uniform
It consumed more power
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
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Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument

Construction
The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it. The
moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the
spindle in supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of Operation
When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by it.
So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity,
since they are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and
moving iron get repelled
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Cont.…
Thus the deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since
moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer
moves over the calibrated scale. Damping: Air friction damping is used to
reduce the oscillation. Control: Spring control is used.
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Cont.…
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Torque Developed
Consider
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Cont.…
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Cont.…
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Advantages of Moving Iron Instruments

Can be used for both a.c and d.c
Torque to weight ratio is high
Single type of moving element can cover wide the range hence these
instruments are cheap
They are extremely rugged and reliable
Range of instrument can be extended
They can withstand large loads
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Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments

The scale is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end, hence accurate
readings are not possible at the end
There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray
magnetic fields.
Temperature increase leads to increase of coil resistance, decrease stiffness
of the springs, decrease permeability etc.
There is a difference between ac and dc calibrations on account of the effect
of inductance of the meter.
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Errors in Moving Iron Instruments

i. Hysteresis errors
ii. Temperature errors
iii. Stay magnetic field error
iv. Frequency error
v. Eddy current error
Characteristics of Meter
Resistance of the coil
This is ohmic resistance of the moving coil. It is due to ρ , L and A. For an
ammeter this should be as small as possible.
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Cont.…
Full scale deflection
The current required to bring the pointer to full-scale or extreme right side of
the instrument is called full scale deflection current. It must be as small as
possible. Typical value is between 2 µ A to 30mA.