A PROJECT ON

NANOSCALE SYSTEMS

A
PROJECT ON PARTIIAL
FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT
FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE (PHYSICS HONOURS)
UNDER BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY

SUBMITED BY: OM PRAKASH PATTNAIK

ROLL NO: PM2224888
REGD. NO: 21581/2021

SUPERVISED BY: MR. CHINMAYA KUMAR ROUT

(HEAD OF PHYSICS DEPT.)
PENDRANI MAHAVIDYALAYA, UKT

PENDRANI MAHAVIDYALAYA , UMERKOTE

1
 PENDRANI MAHAVIDYALAYA, UMERKOTE ,PIN-764073
NABARANGPUR ODISHA.

This is submitted to Pendrani Degree Mahavidyalaya, Umerkote in

partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in
Physics under Berhampur University 2021-2024.

OM PRAKASH PATTNAIK
BSc Physics (Hons) 6th Semester
Pendrani Mahavidyalaya, Umerkote,
Under BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY.

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “NANOSCALE SYSTEMS”

by OM PRAKASH PATTNAIK submitted to the Pendrani Degree
Mahavidyalaya, Umerkote as a summary of my study and knowledge acquired
through the relevant literature references from various sources. It is submitted
for partial fulfilment of our DSE-4 Project work according to CBCS syllabus as
recommended by the U.G.C, Govt. of India. I have completed the project under
the guidance of Mr.Chinmaya Kumar Rout, my Physics lecturer.

This project has not been previously submitted in any form for any
purpose whatever to any institution.

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 CERTIFICATE

It is certified that the project work entitled “ NANOSCALE SYSTEMS” is

a project work carried out by OM PRAKASH PATTNAIK with University
Roll No.PM2224888 in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of
bachelor of science (Department of Physics) of Pendrani Degree
Mahavidyalaya Umerkote. This is a record of student’s own study carried
under my supervision guidance.

Signature of Guide :

Signature of HOD :
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have best

owned upon me their blessings and heart pledged support, this time l am
utilizing to think all the people who have been concerned with this project.

Primary I would thank god for being able to complete this project with success.
Then I would like to thank my Parents and then my teacher Mr.Chinmaya
Kumar Rout of our Physics department of Pendrani Mahavidyalaya,
Umerkote whose valuable guidance has been the once that helped me patch this
project and make it full proof success. Their suggestions and their instructions
have served as the major contributor towards the completion of the project.

I am also thankful to our principal Dr. Anil Kumar Mishra for his
great encouragement and guidance.

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 PROJECT SEMINAR VIVA VOICE TOTAL
PRESENTATIO
N

Signature of the Internal

Signature of
External

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 CONTENTS:

1. INTRODUCTION. 8-9
2. NANO STRUCTURES (1D,2D,3D). 10-13
3. NANODOTS, 14-15
4. THIN FILMS. 15-17
5. NANOWIRES. 18-20
6. NANORODS. 21
7. DENSITY OF MATERIALS AT NANO SCALES. 22-30
8. BAND STRUCTURES. 30-32
9. SIZE EFFECT. 33
10. QUANTUM CONFINEMENT. 34-40
11. SUMMARY. 41
12. REFERENCE 42

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1.INTRODUCTION :

 Nanoscience is the study of nano structures and nano-materials. It is also the study of
phenomena on Nanometre scale.
 Nanoscale systems represent a revolutionary domain at the forefront of science and
technology, delving into the manipulation and understanding of matter at the nano-
meter scale. At this scale, materials exhibit unique properties, behaviours, and
functionalities, distinct from their bulk counterparts. The ability to engineer and
control matter at the nanoscale opens a vast array of possibilities across various
disciplines, ranging from electronics and medicine to energy and materials science.
 Nano refers to 10-9and I can be ascribed to any unit of measurement. Hence 1
nanometre means 10-9metre, 1 nanosecond means 10-9second and similarly for their
physical units.
 The emergence of nanotechnology has been fuelled by advancements in
nanofabrication techniques, such as molecular self-assembly, lithography, and
scanning probe microscopy, enabling precise manipulation and characterization of
nanoscale structures. These techniques have empowered scientists and engineers to
design and fabricate nanomaterials with tailored properties and functionalities,
leading to breakthroughs in diverse fields.
 In nanoelectronics, for instance, the continual miniaturization of electronic
components has led to the development of nanoscale transistors, enabling faster,
more energy-efficient computing devices.
 In Medicine, nanoparticles are being utilized for targeted drug delivery, imaging,
and diagnostics, promising more effective and personalized healthcare solutions.
Nanomaterials also hold immense potential for energy applications, with research
focusing on enhancing the efficiency of solar cells, batteries, and catalysts.
 Moreover, the interdisciplinary nature of nanoscience and nanotechnology fosters
collaborations between physicists, chemists, biologists, engineers, and materials
scientists, facilitating the cross-pollination of ideas and approaches. This
convergence of expertise is driving innovation and pushing the boundaries of what is
possible at the nanoscale.

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 However, along with the remarkable opportunities presented by nanoscale systems
come significant challenges, including issues related to scalability, reproducibility,
safety, and ethical considerations. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic
approach, involving rigorous scientific research, responsible engineering practices,
and thoughtful societal engagement.
 As we continue to explore and harness the potential of nanoscale systems, it is
crucial to approach this endeavour with a deep understanding of both the
opportunities and the responsibilities it entails. Through collaborative efforts and
interdisciplinary exploration, nanotechnology promises to revolutionize industries,
improve quality of life, and shape the future of humanity in profound ways.

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2.NANO-STRUCTURED MATERIALS:

 Nanostructured materials refer to materials that have been deliberately engineered to

have dimensions at the nanometre scale in one or more directions. These materials
exhibit unique properties and behaviours due to their small size and high surface
area-to-volume ratio.
 Nano-structured materials based on the dimensions of their structural elements are
mainly of four types:
a) Zero Dimensional (OD)
b) One Dimensional (1D)
c) Two Dimensional(2D)
d) Three-Dimensional(3D) nano-structured materials.

a) ZERO DIMENSIONAL(OD):
 Zero-dimensional(0D) nano structured materials in which
nanoparticles are isolated from each other . these materials include
nano cluster materials and nano dispersions.
 Nanodots or quantum dots and magnetic quantum dots are zero-
dimensional (0D) nano-structured materials.
 The degree of freedom of 0D Nano structured materials is zero.
 The motion of 0D nano-materials is confined in all three
directions and the particles is not free to move at all.
 The particle has quantized energies associated with its motion
along the three directions
 These materials have significant potential for a wide range of
applications across fields such as electronics, photonics, medicine,
and environmental science.

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b) ONE DIMENSIONAL(1D):
 One-dimensional nanostructured materials are those that have at least one dimension
in the nanometre range while the other dimensions are much larger. Examples of 1D
nanostructures include nanowires, nanotubes, nanorods, and nanofibers. These
materials typically have diameters or thicknesses on the order of nanometres, while
their lengths can vary from micrometres to millimetres.
 Characteristics and applications of 1D nanostructures include:
i)High aspect Ratio: One dimension is significantly larger than the other two,
leading to a high aspect ratio. This feature is advantageous for applications such as
reinforcement in composite materials, sensing elements in nanoelectronics, and as
templates for synthesizing other nanostructures.
ii)_Unique Mechanical, Electrical and Optical properties: Due to their small size
and high surface-to-volume ratio, 1D nanostructures often exhibit unique
mechanical, electrical, and optical properties. For instance, carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
have exceptional mechanical strength and electrical conductivity, making them
promising materials for applications in electronics, energy storage, and composites.
 Applications: They find applications in various fields such as electronics, photonics,
sensing, catalysis, and biomedical engineering.
c) TWO DIMENSIONAL (2D):
Two-dimensional nanostructured materials are those that are confined to the nano meter
scale in two dimensions while being much larger in the third dimension. Examples of 2D
nanostructures include graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) like MoS2 and
WS2, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), and phosphorene.
 Characteristics and applications of 2D nanostructures include:
i)Atomically thin: 2D nanostructures are only one or a few atoms thick, resulting in
unique properties such as flexibility, transparency, and tuneable electronic properties.
ii)Large Surface Area: Despite their ultrathin nature, 2D materials have large surface
areas, making them suitable for applications such as catalysis, sensing, and energy storage.
iii)Tuneable Properties: The properties of 2D materials can be tuned by controlling their
composition, thickness, and structural defects. For instance, graphene can be doped or
functionalized to modify its electronic properties, making it versatile for applications in
electronics, optoelectronics, and sensors.

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  Applications: They find applications in various fields including electronics, photonics,
energy storage, catalysis, sensors, and biomedical devices.
 In summary, nanostructured materials in 1D and 2D forms exhibit unique properties and
behaviours due to their confined dimensions at the nanoscale. These materials have
significant potential for various applications in fields ranging from electronics and photonics
to energy storage and biomedicine.

d)Three-Dimensional(3D) Nano-Structures:

Three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures are materials that exhibit nanoscale features and
structures in all three dimensions. Unlike one-dimensional (1D) or two-dimensional (2D)
nanostructures, which are confined to one or two dimensions at the nanoscale, respectively,
3D nanostructures have intricate nanoscale features extending in three dimensions. These
structures can be fabricated through various methods, including self-assembly, template-
assisted synthesis, and additive manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing.

Here are some key aspects of 3D nanostructured materials:

 Structural Diversity: 3D nanostructured materials can take various forms, including

nanowires, nanotubes, nanopillars, nanoflowers, nanosheets, and more complex
hierarchical structures. These structures can be synthesized using techniques such as
chemical vapor deposition, electrodeposition, template-assisted growth, and self-
assembly methods.
 High Surface Area: One of the main advantages of 3D nanostructured materials is
their high surface area-to-volume ratio, which offers enhanced reactivity and surface
interactions. This property is particularly advantageous in catalysis, sensing, energy
storage, and biomedical applications.
 Mechanical Properties: Nanostructured materials often exhibit mechanical
properties different from their bulk counterparts due to their small size and unique
structure. These materials can display improved strength, flexibility, and toughness,
making them suitable for applications requiring high mechanical performance, such
as structural materials and nanocomposites.
 Electrical and Optical Properties: The electronic and optical properties of 3D
nanostructured materials can be tailored by controlling their size, shape,
composition, and surface morphology. This tunability enables applications in
electronics, photonics, optoelectronics, and sensors.

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 Energy Applications: 3D nanostructured materials hold great promise for energy-
related applications, including energy conversion (e.g., solar cells, thermoelectric
devices), energy storage (e.g., batteries, supercapacitors), and energy harvesting
(e.g., piezoelectric nanogenerators).
 Biomedical Applications: Nanostructured materials are being explored for various
biomedical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, bioimaging, and
biosensing. Their high surface area, tuneable surface chemistry, and biocompatibility
make them attractive candidates for interfacing with biological systems.
 Challenges and Opportunities: Despite their promising properties, 3D
nanostructured materials also present challenges related to scalability,
reproducibility, and cost-effective fabrication. Overcoming these challenges requires
interdisciplinary efforts involving materials science, chemistry, physics, and
engineering.
 In summary, 3D nanostructured materials offer a rich playground for exploring novel
properties and applications across a wide range of fields, from electronics and energy
to biomedicine and environmental science. Continued research and development in
this area hold the potential for transformative technological advancements.

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 Fig. Schematic diagram of types of nano structured materials

3.NANODOTS:

Nano Dots are zero-dimensional nano structures in which there is confinement along
all the three directions. They are also known as quantum dots.

 Properties of Nanodots: Due to their zero-dimensional nature, nanodots exhibit

unique properties, such as quantum confinement effects, high surface area-to-volume
ratio, and size-dependent properties. These properties make nanodots attractive for
various applications, including electronics, photonics, catalysis, sensing, and
biomedicine.
 Applications of Nanodots: Nanodots find applications across various fields due to
their unique properties.
i)Nanodot could potentially store over one hundred times more data than the present
hard drives.

ii)Nanodots can be considered as tiny magnets which can switch polarity to present
binary digit.

iii)hard drive magnetizes areas 250-250nm long to store individual bits but nanodot
can be 50nm in diameter or smaller.

iv) they could also lead to ultrafast memory. For example, In electronics, nanodots
can be used in quantum dot-based devices for optoelectronic applications, such as
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cells. In catalysis, nanodots serve as efficient
catalysts due to their high surface area and enhanced reactivity. In biomedicine,
nanodots are employed in bioimaging, drug delivery, and therapeutic applications
due to their biocompatibility and tuneable properties.
vi)Over the past decade, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and graphene quantum dots (GQDs)
have emerged as the supreme category of zero-dimensional (0D) carbonaceous nanostructures
having potential applications in energy storage and optoelectronics devices. These zero-dimensional
carbon nanostructures have captivated excellent consideration and have ascended as a substitute to
traditional metal-based semiconductor QDs due to their intriguing estates like excellent
photoluminescence, quantum yield, scalability, tuneable emission, biocompatibility, chemical inertness,
and excellent hydrophilicity. These unique properties of zero-dimensional carbon materials have
inspired researchers to employ them in bioimaging, optoelectronic, catalytic, and energy storage
applications. The last couple of years have perceived an incredible rise in the green synthetic strategies
of carbon-based QDs and their applications and this review familiarizes the reader with the current and
significant progress in the synthesis of carbon-based QDs/GQDs from various natural precursors with
their quantum yields as well as intriguing applications in diverse fields. In addition, this communication
not only delivers critical perceptions toward the development in the field of advanced energy devices

14
but also highlights the advancements of these nanosized carbonaceous materials in the energy storage
devices such as in supercapacitors and batteries. Also, it focuses on the broad scope of carbon
nanomaterials and nanotechnology towards cutting-edge research and expansion in the arena of energy
storage applications of carbon-based QDs.

 In summary, nanodots represent an important class of zero-dimensional

nanostructured materials with distinctive properties and versatile applications. Their

synthesis and manipulation at the nanoscale offer exciting opportunities for
developing advanced technologies across various disciplines.

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4.THIN FILMS:
 Thin films are two-dimensional nano-structures in which there is confinement along
one direction. A thin film is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a nanometer
to several nanometers in thickness. These are created through a process called
Deposition.
 Deposition is a coating process achieved by modifying the four states of matter such
as solid ,liquid, gas, and plasma.
 Thin films play a crucial role in the field of 2D nanomaterials, offering a versatile
platform for their synthesis, manipulation, and application. Here's how thin films are
related to 2D nanomaterials:
i)Synthesis: Thin films are often used as substrates or templates for the synthesis of
2D nanomaterials. Techniques like chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical
vapor deposition (PVD) can be employed to deposit thin films of catalytic metals or
insulating materials onto which the 2D nanomaterials can grow. The thin film acts as
a nucleation site and provides the necessary support for the growth of the 2D
material.
ii)Transfer: After synthesis, 2D nanomaterials may need to be transferred onto
different substrates for various applications. Thin films can facilitate this transfer
process. For example, a 2D material grown on a thin film substrate can be transferred
onto a flexible substrate or integrated into a device structure.
iii)Characterization: Thin film techniques such as atomic layer deposition (ALD) or
molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) can be used to precisely control the thickness and
composition of films. These techniques are often employed to characterize the
properties of 2D nanomaterials by depositing thin films of materials with known
properties on top of the 2D material, allowing researchers to study their interactions.
iv)Device Fabrication: Thin films are integral components in the fabrication of
electronic and optoelectronic devices using 2D nanomaterials. Techniques such as
lithography and etching can be used to pattern thin films of conductive or insulating
materials, creating device structures with precise dimensions and functionalities.

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 v)Functionalization: Thin films can be functionalized to modify the properties of
2D nanomaterials or enhance their performance in specific applications.
Functionalization techniques such as surface modification or chemical doping can be
applied to thin films deposited on 2D materials to tailor their electronic, optical, or
mechanical properties.

 Applications :
a)Electronic Semiconductor devices which include integrated circuit chips, micro-
fabricated mechanisms, micro electromechanical systems(MEMS), micro-electronic
optical systems and light emitting diodes(LEDs).
b)Also used in optical coatings, photovoltaic solar cells, and thin film batteries.
c)Ferromagnetic and ferro-electric thin films are used as computer memory.
d)Thin film technology is used to reduce the cost of photovoltaic systems which are
used to store solar energy .
e)Thin films batteries can be deposited into chips of ant shape and size.
f)Thin films can be printed onto plastic, thin metal or paper using thin film printing
technology.
g)This technology is also used in the manufacturing of reflective or anti reflective or
self-cleaning glass.

Overall, thin films play a critical role in the synthesis, manipulation, and application of 2D
nanomaterials, providing a versatile platform for their integration into various devices and
systems.

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5.NANO WIRES:
Nanowires are considered one-dimensional (1D) nanostructured materials due to their
unique physical structure, which is characterized by having two dimensions in the
nanometre scale (length and diameter) while the third dimension can be significantly larger.
This one-dimensional nature distinguishes them from bulk materials.

Here is a closer look at why nanowires are classified as 1D nanostructured materials:

 Dimensionality: Nanowires are elongated structures with diameters typically

ranging from a few nanometres to several hundred nanometres, while their lengths
can extend to micrometers or longer. They exhibit nanoscale dimensions in two axes
(length and diameter), but the third axis (width or thickness) can be much larger,
placing them in the one-dimensional category.
 At the atomic or molecular level, nanowires are precisely structured along their
length, width, and thickness. This atomic arrangement is often controlled during
synthesis processes to achieve specific properties and functionalities.
Properties: The one-dimensional structure of nanowires gives rise to unique
properties:
 High aspect ratio: Nanowires typically possess a high aspect ratio, with lengths
much greater than their diameters. This aspect ratio imparts exceptional mechanical
properties such as high tensile strength and flexibility, making them useful in
nanoscale mechanical applications.
 Larger surface area: Due to their small diameter and elongated structure, nanowires
offer a large surface area-to-volume ratio. This increased surface area is
advantageous for various applications, including sensing, catalysis, and energy
storage, where surface interactions play a crucial role.
 Synthesis techniques: Nanowires can be fabricated using a variety of techniques,
including chemical vapor deposition, vapor-liquid-solid growth, template-assisted
synthesis, and electrochemical deposition. These methods enable precise control over
the size, composition, crystal structure, and orientation of the nanowires, allowing
for tailored properties to meet specific application requirements.

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 The following types of nanowires exist are:
i)Superconducting nanowire: YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) nanowires
are a specific type of nanowire composed of the high-temperature superconductor
YBCO.These nanowires have garnered significant interest due to their unique
superconducting properties and potential applications in various fields.
ii)Metallic nanowires:(e.g. Ni, Pt, Au)
iii) Semiconducting nanowires: (. e.g. SiNW,InP,GaN)
iv)Insulating nanowires(.eg.SiO2,TiO2)
v) Molecular nanowires:(.eg- Organic nanowire(DNA)
Inorganic (Mo6S9-xIa))
 Overall, nanowires represent a fascinating class of materials with unique properties
arising from their one-dimensional nanostructured nature. Their versatility and
tunable characteristics make them promising candidates for a wide range of
applications in electronics, photonics, sensing, energy harvesting, and more.

(a). The EDX spectrum on the right side did not reveal Al; (b) gives a TEM
diffraction pattern image of a representative YBCO nanowire with a
diameter of ∼45 nm and a length up to the thickness of the AAO template.
The inset shows the corresponding electron, demonstrating the single-
crystalline nature of the YBCO nanowires; (c) shows the lattice the
structure of an individual YBCO nanowire by HRTM

 Fig. shows metallic Nickel

nanowires through SEM
image

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  SEM IMAGE OF GaN Nanowires

 Insulating SiO2 nanowires

 FIG. Shows Organic nanowire (DNA)

 Fig. shows inorganic nanowires

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6.NANORODS:
 Nanorods are one dimensional nano-structures in which there is confinement along
two directions. A Nanorod is a nano-structure with dimensions range from 1 to 100
nm. Nanorods can synthesized from metal, or semiconducting materials. For
Nanorods the ratio of length to width is between 3 and 5. Nanorods are produced by
direct chemical synthesis.
 One potential application of Nanorod is in display technology. This application is
due to the fact that the reflectivity of the rods can be changed by changing their
orientations with an applied electric field. Another use of nanorods is in micro
electro-mechanical systems (MEMS).
 Nanorods along with other metal nano-particles also act as theragnostic agents.
Nanorods are used as cancer therapeutics because they absorb heat in the IR region
and generate heat when excited with IR light.
 Nanorods are used in the treatment of tumours. Nanorods based on semiconducting
materials have also been investigated for application as energy harvesting and light
emitting devices. ZnO nanorods have the potential for application as novel sources of
near ultraviolet radiations.

 Fig. SEM image of ZnO nanorods

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7.DENSITY OF MATERIALS AT NANO SCALES:

Density of states is defined as the number of available electronics states per unit volume per
unit energy interval.

It is given by,

Ƿ(E)=dN /dE

Where, dN= no. of available electronic states per unit volume at energy E in the energy
interval E and E + dE.

7.1.Density of States in 3D (BULK MATERIAL):

In a three-dimensional bulk material there is no confinement of motion of electron. There

are three degrees of freedom and the electron is free to move along all the three x, y and z
directions.
Total energy of this material is given by

Where k is the propagation constant.

In reciprocalspace the volume is given

Now k2 = kx2+ky2+kz2

and

where lx, ly, lz are the length of the bulk material along x,y,z directions.
In the bulk material a set of kx , ky , kz values represent a mode.
Therefore, vol. occupied by each mode is given by

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Hence the number of nodes in volume

For electrons there two states i.e. up spin and down spin with same energy.
Hence the no. of electronic states or modes in the volume Vk.

∴ the no. of electronic states per unit volume of the bulk material is given by

∴ density of states is given by

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Ƿ(E)=dN /dE

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7.2 Density of States in 2D(Quantum Well)
In a two-dimensional material such as quantum well the motion of electron is confined along
one direction (suppose z-direction) and the electron is free to move along the rest two (x and
y) directions. Hence the energy of electron is quantized for motion along z-direction. There
is two degrees of free down. Total energy of this material is the sum of the energy along
quantized direction and the energy along the other two free directions.

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…... (7)

…… (8)

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the variation of Ƿ(E) versus E for a 2D material like quantum well is shown in the fig. the
resulting density of 2D quantum well is a staircase.

7.3.Density of states in
1D(Quantum
wire)

In a one dimensional
material such as quantum
wire the electron motion is confined along two directions (suppose y and z) and the electron
is free to move along one (x) direction. Hence there is one degree of freedom. The energy of
electron is quantized for motion along y and z directions.Total energy of this material is the
sum of the energy along quantized directions (y and z) and the energy along the
free direction (x).

∴ E = El+En+Ex ……(1)

Where El= energy along the quantized y-direction.

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 En= energy along the quantized z-direction
Ex= energy along the free direction.

Number of electronic states per unit length is given by

We have

Density
of states is given by

Ƿ(E)=dN /dE

Density of states of a one-dimensional material (quantum wire) decreases with the

increase in energy for a given (1, 1) combination.

The variation of P(E) versus E for a one-dimensional quantum wire is shown in the
figure.The expression for density of states for ID quantum wire for all (l, n)
combinations is given by
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7.3Density of States in 0D(Quantum Dot)

In a zero dimensional material such as quantum dot the motion of electron is confined along
all the three (x, y, z) directions and the electron is not free to move at all. Hence the degree
of freedom is zero.The energy of the electron is quantized along all the three (x, y, z)
directions. Total energy of this material is the sum of the energies along the
quantized directions.

Therefore, E= El +En+Ep

Where 1, n and p are integers. In this OD quantum dot there is no k-space to be filled with
electrons and all the available states exist only at discrete energies.
Hence the density of states for a OD quantum dot is expressed by a delta function is

The variation Ƿ(E) versus E for an ideal 0D quantum dot is shown in fig.

The variation Ƿ(E) versus E for an real 0D quantum dot is shown in fig.

30
In real quantum dots the size distribution causes broadening of the delta function which can be
observed in graph for Ƿ(E) versus E.

8.BAND STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS AT NANOSCALE

 In crystalline solids the electronic energy levels are different from that of a single
atom because the potential characterization of the crystalline structure is a periodic
function in space whose value at any point is the result of contribution of each atom.
 The inner-shell electrons of the individual atoms in crystalline solids are not affected
by the neighbouring atoms but the energy levels of the outer shell electrons are
changed since these electrons are shared by all the neighbouring atoms.
 Hence the new energy levels will be determined by the quantum mechanical
treatment, which results in the formation of energy band of closely spaced energy
levels of outer-shell electrons instead of widely separated energy levels in an isolated
atom as shown in the fig.

31
  Fig.(a).
shows schematic diagram of the splitting of energy levels of an isolated atom to
energy bands due to coupling between atoms.

 The energy band structure depends on

the crystal structure of the materials
and the electronic configuration of the
atoms of the material. The Schrodinger
equation for the band structure will
become complicated and the solutions
will lead to an approximate band
structure as shown in figure.

 fig.(b) shows schematic diagram of the

formation of valence band and conduction
band at lattice spacing

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 8.1. Energy- Band Structures:

According to band structure materials can also classified into three categories, e.g
conductors, semiconductor and insulators. Metals have partially filled conduction
band and under the influence of an external electric field the electrons gain additional
energy and move to higher states and constitute electric current. In metals the
conduction band and the valence band overlap with each other as shown is the Fig.
The band structure of semiconductors is shown in fig. The forbidden energy gap or
band gap (Eg) is an important parameter for semiconductors. It was found that energy
gap (Eg) decreases with the increase in temperature. The functional relation
for Eg is given by
EgT = Ego -3.6 x 10-4T ; where Eg0 = energy gap at 10K
EgT = energy gap at TK
T= increase in temperature.

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9.SIZE EFFECTS IN NANO SYSTEMS
There are many *advantages of making things smaller. Theoretically, devices can be
miniaturized to atomic level whose sizes can be changed from fraction of nanometre to few
hundreds of nanometres. Nanotechnology deals with these kinds of human designed working
devices produced in a controlled and reproducible manner. The idea of miniaturization of the
size-scale is interesting due to the fact that as size approaches the atomic scale the relevant
physics associated with the systems changes from classical domain to quantum mechanical
regime. These changes in the behaviours from classical to atomic scale via mesoscopic
domain can be explained by modern quantum mechanical treatments. It must be noted that
these changes from classical physics to quantum-mechanical nanophysics may mean that
some existing devices will fail while the same changes can open-up possibility for new
devices. Starting from a human hair to DNA structure the nature evolves itself from micro-
scale to nano-scale structures. The modern world is now shifting its attention from micro
devices to nanomaterials. The broad spectrum of the micro-regime and nano-regime is
described in Fig. Consider the size effects in some smaller systems.

10.QUANTUM CONFINEMENT:
34
Quantum confinement is the change of electronic and optical properties when the material is
of sufficiently small size, i.e, 10 nanometres or less. This phenomenon results from electrons
and holes being squeezed into a dimension that approaches a critical quantum measurement
called the exciton Bohr radius. Since the bandgap and wavelength are inversely related to
each other, the wavelength decreases with the decrease in size of the nanostructure. For
example the emission of blue radiation from nano particle and the emission of red radiation
from bulk material.

10.1.INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL(1D CONFINEMENT):

The infinite potential well, also known as the particle in a box, is a simple yet important
concept in quantum mechanics, particularly in the study of quantum confinement.

Imagine a one-dimensional box or well with infinitely high walls. Within this well, a particle
(typically an electron) is confined. The potential energy within the well is zero, while
outside the well it is infinite, meaning the particle cannot exist outside the boundaries of the
well.

The Schrödinger equation, which describes the behaviour of quantum systems, is solved for
this scenario. The solution yields quantized energy levels for the particle. These energy
levels are determined by the boundary conditions of the well, namely the size of the well.

The energy levels of the particle in the box are given by:

2 2
nℏ
En = 2
8m L

Where:

- En the energy of the nth quantum state,

- n is a positive integer representing the quantum number of the state,
- ħ is the reduced Planck constant,
- m is the mass of the particle, and
- L is the width of the well.
The normalised wavefunction Ψn(x) is known as eigen function and is given by

()
1
( ) 2 2 nπx
ψn x = sin
L L

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These energy levels are quantized, meaning they can only take on certain discrete values
determined by n. The lowest energy state (n=1) is called the ground state, while higher
energy states are referred to as excited states.

The particle in a box model serves as a fundamental concept in understanding quantum

confinement and has applications in various fields such as semiconductor physics,
nanotechnology, and spectroscopy.

 Fig. energy distribution, possible wave functions and probability dist. Of electron in
1D infinite potential well.

10.2 Electron moving in

1D(nanowire/nanorods) : (2D
Confinement)
In nanophysics this is the case of nano
wire or nanorod or nanobelt where the
carriers are confined in two dimensions
(Y and Z) to small dimension t
(assuming square cross section t²) and
allowed to move freely along X-axis.

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  An electron moving in ID as shown in Fig
In this case the equation for wave function and energy are given by

In
nanophysics the motion of carriers in carbon nanotubes or similar kind of nanowires can be
treated by the above equations qualitatively but the actual bound states and energy equations
are more complicated. Figure shows different types of ID nanostructures.

10.3 Potential Box (nano rod): 3D confinement

Consider a particle restricted to move in 3D box of volume l3 with impenetrable walls as
shown in fig.

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The schrodinger equation in 3D for a free particle restricted to move in a box is given by

….(1)

….(2)

The next energy level corresponds to E211 which is same as E121 and E112. Hence the second
energy level has three states for same energy as Ψ211, Ψ 121 and Ψ 112. The number of states
that have the same energy is called the degeneracy of that energy level. Therefore the second
energy level is three fold degenerate.

Nanoparticles with a fraction of a nanometer to a few tens of nanometre size can be

considered as the examples of 3D confinement of carriers in a small 3D space. Fig.shows the
field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) image of a Si nanoparticle which is
marked by an arrow. The diameter of the particle is around 15nm. Fig.shows the high

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resolution transmission eletron microscopy (HRTEM) image of a similar kind of Si
nanoparticle of diameter around 15 nm.

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FESEM images of a single si nano material and HRTEM of ZnO naomaterial

10.4. Quantum confinement in Nano Structures:

In nanostructure materials the energy level scheme depends on the size, shape and nature of
the materials. Proper formation of the potential energy terms along with the Schrodinger
equation and wave functions show that the bandgap of the nanocrystalline material increases
with respect to the bulk value i.e. there will be a blue-shift (AE) of the bandgap as the crystal
size approaches from bulk size to lower dimensions of nanometric range as shown below.

Where r = radius of the particle

n = integer

= reduced = reduced mass of the respectively. effective masses of the

electron and hole resp.

∈ = dielectric constant of the semiconducting material.

ERe= Effective Rydberg energy.

The first term on the right hand side of equation (1) represents the particle in a box quantum
1localization energy and has a 1/r2 dependence for both electron and hole. The second term
represents the Coulomb energy with 1/r dependence and the third term is responsible for the
spatial correlation.

The n values larger than 1 correspond to the exciton transitions to higher excited states. In
the limit of larger the value of Eg(nano) approaches that of Eg(bulk)The bandgap enhancement in
nanostrcture materials is experimentally observed in many semiconducting materials as
shown in Fig and described in Table

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As the size decreases the emitted light wavelength moves towards blue region. Hence by
changing the size of the quantum dots one can produce different wavelengths of light
through them under radiation. Similarly Fig-2.2(c) shows the size effect in the photo-
luminescence spectra of p- CuAIO, nanoparticles. As the size decreses the emission peak
shifts towards low wavelength (blue-shift) region.

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11.SUMMARY:

Nanoscale systems refer to structures or devices that operate at the nanometer scale,
typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers in size. These systems exploit unique properties
and phenomena that arise at such small dimensions, such as quantum effects, surface-to-
volume ratio dominance, and quantum confinement.

Applications of nanoscale systems span various fields, including electronics, medicine,

materials science, and energy. In electronics, nanoscale transistors and memory devices

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enable smaller, faster, and more efficient electronic components. In medicine, nanoparticles
are used for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics, promising precise and
personalized treatments. Nanomaterials exhibit remarkable mechanical, electrical, and
optical properties, leading to advancements in materials science and engineering. Moreover,
nanotechnology plays a vital role in renewable energy technologies by improving the
efficiency of solar cells, energy storage devices, and catalytic converters.

However, the development and utilization of nanoscale systems raise concerns regarding
their potential environmental and health impacts, as well as ethical considerations.
Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration and responsible
innovation to ensure the safe and sustainable integration of nanotechnology into society.

12.REFERENCE

 https://www.researchgate.net
 https://www.google.com
 NANOMATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS BY ASHOK DASH: KALYANI
PUBLISHER.
 WWW.Scihub.in(rersearch papers regarding nanoscale systems)
 www.Googlescholar.in
 https://pubs.acs.org

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 https://chat.openai.com

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