SCOTT Tannath-Thesis - Nosignature
SCOTT Tannath-Thesis - Nosignature
SCOTT Tannath-Thesis - Nosignature
Team Sports:
To
June, 2017
determinant in the performance of team sports, especially in the ability to finish a match,
to cover a distance, to repeat and recover between sprints and explosive movements (e.g.
technical skill. Due to this, coaches must appropriately develop these capacities to
adaptation. However, the best processes which examine these qualities (physical testing
protocols), prescribe training and monitor the response of this training requires attention,
Therefore, this thesis aimed to examine a valid and reliable approach to assess the
training outcome as well as prescribe and monitor the training process in rugby league
athletes.
Chapter III examined the reliability and usefulness of the 30-15 Intermittent
Fitness Test (30-15IFT) within rugby league. Fifty-five elite-junior rugby league players
participated in the study. These included representative players from Under 16’s (n=19,
15.6 ± 0.3 y, 78.1 kg ± 10.9 kg), Under 18’s (n=21, 17.4 ± 0.5 y, 86.9 ± 11.2 kg) and
Under 20’s (n=15, 19.4 ± 0.5 y, 95.9 ± 8.7 kg) squads within a professional rugby league
club. Players performed the 30-15IFT twice within nine days of each other. Coefficients
of variation (%CV) were 1.9% (95% CI, 1.6-2.4) for the combined test-retest of the 30-
15IFT and 0.6% (0.5-1.0) for HRpeak. As the typical error of measurement (TE) (0.36
km.h-1) was greater than the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) (0.20 km.h-1) value, the
usefulness of the VIFT was rated as ‘marginal’ (TE > SWC). The TE for HRpeak was
i
similar to the SWC, rating the usefulness of this variable as ‘OK’. Despite the usefulness
of the 30-15IFT being deemed ‘marginal’, a change as small as 0.50 km.h-1 (1 stage) in
VIFT was considered substantial or ‘real’. As a consequence, the 30-15IFT presents both a
reliable and useful field test to assess intermittent fitness within rugby league players.
league. Sixty-Three Australian elite and junior-elite rugby league players (22.5 ± 4.5 y,
96.1. kg ± 9.5 kg, Σ7 skinfolds: 71.0 ± 18.7 mm) from a professional club participated in
this study. Players were assessed for anthropometry (body mass, Σ7 skinfolds, lean mass
predicted aerobic capacity (estimated from the multi-stage fitness test; V̇O2maxMSFT) and
aerobic power (average aerobic speed), speed (40 m sprint), repeated sprint and change
of direction (COD; 505 agility test). Validity of the 30-15IFT was established using
fewest variables that could predict VIFT and change in 30-15IFT performance. Significant
correlations between VIFT and Σ7 skinfolds, repeated sprint decrement, V̇O2maxMSFT and
average aerobic speed were observed. A total of 71.8% of the adjusted variance in 30-
15IFT performance was explained using a 4 step best fit model (V̇O2maxMSFT, 61.4%;
average aerobic speed, 4.7%; maximal velocity, 4.1%; lean mass index, 1.6%). These
findings demonstrate that whilst the 30-15IFT is a valid measure of PHIR, it also
cohorts.
ii
Chapter V determined differences in PHIR performance and running
momentum (pIFT) between competition levels and positional groups in rugby league. Elite
national youth competition (NYC); local league (LL)] and junior-elite (U18; U16) rugby
momentum (pIFT; kg∙m∙s-1) was calculated as the product of body mass and final running
velocity (VIFT; m.s-1). Effect sizes (ES ± CI) were used to examine between-group
differences. 30-15IFT performance was possibly to likely higher in NRL players (19.5 ±
1.0 km.h-1; mean ± SD) when compared to SRL (18.9 ± 1.0 km.h-1; ES= 0.6 ± 0.5), NYC
(18.9 ± 1.0 km.h-1; ES = 0.6 ± 0.5) and U18 (18.6 ± 1.2 km.h-1; ES = 0.8 ± 0.5) players.
NRL players (537 ± 41 kg.m.s-1) possessed possibly to very likely greater pIFT than SRL
(506 ± 50 kg.m.s-1; ES = 0.7 ± 0.5), NYC (484 ± 50 kg.m.s-1; ES = 1.2 ± 0.5), U18 (447
± 37 kg.m.s-1; ES = 2.3 ± 0.6), U16 (399 ± 50 kg.m.s-1; ES = 3.0 ± 0.7) and LL players
(466 ± 31 kg.m.s-1; ES = 2.0 ± 0.7). Middle forwards attained a likely superior pIFT (ES =
0.5−1.8) to all other positional groups. This study demonstrated that higher level rugby
league players possess superior PHIR capacities compared with lower levels of
competition, while highlighting that pIFT can account for the disparities in body mass
between groups.
for quantifying match output in elite rugby league. Twenty-six professional players
competing in the NRL were monitored with global positioning systems (GPS) across a
rugby league season. Absolute speed [moderate-intensity running (MIR >3.6 m∙s-1); high
intensity running (HIR > 5.2 m∙s-1)] and metabolic (>20 W·kg-1) thresholds were
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estimated from the 30-15IFT, as well as the metabolic threshold associated with VT2IFT
a 146%, 138%, 167% and 144% increase in the HIR dose across adjustables, edge
forwards, middle forwards and outside backs. Distance covered above VT2IFT was almost
certainly greater (ES range = 0.79 – 1.03) than absolute thresholds across all positions.
These findings demonstrate that using absolute HIR speed thresholds may underestimate
the relative HIR load. Chapter VII evaluated the validity of the relative speed thresholds
proposed in chapter VI. Eighteen professional male rugby league players (n= 18, 23.3 ±
3.4 y, 101.5 ± 8.3 kg) competing in the NRL competition, were monitored over a three-
week pre-season training period (14.8 ± 0.8 field-based sessions) to examine the
relationships between relative locomotor output and measures of internal load. This study
observed moderate to large associations between these relative measures of external load
and criterion measures of internal TL. This study concluded that VIFT-derived thresholds
are valid as a measure of quantifying training. Taken together, Chapter VI and VII
suggest using relative thresholds allow for better prescription and monitoring of external
neuromuscular effects of differently structured HIT and tactical training sessions, as well
rugby league players completed four × 4 minute HIT exercises typical of team sport
athletes with a 2 minute passive recovery in between exercises. Exercise intensity was
ranging from 85 – 105% VIFT, with manipulations made to shuttle length, work: rest
ratios, recovery modalities (active and passive) to alter the physiological response of each
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HIT exercise. Blood lactate ([La−]b), counter-movement jumps (CMJ) and RPE were
recorded following HIT exercises (within 60 s of completion), while time spent above
90% heart rate maximum (HR90) was calculated. The order of HIT exercises where
randomised over three protocols undertaken two days apart to assess the influence on
exercise arrangement. Each protocol was re-tested following a six-week training period.
[La−]b occurred following the second 4 min exercise bout (ES range = 0.94 – 1.18). No
differences were witnessed following each protocol in [La−]b or RPE, despite some
substantial differences witnessed in HR90 between each protocol at the conclusion. The
4 min HIT exercise incorporating active recovery had the greatest effect on (ES range =
0.06 – 0.88). Following the training period, [La−]b (protocol one; ES= 0.68 ± 0.31; ES ±
CI) and HR90 (protocol one; ES = 0.75; ±0.37 and two: ES = 0.40; ±0.29) reposes were
substantially lower. CMJ power outputs showed no substantial changes across any
condition. These findings demonstrate that the arrangement of HIT exercises can
may be more sensitive to HIT incorporating active recoveries rather than HIT with
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STUDENT DECLARATION
I, Tannath Scott, declare that the PhD thesis by publication entitled ‘High-intensity
interval training in team sports: testing, monitoring and prescription’ is no more than
100,000 words in length, including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices,
bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been
submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the aware of any other academic degree or
Date Submitted
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DEDICATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Well…. Wow! Over five years from starting this journey it ends (hopefully),
and there were certainly times I didn’t think I’d be writing this. For the very few of you
who will take time out of your day to read this, these acknowledgements are directed
Firstly, I must thank the tireless efforts of all my supervisors. Dr Grant Duthie,
you have helped me in every way you could since I first met you as an undergraduate
student. Your assistance with data management and philosophies on strength and
conditioning have helped me throughout every stage of my career. The constant reminder
to keep it simple has shortened this thesis by plenty of pages, for that I, the reviewers,
and anyone reading this are very appreciative. I sincerely thank you for all of this,
especially helping me ‘get a foot in the door’. Dr Ben Dascombe, I thank you for your
mateship, support, and guidance over the duration of this PhD – and particularly in the
early stages. I sincerely thank you for your effort, right up until submission and helping
me ease into the rigours of elite sport. Lastly, to Dr Colin Sanctuary who helped develop
my strength and conditioning knowledge and assisted with another set of eyes and ears
through testing and study designs, thank you for the many laughs!
Thank you for firstly taking on a PhD student despite previous experiences (still not sure
if I delivered bang for buck). I cannot thank you enough for your support through this
(very long) process. I sincerely appreciate your mentorship over the past years and hope
it continues for many years to come! To Jace Delaney, thank you for the endless laughs
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in the ‘rave cave’ during the early days and congratulations on getting your PhD finished
in a ‘timely’ manner! Heidi Thornton, thanks for your help in the past 18 months on
matters far over my head. To Dave Ballard and Scott Barker, thanks for the advice,
knowledge and most importantly mateship over the past five years! Finally, to everyone
else at the Newcastle Knights, Brisbane Broncos, University of Newcastle and Victoria
University who has leant a helping hand along the way... I’m so very appreciative.
To Dr Greg Dupont and Dr Martin Buchheit, thank you for your advice along the way.
It has been fantastic to be able to shoot around ideas within this area, something I’m
To all my friends, I’m so grateful for the support and (attempted) interest you’ve shown
over the past five years. This would not have been at all possible without the
unconditional support, guidance, and advice of my family. You have helped and
supported every decision I have made over the past 28 years; I cannot express enough
gratitude for all the sacrifices and opportunity you’ve given me throughout my life.
Although there is a fair list this includes (but not limited to) Mum and Dan, Dad and
Anna, Farley, Grandma, Ilona, Aurora, and Sarinah, David, Libby and Simon. This is as
Finally, to my beautiful wife Mel… what can I write that sums up what you
have sacrificed over the past five (and eight) years! Your support, understanding,
tolerance and most importantly, the laughs we’ve shared over this time have meant the
world to me and I thank you endlessly. Over the course of this thesis we have gotten
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married, moved to two different cities, five different homes, bought our first house,
renovated our first home, sold our first home and (best of all) had our first child… Wow,
just wow! I seriously cannot say enough to thank you! Lastly, to my main little man,
Balin. You have been a bloody good companion over the past six months! Although we
have had some tough times, your enthusiasm for life (seriously) is something I didn’t
think possible in a six-month-old! Thank you for your critics of work (see below) and
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THIS THESIS
Peer-reviewed Articles
Scott, T. J, Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans, J.
Fitness Test in Rugby League. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(7),
1985 – 1990.
Scott, T. J, Duthie, G. M., Delaney, J. A., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans, J.
30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test performance in rugby league. Journal of Strength and
Scott, T. J., Dascombe, B. J., Delaney, J. A., Sanctuary, C. E., Scott, M. T. U., Hickmans
Scott, T. J., Thornton, H. R., Scott, M. T. U., Dascombe, B. J. and Duthie, G. M. (2018).
Differences between relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds in rugby
league. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 13(3), 298 – 304.
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Conference Proceedings
Scott, T. J, Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans, J.
league. 19th Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.
Scott, T. J., Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans,
test performance in rugby league. 6th Exercise and Sport Science Australia Conference,
Scott, T. J. and McLaren, S. J. (2018). The validity of relative speed thresholds derived
from the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test to quantify external training load in rugby
league. 23rd Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Dublin, Ireland.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... i
Student Declaration.................................................................................................. vi
Chapter I
Background ............................................................................................................... 2
Delimitations........................................................................................................... 13
Chapter II
Literature Review......................................................................................................... 14
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 15
xii
Training Prescription .............................................................................................. 25
Conclusions............................................................................................................. 38
Chapter III
The reliability and usefulness of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test in rugby
league ............................................................................................................................. 41
Abstract ................................................................................................................... 43
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 44
Methods .................................................................................................................. 47
Results..................................................................................................................... 51
Discussion ............................................................................................................... 55
Limitations .............................................................................................................. 58
Chapter IV
Abstract ................................................................................................................... 62
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 63
Methods .................................................................................................................. 65
Results..................................................................................................................... 72
Discussion ............................................................................................................... 77
Limitations .............................................................................................................. 82
xiii
Chapter V
Abstract ................................................................................................................... 86
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 87
Methods .................................................................................................................. 91
Results..................................................................................................................... 94
Discussion ............................................................................................................... 99
Conclusions........................................................................................................... 103
Chapter VI
Differences between relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds in team
Results................................................................................................................... 114
Chapter VII
The validity of relative speed thresholds to quantify training in team sports ...... 125
xiv
Results................................................................................................................... 130
Chapter VIII
Results................................................................................................................... 144
Conclusions........................................................................................................... 155
Chapter IX
Chapter X
Chapter XI (Appendices)
xv
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 206
Results................................................................................................................... 206
Conclusions........................................................................................................... 207
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Mean (± SD) maximal intermittent running velocity (VIFT) observed for
Table 3.2: Measures of reliability for maximal intermittent running velocity (VIFT)
and peak heart rate (HRpeak) during the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test
(30-15IFT). ............................................................................................... 53
Table 4.1: Descriptive measures (mean ± SD) for all measured variables taken from
Table 4.2: Multiple correlation summary of the deterministic model assuming 30-
Table 6.1: Mean velocity (mean ± SD) for relative and absolute speed and metabolic
Table 6.2: Distances (mean ± SD) covered across relative and absolute speed and
Table 8.1: Training events (commencement time) [mean individual session training
Table 8.3: Outline of each high-intensity interval training protocol. .................... 142
Table 8.4: Raw data collected across all variables over each high-intensity interval
Table 9.1: Original VIFT-based HIT strategies developed by Buchheit (2011). .... 169
xvii
Table 9.2: VIFT-based HIT strategies developed as a result of Chapter VI to VIII.
.............................................................................................................. 170
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2: Outline of the research progress linking the major studies of this thesis. 8
Figure 2.1: Variables that may be considered during high-intensity interval training.
Figure 2.2: High-intensity interval training decision tree, considering individual drills
Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of the 30-15IFT. Taken from Buchheit (2008a)
................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 3.2: Heart rate (HR) response to the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test during two
subject. ................................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.2: The correlations between VIFT and various physiological measures (mean
Figure 5.1: Box plots of 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
momentum (pIFT) for the different rugby league competition levels ...... 95
Figure 5.2: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
Figure 5.3: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
xix
Figure 5.4: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
Figure 6.1: Magnitude of differences in running and high metabolic distance between
Figure 6.2: A: VT1IFT raw velocity and the differences in distance covered above
VT1IFT vs. MIR; B: VT2IFT raw velocity and the differences in distance
covered above VT2IFT vs. HIR; C. HPmetVT2 raw power and the differences
Figure 8.1: A schematic depiction of the study protocols and high-intensity interval
training exercises within each protocol (ordered from top to bottom). 142
Figure 8.2: Box plots of metabolic and neuromuscular responses for each exercise
over protocol one, two, three and all data ............................................ 147
Values are as standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI) ................... 148
neuromuscular responses for each protocol between post and pre- training
period. Values are as standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI). ...... 149
Figure 9.1: The physical preparation feedback loop as proposed by the current thesis.
from physical testing (training outcome) and balanced (B) by the positive
and negative training status of the athlete (training monitoring). ........ 160
xx
LIST OF EQUATIONS
xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxii
m∙min-1 metres per minute
m∙s-1 metres per second
m∙s-2 metres per second/ per second
MAS maximal aerobic speed
MIR moderate-intensity running
MIRTh absolute moderate-intensity running threshold
MSFT multi-stage fitness test
n number
NRL National Rugby League
NYC National Youth Competition
PCr phosphorylcreatine
PHIR prolonged high-intensity intermittent running
pIFT Final running momentum during 30-15IFT
RPE rating of perceived exertion
s seconds
SD standard deviation
sRPE session-RPE
SRL state-based rugby league competition
SWC smallest worthwhile change
TE typical error of measurement
TL training load
T@𝐕̇O2max time above 90% of V̇O2max
UM-TT Montreal Track Test
VIFT final velocity achieved during the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test
VT1 first ventilatory threshold
VT2 second ventilatory threshold
VT1IFT relative first ventilatory threshold from 30-15IFT
VT2IFT relative second ventilatory threshold from 30-15IFT
𝐕̇O2 oxygen consumption
𝐕̇O2max maximal oxygen uptake
v𝐕̇O2max minimal running speed required to elicit maximal oxygen uptake
y year
Yo-Yo IRT Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test
Yo-Yo IRT1 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1
Yo-Yo IRT2 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2
xxiii
[La−]b blood lactate
% percentage
~ approximate
> greater than
< less than
∑ sum
∆ change (delta)
1
xxiv
Chapter I
General Introduction
1
BACKGROUND
understanding of the processes and outcomes of the physical training undertaken. The
adaptations specific to the sport, while the process is characterised by the progressive
overload of physical training (see Figure 1.1) (Impellizzeri, Rampinini, & Marcora,
2005; Viru & Viru, 2000). Indeed, whilst the prescription of external load (training
internal load that drives this training outcome (e.g. fatigue and adaptation) (Impellizzeri
et al., 2005; Viru & Viru, 2000).. Through physical testing (considered the assessment
be optimised (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b; Reilly, Morris, & Whyte, 2009). Ultimately,
training outcomes should be intended to improve the individual capacity for physical
curriculum within team sports that aims to improve individual physiological deficiencies,
advance movement qualities while physically preparing athletes for the most demanding
for large squads whilst maintaining core elements of team work, and minimising injury
risk (Reilly et al., 2009). Importantly, all this is required to coincide with technical and
functional overreaching (Coutts, Reaburn, Piva, & Rowsell, 2007). Collectively, this
efficient methods and have a clear outline of objectives that are centralised across
2
Figure 1.1: The conceptual model of the training process (Impellizzeri et al., 2005).
The training outcome is the result of the internal training load. This internal
training load is the product of: (a) Individual characteristics (training status
and genetic makeup), and (b) The quality, quantity and organisation of the
external training load.
team sports, especially in the ability to finish a match (Kempton, Sirotic, & Coutts,
2015a; Mohr, Krustrup, & Bangsbo, 2003), cover greater distances (Rampinini, Coutts,
Castagna, Sassi, & Impellizzeri, 2007b), to repeat and recover from high-intensities
efforts (Bishop & Spencer, 2004; Dupont, McCall, Prieur, Millet, & Berthoin, 2010b),
in executing technical proficiencies (Joseph, Woods, & Joyce, 2017) and to reduce the
Wisloff, 2009). In addition, it has been demonstrated that high-intensity efforts typically
occur at decisive moments of match-play (Austin, Gabbett, & Jenkins, 2011) and may
differentiate successful and non-successful teams (Gabbett & Gahan, 2015). Due to this,
3
coaches must appropriately develop these aerobic and repeated high-intensity capacities
in physical training preparation for team sports, as it has been shown to be a time effective
method that stresses the physiological capacities common to team sport match-play
(Billat, 2001b; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b). Typically, HIT
incorporates either repeated short (<45 s) or longer (2-4 min) bouts of high-intensity
exercise that are interspersed with set recovery periods (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a).
Given most team sports are largely acyclic in nature, the energy supply required for these
physical efforts is derived collectively from both anaerobic and aerobic sources and
requires high levels of neuromotor drive (Bangsbo, 2000b; Bangsbo, Iaia, & Krustrup,
2007; Bangsbo, Mohr, & Krustrup, 2006). As such, HIT protocols may not only aim to
improve cardiorespiratory function (usually considered the primary aim) but focus on the
metabolic and neuromuscular responses (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit &
Laursen, 2013b).
programs must be specifically prescribed for individuals and consider current training
state, training history and physiological demands of match-play. However, the dose-
interval training sessions have typically been prescribed using an individual’s velocity at
measured through either a laboratory based treadmill test or estimated from field-based
4
tests such as, the multi-stage fitness test (MSFT) (Ramsbottom, Brewer, & Williams,
1988) or the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRT1) and/or Level 2
(Yo-Yo IRT2) (Bangsbo, 1994). However, the limitations concerning the ability to test
recognised (Buchheit, 2008b). For example, the MSFT may estimate V̇O2max, yet does
not evaluate many qualities of intermittent performance (e.g. inter-effort recovery ability)
(Haydar, Haddad, Ahmaidi, & Buchheit, 2011). In contrast the Yo-Yo IRT’s examine
these physiological determinants but do not provide a reference speed that is sensitive
enough to guide the homogenous prescription of HIT (Buchheit, 2008b; Krustrup, Mohr,
HIT we may aim to maximise the training outcome (and potential physiological
adaptation). For example, it has been demonstrated that only the time spent at high
intensity (>90% of maximal HR) was related to changes in aerobic fitness in soccer
players across a pre-season period (6-8 weeks) (Castagna, Impellizzeri, Chaouachi, &
Manzi, 2013). As such, it appears vital that coaches prescribe and monitor workloads
RESEARCH PROBLEM
determinant in the performance of team sports. Due to this, coaches must appropriately
develop these capacities to adequately prepare athletes for match-play demands. High-
intensity interval training is considered an effective and time efficient means to optimize
the manipulation of up to nine variables (i.e. work: rest intervals, work intensity and
5
duration, number of sets and repetitions and recovery between sets); any of which may
alter the physiological response to training. However, establishing a reliable and valid
testing protocol to establish a reference speed that may appropriately prescribe HIT
velocities across large squads has limitations. The final velocity achieved during the 30-
15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT; VIFT) has been demonstrated to provide a reference
However, the validity of the 30-15IFT in team sports has been limited to primarily
basketball, soccer, handball and ice hockey cohorts (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit,
Lefebvre, Laursen, & Ahmaidi, 2011b; Covic, Jeleskovic, Alic, Rado, Kafedzic, Sporis,
McMaster, & Milanovic, 2016). While VIFT incorporates the ability of an individual to
tolerate directional changes, it is theorised that individual COD ability may be affected
by greater mass, due to the increased inertia and thus superior proportional impulse
required to decelerate and re-accelerate (Frost, Cronin, & Newton, 2010). Due to this, it
has been suggested that heavier team sport athletes (e.g. rugby league, rugby union,
Weakley, Till, & Jones, 2015). Further, it may be that in team sports where athletes
possess heterogenous physical qualities, the prescribed training process may result in
distorted physical responses. As such, the best process to examine these aerobic and
intermittent fitness, prescribe training and monitor the response of this training requires
attention.
6
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Despite the specificity of the 30-15IFT test to rugby league, no literature has
investigated the validity and reliability of this test among such a population. Due to the
greater body mass of rugby league players, it’s likely that greater mechanical and
metabolic loads would be evoked throughout the 30-15IFT. Firstly, this series of studies
aims to examine the reliability, usefulness and validity of this test among a primarily
mesomorphic athletic population. Additionally, this research aimed to explore a new and
novel method to both longitudinally track the PHIR capacity (assessed as 30-15IFT
performance) of athletes and monitor the relative physical output during match-play.
Lastly, this body of research intended to provide a more complete understanding on the
acute metabolic and neuromuscular effects of HIT prescribed from the 30-15IFT. Overall,
these studies aimed to inform performance staff on practical and useful methods to test,
prescribe and monitor the high-intensity running within large team sport squads.
7
RESEARCH PROGRESSION
Appendix I
Differences in 30-15IFT performance
across playing level
Chapter V
Running momentum during prolonged
high-intensity running
Chapter VI
Differences between relative and
absolute speed and metabolic thresholds
Chapter VII
Validity of relative speed thresholds to
quantify training
Chapter VIII
Acute metabolic and neuromuscular
effects of HIT
Figure 1.2: Outline of the research progress linking the major studies of this thesis.
8
PURPOSE OF THE STUDIES
The reliability and usefulness of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test in Rugby
• To examine the reliability of the 30-15IFT (VIFT and HRpeak) within rugby league
players;
• To assess the usefulness of the 30-15IFT among this cohort through quantifying
mesomorphic population;
9
• Investigate any differences in pIFT and VIFT between elite, sub-elite and junior-
elite players.
Differences between relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds in team
• Identify the differences between relative and absolute speed and high metabolic
(Chapter VII).
10
LINKING THE RESEARCH MANUSCRIPTS
test, prescribe and monitor the training process and outcomes of team sport athletes,
specifically in rugby league. To achieve this outcome, the 30-15IFT was employed to
examine the PHIR capacity of these athletes and prescribe individualised HIT protocols.
Due to a large somatic discrepancy between the current cohort and those athletes
previously examined, Chapter III and IV aimed to determine the reliability and
performance in such a cohort. This research allows for additional investigation into
applying this test to monitor and prescribe HIT. Subsequently, Chapter V investigated
new and novel method associated to tracking longitudinal PHIR performance. Chapter
VI utilised previous research on the 30-15IFT to design relative speed and metabolic
thresholds to GPS-derived match-play loads. Chapter VII examined the validity of 30-
15IFT derived speed thresholds proposed in Chapter VI. The specificity of this relative
running load aimed to provide greater insight into the volume of running performed at
monitor match-play and training sessions. Finally, Chapter VIII employed 30-15IFT-
based HIT protocols to better understand the acute metabolic and neuromuscular fatigue
associated with varying HIT strategies common in team sports. In addition, this chapter
utilised speed thresholds developed in Chapter IV to further validate the use of these
thresholds and relate the relative HIR load to these metabolic and neuromuscular
outcomes.
11
Overall, this thesis aimed to investigate the implementation of the 30-15IFT to
test PHIR, design and prescribe HIT protocols suitable for team sport athletes and
these series of studies, new and novel methods to longitudinally asses PHIR capacity and
examine relative HIR were developed. Both in their individual and collective capacities,
these studies contribute to the current understanding of the physical development and
The following limitations apply to the studies reported in the current thesis.
Specificity of results
Whilst the studies implemented in this thesis were undertaken among a rugby league
cohort, they relate to heterogenous collision-sport athletes (i.e. rugby league, rugby
The heart rate measurements collected during the research can be influenced as a result
12
DELIMITATIONS
Due to the applied nature of the research, some studies may incorporate limited
participant numbers. However, the sample size of each study is typical of previous
The participants recruited across the research project were restricted to males to avoid
Sample representation
The data contained within the entire research project are based on a specific sample of
Environmental conditions
Testing and training conditions across the studies contained in the thesis were commonly
the athletes typically trained to control for natural circadian rhythms and effect of dietary
intake.
Dietary Intake
Whilst the team dietician provided nutritional and hydration strategies to all players as
per club guidelines during individual studies, diet was never directly controlled.
13
Chapter II
Literature Review
14
INTRODUCTION
for the past 100 years (Billat, 2001a). Indeed, between the 1910s and 1930s, HIT was
understood, HIT programming incorporated shorter bouts of HIR, until Emil Zatopek
popularised current HIT programming in the 1950s (Billat, 2001a). Over the past 20-40
years, the conception and understanding of the direct acute and longitudinal
sport athletes (Billat, 2001a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b). While substantial evidence
suggests that cycling-based HIT may improve specific physiological functions and
physical performance (Billat, 2001a; Billat, 2001b; Laursen & Jenkins, 2002), the
purpose of this literature review will focus on running-based HIT in a context specific to
physiological processes, with up to nine variables (including work intensity and duration,
work: rest intervals, number of sets and repetitions and recovery between sets) being able
to be manipulated to alter the imposed training stress (see Figure 2.1 below). These
reduced peripheral physiological disturbance and fatigue), metabolic (i.e. muscle lactate
15
and phosphocreatine resynthesis) (Buchheit, 2012; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a) and
neuromuscular (i.e. regulation of neural drive, muscle fibre recruitment and changes in
different qualities, with the aim to build toward inducing match specific training
& Laursen, 2013a). As such, ruminating about the desired outcome of HIT sessions and
Figure 2.1: Variables that may be considered during high-intensity interval training.
Taken from Buchheit and Laursen (2013b).
16
PHYSICAL TESTING
Background
The physical assessment of athletes in the field provides a valid and reliable
means of examining various physiological capacities that are central to team sport
(Bangsbo, 1994). Each test result should provide a repeatable outcome that delivers an
prescription of the training stimulus. Moreover, utilising a physical test that may deliver
a reference workload to prescribe the training may increase the specificity of the feedback
capacities, although they are often impractical with large squads. Field based tests offer
far greater application and practicality to team sports (Reilly et al., 2009). As such,
maximal running field tests are routinely undertaken to examine attributes and capacities
17
Continuous Running Tests
From the 1960s to 1980s an increase in research on the metabolic and energetic
cost of walking, jogging, and running lead to the development of ecologically valid field
Chaniotis, & Choquette, 1972; Shephard, 1969). These assessments of aerobic capacity
were examined through continuous, indirect, and incremental running methods and
become largely popularised in team sports due to their ability to test multiple athletes
(Leger & Boucher, 1980; Leger, Mercier, Gadoury, & Lambert, 1988).
field test first developed as an alternative to a 12-minute maximal running test (Leger &
Boucher, 1980). This test involves running continuously on a large field or track at a pace
governed by a pre-recorded audio track, until the subject fails to maintain the incremental
speed. The test was one of the first field used consistently in track and field and team
sport athletes to predict V̇O2max without having to conduct laboratory testing (Berthoin,
Baquet, Rabita, Blondel, Lensel-Corbeil, & Gerbeaux, 1999; Leger & Boucher, 1980).
The final velocity achieved during the test is considered a valid and reliable measure of
maximal aerobic speed (Berthoin et al., 1999; Leger & Boucher, 1980). As such, the UM-
TT final velocity has been utilised to prescribed individualised HIT stimulus, reducing
the variability of the time to exhaustion during training between athletes. However, due
to the continuous nature of the test, it does not incorporate the ability of the athletes to
change direction or to recover between running efforts, limiting its use in team sport
athletes.
18
Multi-stage Fitness Test
The MSFT (or 20-m Shuttle run test) was developed to overcome the limitations
of the UM-TT. Whilst the UM-TT was both valid and reliable, it was limited by the field
or track requirements (Leger & Lambert, 1982). The MSFT was developed to incorporate
an athletes change of direction ability, with early research demonstrating that the MSFT
provided a valid measure of aerobic fitness on a wide range of surfaces, which increased
its popularity within team sports (Leger & Lambert, 1982). However, despite early
studies indicating the MSFT to be both valid and reliable (Leger & Lambert, 1982), its
ability to estimate V̇O2max has recently been scrutinised. Lamb and Rogers (2007)
suggested the MSFT was not reliable enough for the purpose of monitoring changes in
established between V̇O2max (absolute and relative) and MSFT performance (r = 0.43
and r = 0.54, respectively) (Aziz, Chia, & Teh, 2005). Further, O’Gorman and colleagues
participants (r = 0.41), however the limited sample size used in this study makes drawing
correlation conclusions difficult. Whilst these studies question the basis for the MSFT to
measure and report changes in V̇O2max, it still may be an appropriate field based measure
of running endurance. Indeed, the MSFT has been shown to be able to differentiate
between competition levels (Gabbett, Jenkins, & Abernethy, 2011b; O'Connor, 1997)
and age groups (Lovell, Towlson, Parkin, Portas, Vaeyens, & Cobley, 2015) across team
sports. Additionally, it has been shown that the MSFT, combined with tests of speed and
agility, may have a small but central association with the career progression of Australian
football players (Pyne, Gardner, Sheehan, & Hopkins, 2005). Collectively, whilst this
test may be a measure of running endurance, it may be that other field-based tests may
19
not only estimate V̇O2max more accurately than the MSFT, but also provide greater
match-play, field tests that examine physical capacities with greater transference to the
demands of their sport are becoming more frequently employed. As such, it is important
to examine both the aerobic and anaerobic capacities to match physical output of
competition (Bangsbo, Iaia, & Krustrup, 2008), which has provoked a shift to assess the
aerobic capacities through intermittent testing protocols (Bangsbo, 1994; Castagna, Abt,
& D'Ottavio, 2005). The two most common physical tests to evaluate an athletes PHIR
capacity are the Yo-Yo IRT and 30-15IFT (Bangsbo et al., 2008; Buchheit, 2008b). Both
these tests incorporate supra-maximal efforts (above vV̇O2max) and also incorporates an
athlete’s ability to recover between incremental efforts. Combined with the COD, these
deceleration ability, aerobic capacity, and anaerobic speed reserve (ASR). Whilst the
direct constructs of these tests may vary slightly (Buchheit & Rabbani, 2014), both
Originally, the Yo-Yo IRT1 and Yo-Yo IRT2 were developed as an extension of
the MSFT to better reflect the mixed aerobic-anaerobic and intermittent profile typical
of team sports. These test are commonly used to assess a players’ ability to perform
intense intermittent exercise with brief periods of recovery, and both have been
20
extensively reported upon in team sport athletes (Buchheit & Rabbani, 2014; Krustrup,
Bradley, Christensen, Castagna, Jackman, Connolly, Randers, Mohr, & Bangsbo, 2015;
Krustrup, Mohr, Amstrup, Rysgaard, Johansen, Steensberg, Pedersen, & Bangsbo, 2003;
Krustrup, Mohr, Nybo, Jensen, Nielsen, & Bangsbo, 2006a). Briefly, this test involves 2
x 20 m shuttle runs at incremental speed that are interspersed with 10 s of active recovery.
Endurance team sport athletes (i.e. soccer, Australian football) have typically completed
the Yo-Yo IRT2, which increases speeds at a greater rate in order to exaggerate the
intensity of the repeated high-intensity efforts. Indeed, while both the Yo-Yo IRT1 and
IRT2 maximally stress the aerobic system, the latter evokes greater anaerobic
metabolism which results in a shorter time to exhaustion (Krustrup et al., 2003; Krustrup
et al., 2006a). The Yo-Yo IRT1 and IRT2 demonstrate both construct and ecological
validity within team sport athletes and correlate well with other field and laboratory based
physiological tests, (Krustrup et al., 2003; Krustrup et al., 2006a; Krustrup, Randers,
Horton, Brito, & Rebelo, 2012; Povoas, Castagna, Soares, Silva, Lopes, & Krustrup,
2016). The reliability of the Yo-Yo IR1 and IR2 have been shown to be good (< 5.0%
CV) (Krustrup et al., 2003) to moderate (5.1 – 10.0% CV) (Krustrup et al., 2006a;
match performance and distinguish between competition levels of many team sports
Holtermann, 2012; Krustrup et al., 2006a; Mohr et al., 2003; Rampinini, Bishop,
Marcora, Ferrari Bravo, Sassi, & Impellizzeri, 2007a), Australian football (Pyne et al.,
2005), rugby league (Atkins, 2006) and Gaelic football (Roe & Malone, 2016)]. For
example, the Yo-Yo IRT2 test was shown to be a sensitive tool to differentiate between
21
intermittent exercise performance of soccer players across different seasonal periods,
competitive levels and playing positions (Ingebrigtsen et al., 2012; Krustrup et al.,
2006a). However, a limitation of the Yo-Yo IRT is its inability to prescribe exercise
reference speed for training purposes (Buchheit, 2008b). Indeed, despite previous
due to the nature of the test. (Kuipers, Verstappen, Keizer, Geurten, & van Kranenburg,
1985). For example, athletes can reach the same stage but complete a different number
during HIT.
The 30-15IFT has been introduced as a practical alternative to the commonly used
field tests mentioned above (Buchheit, 2010a; Buchheit, Laursen, Kuhnle, Ruch, Renaud,
& Ahmaidi, 2009b; Haydar et al., 2011; Mosey, 2009). The 30-15IFT is an intermittent,
incremental shuttle-run test that is designed to elicit heart rate peak (HRpeak) and
Haddad, Millet, Lepretre, Newton, & Ahmaidi, 2009a). Briefly, the 30-15IFT consists of
30-s shuttle runs interspersed with 15-s periods of passive recovery, with an initial
running velocity (8 km.h-1) which is increased by 0.5 km.h-1 for every subsequent 45-s
stage. Participants follow a pre-recorded beep as a pacing strategy over a 40-m shuttle.
Similar to the Yo-Yo IRT and unlike continuous field based tests the 30-15IFT evaluates
al., 2011) as well as evaluating concurrent aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. In addition,
22
the 30-15IFT has been perceived to be less “painful” than continuous field-based tests in
vV̇O2max, whilst the inclusion of COD results in greater anaerobic metabolism than
continuous incremental field tests. For example, the 30-15IFT elicits a 40% increase in
blood lactate concentration when compared to the UM-TT (Buchheit et al., 2009a), as
well as higher peak minute ventilation and maximum carbon dioxide production due to
Buchheit et al. (2009a) observed that post exercise autonomic function was characterised
the 30-15IFT when compared to continuous running tests. This reduced parasympathetic
modulation after 30-15IFT agrees with previous data showing that anaerobic contribution
(Buchheit, Laursen, & Ahmaidi, 2007). Importantly, this increased reliance on anaerobic
metabolism toward the conclusion of the test may allow practitioners to further asses’
individuals ASR. The consideration of individual ASR (the difference between maximal
sprint speed and vV̇O2max) may further provide context to coaches to evaluate the
capacity of their athletes to complete PHIR. The validity of this construct has been
demonstrated in team sport athletes with the 30-15IFT relating well to tests of anaerobic
capacity (Scott, Hodson, Govus, & Dascombe, 2016a). As such, Buchheit (2010a)
reported the contribution of the anaerobic capacity and neuromuscular qualities to the
VIFT reached is indirectly related to both the magnitude and the percentage of the ASR
23
The 30-15IFT has also been designed to easily integrate performance testing data
tests. For example, the MSFT may obtain a maximal running velocity, however certain
and anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) are not evaluated (Haydar et al., 2011). In contrast
the Yo-Yo IRT examine these physiological determinants and quantify PHIR
performance, yet they do not deliver a sensitive reference speed that can be used for
homogenous HIT prescription (Buchheit, 2008b; Krustrup et al., 2005). However, the
30-15IFT provides a reference speed upon termination (VIFT), that may be guide individual
above. As such, prescribing HIT from VIFT increases the homogeneity of training content
The validity and reliability of the 30-15IFT has been demonstrated among
numerous team sports [including basketball, soccer, handball and ice hockey; modified
from running to ice skating) (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2011b; Covic et al., 2016;
relationships between VIFT and CMJ, 10-m sprint time, V̇O2max, and heart rate recovery
index scores in young athletes (randomly selected from two competitive basketball and
handball teams), illustrating the construct validity of the 30-15IFT for intermittent
exercise. However, these assessments of validity and reliability have primarily occurred
with ectomorphic populations, whereas heavier team sport athletes would experience
greater mechanical and metabolic loads throughout the 30-15IFT than these previously
assessed cohorts (Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). While the 30-15IFT incorporates the ability
of an individual to tolerate these directional changes, it has been theorised that the ability
24
to change direction may be affected by greater mass, due to the increased inertia and thus
superior proportional impulse required to decelerate and re-accelerate (Frost et al., 2010).
Limited research has explored the use of the 30-15IFT within a more mesomorphic athletic
population. Interestingly, these limited findings reported that VIFT remains relatively
stable from U16 to senior rugby union players, despite a continued increase in body mass
(Darrall-Jones et al., 2015), suggesting that the interaction between VIFT and body mass
may be of greater importance in sports where an increased body mass is ideal. As such,
future investigations should explore the validity and reliability of the 30-15IFT among a
TRAINING PRESCRIPTION
Team sport athletes are required to boast highly developed speed, agility, repeat-sprint
ability, muscular strength and power profiles (Gabbett, 2005; Meir, 1994; Rampinini et
al., 2007a; Sirotic, 2008), and as such a detailed understanding of training these specific
areas is crucial (Reilly et al., 2009). Additionally, it is vital that team sport athletes also
undertake considerable time to the tactical and technical elements involved in match
play. Due to this complex combination of energetic, neural, skill and physical demands,
coupled with specific time constraints, prescribing and periodising seasonal training may
endurance and pure sprinting events, the development of team sport physical curriculum
appears highly variable due to the complexity of physical requirements (i.e. speed,
25
endurance and strength qualities through multiple planes of movement) (Reilly et al.,
2009).
running sessions and subsequent planned sessions are required to be identified to prepare
team sport athletes for competition. This also allows greater integration between field-
based running sessions with concurrent strength, speed, and agility sessions to improve
tactical and technical sessions at higher intensities. Given that repeated high-intensity
efforts are vital to team-sport match performance, the physical curriculum must aim to
integrate and develop physiological adaptations across training periods that improve an
best improved during the pre-season phase, when there is no regular match-play and
travel to interfere. During this time, HIT sessions often progress their emphasis (from
cardiopulmonary to greater neuromuscular focussed sessions (see Figure 2.2), with the
HIT may be easily manipulated to integrate with other training methods to maximise
26
Figure 2.2: High-intensity interval training decision tree, considering individual drills
based on the expected acute physiological strain responses. Taken from
Buchheit and Laursen (2013b).
Impellizzeri, & Coutts, 2011; Hoff, Wisloff, Engen, Kemi, & Helgerud, 2002). Through
manipulating changes in technical rules (Dellal, Lago-Penas, Wong del, & Chamari,
2011), field size and player numbers (Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Abt, Chamari,
Sassi, & Marcora, 2007c) physiological loadings may be altered with similar longitudinal
adaptations to traditional methods reported. However, the overall random nature of the
27
such games, means that the overall load is problematic to standardised across individuals.
For example, SSGs are highly variable when examining measures of internal (with
reported blood lactate concentrations between 15−30% CV) and external (HIR 30–50%
CV) loads (Hill-Haas, Coutts, Rowsell, & Dawson, 2008; Hill-Haas, Rowsell, Coutts, &
Dawson, 2008). Moreover, such training methods may provide a ‘shotgun’ approach that
presents difficulty when periodising the running load of athletes in team sports. As such,
HIT may provide a useful method to complement this training throughout extended
training blocks when there is greater need for specific physiological adaptation, due to
its adaptability to target differing physiological capacities and qualities with specific
Depending on the desired outcome, the prescription of training may incorporate longer
(e.g. 1-2 min) efforts around vV̇O2max to emphasise the cardiorespiratory (Faisal,
(Christmass, Dawson, & Arthur, 1999; Christmass, Dawson, Passeretto, & Arthur, 1999)
and cardiac autonomic stress (Buchheit et al., 2007; Hammami, Kasmi, Yousfi,
Bouamra, Tabka, & Bouhlel, 2016; Mourot, Bouhaddi, Tordi, Rouillon, & Regnard,
2004). Alternatively, shorter (e.g. 30 s) efforts with repeated changes of direction above
neuromuscular stress (Buchheit, 2010b). However, all training stimulus will stress the
28
metabolic, cardiopulmonary and neuromuscular systems to varying degrees. Importantly
the periodising of HIT in team sports should recognise that each individual athlete has
their own physiological profile to appreciate their acute response to the exercise.
For example, consider ‘athlete A’; they have a high aerobic capacity (and
subsequent vV̇O2max) but low maximal sprint speed, reducing their ASR. ‘Athlete B’
has a contrary physiological profile, attaining a high maximal sprint speed but only
moderate aerobic capacity. Both these athletes may undertake the same training stimulus
but Athlete B will likely have a greater anaerobic contribution. Indeed, differences in
ASR, V̇O2max, vV̇O2max and maximal sprint speed between individual athletes are likely
to change the aerobic and anaerobic contributions to an athlete performing PHIR, which
has been demonstrated, as higher maximal sprint speed proceeds high vV̇O2max when
athletes are performing HIR, given the metabolic power available from anaerobic sources
(Bundle, Hoyt, & Weyand, 2003). Indeed, it has been established that ASR relates better
to time to exhaustion during HIR (above vV̇O2max) than V̇O2max (Bundle et al., 2003).
As such, it is important that ASR and maximal sprint speed should be utilised, along with
29
Heart Rate HIT Prescription
treadmill protocols, 30-15IFT, MSFT), practitioners are provided with maximal heart rate
(HRmax) values for each athlete which can then be used to prescribe HIT as a percentage
of HRmax (Achten & Jeukendrup, 2003). The use of heart rate to prescribe training
intensity is based on the linear relationship between HR and V̇O2max during steady-state
submaximal workloads (Arts & Kuipers, 1994; Åstrand & Rodahl, 1986; Hopkins, 1991;
Robinson, Robinson, Hume, & Hopkins, 1991). As such, utilising HR zones to prescribe
exercise intensity may be suited to prolonged and submaximal exercise bouts (Achten &
Jeukendrup, 2003; Aubert, Seps, & Beckers, 2003). However, when prescribing HIT,
any stimulus that is performed at or above vV̇O2max suffers from a dissociation of this
linear relationship, limiting its use in team sports (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002). Whilst other
external factors such as environmental conditions, medication and hydration status may
influence the heart rate response to HIT (Lambert, Mbambo, & St Clair Gibson, 1998).
Hence, the use of heart rate to prescribe HIT is limited due to the lack of association
training intensity (Morgan, 1973; Robertson & Noble, 1997) and subsequent training
loads (Foster, Florhaug, Franklin, Gottschall, Hrovatin, Parker, Doleshal, & Dodge,
2001). Rating of perceived exertion is thought to better reflect exercise intensity than
peripheral muscles and joints, central cardiovascular and respiratory functions as well as
the central nervous system (Borg, 1973). Further, RPE has been shown to correlate highly
30
to internal measures of TL, such as heart rate and blood lactate (Coutts, Rampinini,
Marcora, Castagna, & Impellizzeri, 2009; Noble, Borg, Jacobs, Ceci, & Kaiser, 1983)
and has been proven to be valid for intermittent exercise (Foster et al., 2001; Impellizzeri,
Rampinini, Coutts, Sassi, & Marcora, 2004). Whilst RPE has successfully been used to
prescribe exercise intensity in runners (Dantas, Doria, Rossi, Rosa, Pietrangelo, Fano-
Illic, & Nakamura, 2015), this method is seldom used in team sports for a variety of
reasons (i.e. the heterogeneity of athletes, pacing strategies, and the mentality of
conditioning sessions). Further, while this method may be valid in examining exercise
intensity, its reliability has been reported to be poor (25–40% CV) (Scott, Black, Quinn,
& Coutts, 2013; Wallace, Slattery, Impellizzeri, & Coutts, 2014). This is likely due to
the additional psychological and biomechanical (Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009)
influences (Scott et al., 2013). While this may be appropriate when examining and
psychophysical elements may reduce the homogeneity of the exercise intensity across a
team.
according to an individual’s vV̇O2max (Billat, 2001a; Billat, 2001b; Dupont, Akakpo, &
Berthoin, 2004a). Whilst this review has outlined the limitations of continuous linear and
shuttle-based field tests, they have provided the platform of prescribing exercise intensity
from physical testing. Indeed, these methods originally proposed are seen as an objective
way to individualise HIT (Billat, 2001a; Billat, 2001b; Dupont et al., 2004a) and have
provided the fundamental basis from which interval training stimulus prescription has
31
developed in intermittent team sports. Conceptually, in order to maximise physiological
adaptations through HIT, intensities must be prescribed using a relative speed derived
from a training outcome, accounting for athlete’s individual physical characteristics. This
method has been demonstrated to deliver a more homogenous physiological load than
absolute distances (Buchheit, 2008b; Dupont, Defontaine, Bosquet, Blondel, Moalla, &
Berthoin, 2010a). For example, Buchheit (2008b) reported that a more homogenous
metabolic demand was associated with lower inter-individual differences using 30-15IFT
performance (VIFT) as a reference speed for determining intermittent run distances that
physiological load during HIT, performance staff are more precisely able to assess the
prescribe training process against the completed training process. Therefore, reference-
speed based HIT has become a popular conditioning tool to improve athlete physiological
understanding of the relationship between the training process and training outcome (see
Figure 1.1 in Chapter I) (Impellizzeri et al., 2005). Although physiological tests (e.g. 30-
15IFT, MSFT, Yo-Yo IRT) are commonly used to assess training outcomes, the training
process is often quantified through training load (TL) (Coutts, Charmari, Rampinini, &
Impellizzeri, 2008). This concept views the external TL as the main determinant of the
internal TL response (however factors such as genetic make-up, training status and
environment affect the individual response) (Booth & Thomasson, 1991). Through the
32
repetition of physical training, the applied TL can be progressively overloaded,
external and internal TLs. Indeed, to integrate any conditioning training (including HIT)
performance staff must monitor and review the dose-response relationship to the
concurrent training program to provide the most effective facilitation of this stimulus.
response to training stress (i.e. internal TL) (Impellizzeri et al., 2005). To assess internal
TL, quantification of the duration and intensity of the training session are required to
quantify the physiological stress imposed on by the training stimulus. While training
duration is easily calculated, training intensity is a more difficult measure to quantify and
Heart Rate
As HR may be used to prescribe HIT, its use in monitoring the response of HIT appears
believed that athletes should spend at least several minutes above 90% of V̇O2max
(T@V̇O2max) (Billat, 2001a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Midgley, McNaughton, &
in the field with large squads, HR (specifically HR > 90%max; HR90) may present a more
suitable alternative to assess the cardiopulmonary stress of HIT (Buchheit & Laursen,
2013b). However, the relationship between HR90 and T@V̇O2max is highly dependent
on the intensity and duration of work and rest periods (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b),
33
whilst is likely influenced by the limitations earlier described (e.g. disassociation
alternate methods of applying HR data may provide better indications for fatigue
sustained from HIT. Specifically, the ANS utilises both sympathetic and parasympathetic
modulation (Robinson, Epstein, Beiser, & Braunwald, 1966) during and following
Duverney, Lacour, & Barthelemy, 2002). While current findings are slightly
fatigue/adaptations related to HIT (and concurrent team sport training) sessions may be
load, the body’s ability to tolerate or adapt to HIT may be better assessed (Aubert et al.,
2003; Borresen & Lambert, 2008), potentially indicating training status (Bellenger,
Session-RPE
Proposed by Foster et al., (Foster et al., 2001; 1995) sRPE is an alternate method
to quantify the internal TL experienced by athletes across an exercise bout. This simple
strategy calculates internal TL by multiplying RPE (typically using Borg’s CR10 scale)
by the duration of the session (in minutes) to provide a calculated total TL that is
representative of the entire session and is presented in arbitrary units (AU). Although
originally designed for endurance athletes (Foster et al., 2001; Foster et al., 1995), this
method has since been proven valid in quantifying session intensity in intermittent
running (Foster et al., 2001; Impellizzeri et al., 2004; Scott et al., 2013).
34
As RPE can be used to prescribe HIT sessions, the monitoring of sRPE following
these sessions may reflect whether athletes could holistically self-regulated the session
as the coaches had planned. Importantly, the construct validity of sRPE to monitor TL in
team sports has been witnessed across rugby league (Coutts, Reaburn, Murphy, Pine, &
Impellizzeri, 2003; Gabbett & Domrow, 2007; Killen, Gabbett, & Jenkins, 2010; Lovell,
Sirotic, Impellizzeri, & Coutts, 2013), rugby union (Cunniffe, Griffiths, Proctor, Davies,
Baker, & Jones, 2010), soccer (Impellizzeri et al., 2004) and Australian football (Scott et
al., 2013). Due to the simplicity of the sRPE method to quantify internal TL, there is a
volume of research that quantifies the relationship between TLs and injury, illness,
soreness [see review from Drew and Finch (2016)]. Indeed, when aiming to evaluate the
relationship exists between prescribed load and the internal response. This philosophy
provides practitioners a starting point to assess the overload of their training program and
evaluate the prescribed TL against the actual (or completed) TL. Importantly, RPE has
been shown to be related to blood lactate during HIR (Dantas et al., 2015) and SSGs
(Coutts et al., 2009), which may help to account anaerobic metabolism incurred through
The quantification of external TL has become more popular as more options have
become available. Within team sports, prescribing training stimulus based on external
TL (e.g. 6 x 100 m efforts) has always been an accepted tool, however an understanding
35
external TL. Consequently, although potentially valid and reliable measures of external
The use of GPS technology to track player movement patterns (i.e. distance, HIR,
repeated sprints, accelerations) has becoming increasingly popular amongst team sports.
However, despite its widespread use, the validity and reliability of these devices has been
questioned, particularly during HIR (Coutts & Duffield, 2010; Gray, Jenkins, Andrews,
Taaffe, & Glover, 2010; Scott, Scott, & Kelly, 2016b). These studies may have
implications in quantifying the intensity of running undertaken during HIT as most the
prescribed running is undertaken above these velocities (Laursen & Jenkins, 2002).
However, the increased sampling rate (10-15 Hz) of more recent GPS units aim to
overcome many limitations of earlier models allowing for greater use in accurately
quantifying movement during HIT (Scott et al., 2016b), albeit with doubts over the ability
of team sports, there appears to be little consensus on the speed zones (or thresholds)
used to define work done. Given that many team sports incorporate athletes with
intensities of running are limited across large heterogenous team sport squads. Moreover,
36
as HIT is primarily undertaken at higher velocities, utilising relative speed thresholds
may provide a greater reflection of the HIR undertaken by the individual having
implications when assessing the integration of this work into training programs. Owing
to this, there have been recent efforts to better understand physical demands of sports
using relative thresholds (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Gabbett, 2015). For example, Gabbett
(2015) analysed youth rugby league match-play using absolute and relative thresholds,
relative to a players’ individual peak velocity. This study reported that HIR distance,
when expressed in relative thresholds, increased in slower players and decreased in faster
incremental treadmill test) compared to absolute thresholds (> 5.5 m·s-1) (Abt & Lovell,
2009). Similarly, Clarke et al., (2015) evaluated utilising VT2 as a reference speed for
HIR in rugby sevens, demonstrating absolute thresholds (> 5.0 m·s-1) may over- or
underestimate HIR by up to 14% during match-play. Whilst the proposed VT2 speed
in team sports may be limited due to the impracticality of regular laboratory testing for
large squads (Abt & Lovell, 2009). Importantly, when evaluating the integration of HIT
into training programs, it may be that using relative thresholds allows for more precise
feedback of the HIR load. As such, practitioners may better understand the dose-response
relationship allowing for greater precision in the planning of future training stimulus.
into a training program. When examining changes in the internal response of athletes,
37
undertaken. The quantification of external workloads based from individual
physiological thresholds may further integrate the relationship between these two
capacities. Through the understanding of each individuals’ external load across all
training, practitioners are able to adopt how to best implement HIT strategies into
occurrence. Moreover, these methods may give greater insights into the external factors
of HIT prescription, understanding if the relative loads undertaken are comparable to the
prescribed loadings.
CONCLUSIONS
sport athletes, it is imperative to recognise the relationship between the training outcome
and training process. To achieve the desired physiological adaptations, training programs
must incorporate specifically prescribed conditioning for individuals (taking into account
current trained state, training history and physiological demands of match-play) whilst
monitoring and reviewing the dose-response relationship to this training stimulus. Due
practitioners have shifted to utilise tests that examine physical capacities with greater
transference to the demands of their sport. These physical tests may allow for a greater
vV̇O2max. However, the limitations concerning the ability to test these qualities (such as
PHIR) and subsequently prescribe movement specific HIT protocols have recently been
38
recognized (Buchheit, 2008b). When planning HIT sessions, the physiological capacities
associated within team sports performance (i.e. individual players’ inter-effort recovery,
acceleration, deceleration and change of direction ability, aerobic capacity, ASR) must
be considered before prescribing individualised HIT strategies. As such, the 30-15IFT has
recently been developed to overcome these limitations, allowing for the prescription of
Given that both aerobic capacities and repeated high-intensity efforts are vital
to team-sport match performance, the progressive overload of these HIT sessions must
responses within a heterogenous athlete population. Utilising HR- and RPE- referenced
from the 30-15IFT, results in a more homogenous physiological response across team
the likelihood of optimal athletic performance and reduce the negative effects of this
relationship. Through considering how athletes tolerate the training process prescribed
deliver a positive training outcome. This relationship between the training process and
39
training outcome provides the basis of training theory and the foundation from which
training monitoring and control systems are developed (Coutts et al., 2008). However,
owing to the multifaceted nature of the activity profile and energy supply in team sport
match-play, the quantification of this concept requires measures across internal and
external TL, combined with an understanding of the individual athlete. Training load
monitoring systems should be intuitive, provide efficient data analysis and interpretation,
and enable reporting of simple and valid feedback that promotes meaningful changes
(Halson, 2014). Consequently, suitable monitoring of individual TLs may allow coaches
to implement interventions to reduce injury risk and allow for greater optimisation of the
training stimulus. Ultimately this feedback loop, quantifying the physiological capacities
associated with the specific running demands in team sports, prescribing relevant training
stimulus (including HIT) and the monitoring systems employed to examine the training
process, must be aimed at improving the capacity for the athlete to perform during
training and match-play. Through the utilisation and manipulation of HIT strategies, this
training stimulus may provide an effective way to develop and optimise these
physiological adaptations.
40
Chapter III
This chapter is based on the peer-reviewed paper accepted and published in the Journal
Scott, T. J., Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans J.
Fitness Test in Rugby League. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29 (7),
1985 – 1990.
41
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Jace A. Delaney
Grant M. Duthie
Colin E. Sanctuary
• Data Collection
David A. Ballard
• Data Collection
Jeremy A. Hickmans
• Data Collection
Ben J. Dascombe
42
ABSTRACT
This study examined the reliability and usefulness of the 30-15 Intermittent
Fitness Test (30-15IFT) within rugby league. Fifty-five elite-junior rugby league players
participated in the study. These included representative players from Under 16’s (n=19,
15.6 ± 0.3 y, 78.1 kg ± 10.9 kg), Under 18’s (n=21, 17.4 ± 0.5 y, 86.9 ± 11.2 kg) and
Under 20’s (n=15, 19.4 ± 0.5 y, 95.9 ± 8.7 kg) squads within a professional rugby league
club. Players performed the 30-15IFT twice within nine days of each other. Maximal
intermittent running velocity (VIFT) and heart rate at exhaustion (HRpeak) were collected
for both tests. Intra-class coefficients (ICC) for the ‘Combined’ and Under 20’s were
very large (r > 0.7); while the ICC for Under 16’s and Under 18’s were almost perfect (r
> 0.9). Coefficients of variation (%CV) for VIFT were 1.9% (95% CI, 1.6-2.4) for the
combined test-retest of the 30-15IFT and 0.6% (0.5-1.0) for HRpeak. As the typical error
of measurement (TE) (0.36 km.h-1) was greater than the smallest worthwhile change
(SWC) (0.2 km.h-1) value, the usefulness of the VIFT was rated as ‘Marginal’. The TE for
HRpeak was similar to the SWC, rating the usefulness of this variable as ‘OK’. Despite
the usefulness of the 30-15IFT being deemed ‘marginal’, a change as small as 0.5 km.h-1
presents both a reliable and useful field test to assess intermittent fitness within rugby
league players.
43
INTRODUCTION
high-intensity movements (e.g. repeated high-speed running, sprint efforts and tackling)
that are interspersed with periods of low intensity activity (e.g. standing, walking and
jogging) (Austin & Kelly, 2013; Sirotic, Knowles, Catterick, & Coutts, 2011). Given this
high-intensity intermittent nature, rugby league players must possess a well-trained high-
studies have demonstrated the intermittent nature of rugby league match-play finding
that players playing in the Australian-based National Rugby League (NRL) competition
movements that typically present in short bursts (Austin & Kelly, 2013; King, Jenkins,
& Gabbett, 2009; Sirotic et al., 2011). Moreover, a recent study of positional match
demands over a complete rugby league season found that high-intensity running (> 14
km.h-1) contributed to 14% and 17% of the distance covered by forwards and backs,
respectively (Austin & Kelly, 2013). Further to these intermittent running demands,
Sirotic et al. (2011) reported that players perform 30 or more sprints per match although
these rarely exceed 50-m or 6-s. These sprint distances (mean value) ranged from 16.0-
m for the fullback to 21.1-m for the other outside backs (centre and winger). Moreover,
this study reported mean recovery periods between sprint bouts varied from 149-s to 284-
s depending on positions. Collectively, these findings highlight that rugby league match
play is highly intermittent, providing valuable information for testing and training.
In addition, past research has also demonstrated the high aerobic demands of
rugby league match-play (Austin & Kelly, 2013; McLellan, Lovell, & Gass, 2011; Sirotic
et al., 2011). Gabbett and colleagues (2011b) recently reported that estimated V̇O2max
44
could discriminate between elite (55.7 ± 2.9 ml.kg-1.min-1) and regional (53.2 ± 3.9
individual’s V̇O2max may be a central factor in the recovery process between high-
exercise performance (Sirotic & Coutts, 2007). It has recently been demonstrated
(Gabbett, Stein, Kemp, & Lorenzen, 2013) that professional rugby league players with a
greater PHIR ability (classed as ‘high fitness’) covered significantly more total distance
(6800 ± 1969 m and 4535 ± 1326 m, respectively), high-speed distance (> 18 km.h-1)
(490 ± 141 m and 336 ±159 m, respectively) and played more time (70.1 ± 20.6 min and
47.5 ± 13.9 min, respectively) during a match than ‘low fitness’ individuals. Therefore,
requirements and aerobic demands demonstrate the intermittent nature of rugby league
match play.
coaching staff to be able to assess V̇O2peak and HIR ability to monitor the effectiveness
been routinely assessed using either the MSFT or the Yo-Yo IRT tests. Nonetheless,
these protocols have limitations in the testing and prescription of these highlighted
physiological capacities for intermittent team sport athletes (Buchheit, 2008b). For
example, the MSFT may obtain a maximal running velocity, however certain
and anaerobic reserve capacity) are not evaluated (Haydar et al., 2011). In contrast the
al., 2005).
used field tests mentioned above (Buchheit, 2010a; Buchheit et al., 2009b; Haydar et al.,
2011; Mosey, 2009). The 30-15IFT is an intermittent, incremental shuttle-run test that is
intermittent fitness (Buchheit et al., 2009a). The validity and reliability of the 30-15IFT
has recently been demonstrated among basketball, handball and ice hockey cohorts
(Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2011b). What makes this test appealing to practitioners
utilising the final running velocity (VIFT) reached at the end of the 30-15IFT (Buchheit,
such, prescribing training based on VIFT appears to increase the homogeneity across the
playing group and further standardising training content at a team level (Buchheit,
2008b). In addition the 30-15IFT has been perceived to be less “painful” than continuous
investigated the validity and reliability of the 30-15IFT in rugby league. Due to the greater
body mass of rugby league players, it is likely that they would be required to produce a
greater mechanical and metabolic load throughout the movement patterns involved in the
30-15IFT (Buchheit et al., 2014; Haydar et al., 2011). Therefore, it is essential to re-
46
investigate the reliability of this test among this population. The primary aim of the
present study was to examine the reliability (including both VIFT and HRpeak) of the 30-
15IFT within rugby league. A secondary purpose of the study was to assess the usefulness
METHODS
In order to standardise testing, all tests were performed at the end of the pre-
season period before the competitive season. To limit the circadian effect on
performance, as well as to reduce the effect of external factors (such as heat), the testing
procedures were either performed during the morning period (9.00 – 11.00 h) or evening
period (16.00 – 18.00 h), when team practice usually took place. Testing sessions were
repeated within nine days of each other. Two weeks prior to testing, subjects underwent
a familiarisation session so they were aware of the running patterns and audio signals of
the 30-15IFT. Players were asked to refrain from undertaking any strenuous exercise in
the 24-hour period prior to testing. Due to the specificity of the test and subsequent
conditioning prescription, players tested in their training clothes and own football boots.
The team dietician provided nutritional and hydration strategies to all players as per club
guidelines. In order to ensure sufficient carbohydrate intake during this week, nutritional
records were taken as was typical of club player monitoring policy. All sessions were
using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) as well as the typical error of
47
Subjects
The subject pool (n=55) was comprised of players competing in the NSW
Harold Matthews competition (Under 16’s) (n=19, 15.6 ± 0.3 y, 176.6 ± 6.3 cm, 78.1 kg
± 10.9 kg, 62.2 ± 22.3 mm Σ7 skinfold), in the NSW S.G Ball competition (Under 18’s)
(n=21, 17.4 ± 0.5 y, 178.8 ± 5.5 cm, 86.9 ± 11.2 kg, 65.8 ± 20.8 mm) and in the National
Youth Competition (Under 20’s) (n=15, 19.4 ± 0.5 y, 95.9 ± 8.7 kg, 185.2 ± 3.3 cm, 67.8
± 15.1 mm). Players completing in both the Harold Matthews and S. G Ball competition
were involved in 5.9 ± 0.7 hr.wk-1 of physical training, while players from the Nation
Youth Competition completed 10.8 ± 2.1 hr.wk-1. Players were familiarised with the
testing protocols in the week prior to completing the test-retest trials. All players
provided written informed consent prior to participation and were cleared of injury by
the team’s medical staff prior to completing the testing sessions. Parental or guardian
consent was obtained before junior players were permitted to participate. The University
of Newcastle Human Research Ethics committee approved the study methods (HREC
no: H-2013-0283).
Procedures
The 30-15IFT consists of 30-s shuttle runs interspersed with 15-s periods of
passive recovery. The initial running velocity was set at 8 km.h-1 for the first 30-s run and
increased by 0.5 km.h-1 for every subsequent 45-s stage. Players ran back and forth
between two lines set 40-m apart at a pace governed by a pre-recorded beep. This pacing
strategy allowed subjects to run at appropriate intervals and helped them adjust their
running speed as they entered into 3-m zones at each end as well as the middle (20-m
48
line) when a short beep sounds (Figure 3.1). During the 15-s recovery period, each player
walked forward to the closest of the three lines (at the middle or at one end of the running
area, depending on where the previous stage was completed), in preparation for the next
stage. The test ended when a player could no longer maintain the imposed running speed
or when they were unable to reach a 3-m zone around each line at the moment of the
audio signal on three consecutive occasions. If players were unable to complete the stage,
then their score was recorded as the stage that they last completed successfully, and the
running velocity recorded as their maximal 30-15IFT running velocity (VIFT) (Buchheit,
Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of the 30-15IFT. Taken from Buchheit (2008b).
49
Heart Rate Measurement
Heart rate (HR) was recorded for a sub-sample (n=13) of (NYC) players using
Polar T2 system using R-R technology (Polar Electro Oy, Finland). Heart rate was
Statistical Analysis
intervals (95% CI) where specified. The distribution of each variable was examined using
the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and homogeneity of variance was verified with the
Levene test. Paired sample t-tests were used to identify any significant differences
between test-retest data. Change in mean between trials, ICC and TE, expressed as a CV,
to declare the variable reliable, the CV was set at <5% (Hopkins, 2000). Hopkins (2004)
has previously proposed that the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) is significant in the
assessment of performance markers due to the noise associated with physical testing. As
such, the SWC was calculated between trials for the final velocity reached at the
completion of the test (equal to 0.2 multiplied by the between subject SD, based on
Cohen’s effect principle) (Hopkins, Schabort, & Hawley, 2001). In line with previous
research, if the TE was higher than the SWC, the evaluation of test was ‘marginal’, if the
TE was similar to the SWC, the evaluation was ‘OK’; and if the TE was less than the
50
RESULTS
Data Collection
Due to difficulties such as injury and illness, several players (n=5) were
unavailable for both testing days. These players were removed from the study with the
final sample size (n=55) reflective of the number of players who completed both test-
retest sessions. The HR data presented represents a sub-sample of 13 players from the
Reliability
The change in mean between trials is reported in Table 3.1, while TE, ICC
and CV% are presented in Table 3.2. These tables report reliability values for each age
group as well as playing position. The CV (%) values reported (1.9%) are less than what
is typically required to be deemed reliable (<5%). This finding is consistent across all
ages and all playing positional groups. An example of the individual heart rate responses
during the repeated 30-15IFT trials is illustrated in Figure 3.2 for one subject. Pairwise
analysis revealed no significant differences between either V IFT or HRpeak (p < 0.05)
51
Table 3.1: Mean (± SD) maximal intermittent running velocity (VIFT) observed for the
30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT).
VIFT (km.h-1)
30-15IFT Players Trial 1 Trial 2 ∆
Squad
NYC (U20’s) 15 18.3 ± 0.8 18.4 ± 0.8 0.1 ± 0.5
SG Ball (U18’s) 21 18.5 ± 1.2 18.6 ± 1.3 0.1 ± 0.5
Harold Matthews (U16’s) 19 18.4 ± 1.0 18.6 ± 1.0 0.1 ± 0.5
Combined 55 18.4 ± 1.0 18.5 ± 1.1 0.1 ± 0.5
. -1
Heart Rate (b min )
NYC Sub-sample 13 194 ± 6 194 ± 6 -0.1 ± 1.8
52
Table 3.2: Measures of reliability for maximal intermittent running velocity (VIFT) and peak heart rate (HRpeak) during the 30-15 Intermittent
Fitness Test (30-15IFT).
Players ICC TE (95% CI) (95% CI) CV (%) (95% CI) SWC Test Rating
Squad
NYC (U20’s) 15 0.83 0.36 (0.26 - 0.57) (0.56 - 0.94) 2 (1.4 - 3.1) 0.16 Marginal
SG Ball (U18’s) 21 0.92 0.37 (0.29 - 0.54) (0.81 - 0.97) 2.1 (1.6 - 3.0) 0.25 Marginal
Harold Matthews (U16’s) 19 0.94 0.25 (0.19 - 0.38) (0.86 - 0.98) 1.8 (1.3 - 2.7) 0.22 OK
Combined 55 0.89 0.36 (0.30 - 0.44) (0.81 - 0.93) 1.9 (1.6 - 2.4) 0.21 Marginal
NYC Sub-sample 13 0.96 1 b.min-1 (0.89 – 2.05) (0.89 - 0.99) 0.6 (0.5 - 1.0) 1 b.min-1 OK
ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient; TE = typical error of measurement; CI = confidence intervals; CV = coefficient of variation; SWC = smallest worthwhile change
53
Test Usefulness
Typical error of measurement values for VIFT was slightly greater than the
calculated SWC, so it was classified as ‘Marginal’ for this variable (Table 3.2). Typical
error of measurement values for HRpeak was similar to the calculated SWC, rating the
200
190 Trial 1
Trial 2
180
170
HR (beat.min-1)
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
Time (s)
Figure 3.2: Heart rate (HR) response to the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test during two
different trials [Trial 1 (black) and Trial 2 (grey)] in a representative subject.
54
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and usefulness of the
30-15IFT within rugby league players. It was suggested that due to the separate
players, the reliability of the 30-15IFT may have differed when compared to previously
examined cohorts (e.g. Ice hockey and European handball players). The main finding of
the present study was that the 30-15IFT showed good reliability across all playing groups
In agreement with previous research, our study showed that the reliability of
the 30-15IFT was very good, with a TE of 0.36 km.h-1 (CV 1.9%). These values are very
similar to that reported previously by Buchhiet (2005b), who demonstrated the test-retest
reliability of the 30-15IFT to be very good (TE of 0.30 and CV value of 1.7%) among 20
comparable to findings previously reported in similar field based tests such as the Yo-
Yo IRT1 [%CV for distance completed of 4.9-8.7% (Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001; Thomas
et al., 2006)] and Yo-Yo IRT2 [%CV values for distance completed of 7-13% (Bangsbo
et al., 2008; Krustrup et al., 2006a; Thomas et al., 2006). Indeed, Thomas et al (2006)
examined the reliability of the Yo-Yo IRT1 among 16 recreationally active subjects, and
reported %CV values for distance completed of 8.7%, Yo-Yo IRT1 scores of 1.9% and
a TE of 0.26. Further, the present study found the ICC of 30-15IFT was very similar to
that previously reported for the Yo-Yo IRT1 [ICC of 0.89 and 0.95 (p < 0.01),
respectively].
55
Interestingly, a recent study examining the relationship between the
performance of the Yo-Yo IRT1 and the 30-15IFT were strongly correlated (r = 0.75)
(Buchheit & Rabbani, 2014). The sensitivity across an 8-week training intervention
between the two tests was also similar, despite these tests evaluating slightly different
physiological capacities (Buchheit & Rabbani, 2014). Given that these tests are
cardiopulmonary, metabolic and neuromuscular related elements) that may vary and
subsequently affect performance differently on a daily basis (Bangsbo et al., 2008), the
A further aim of the study was to evaluate the reliability of HRpeak assessed
from the 30-15IFT. The reliability of HR measures (Table 3.2, Figure 3.2) supports
previous research that has examined the reliability of HRpeak during a modified 30-15IFT
on ice, reporting a CV value of 0.7% (Buchheit et al., 2011b). Although the sample size
used to investigate the reliability of HRpeak was small (Hopkins et al., 2001), previous
concluded that the good reliability likely limits the effect of the smaller sample size used
(Buchheit et al., 2011b). Collectively, these results may be indicative of the specificity
of this test to rugby league players in an ecologically valid environment. However, before
this conclusion can be drawn, it is important to further investigate the validity of the 30-
A secondary purpose of the study was to assess the usefulness of the 30-15IFT
among a rugby league cohort. Despite the usefulness of the 30-15IFT being deemed
‘marginal’, it must be noted that both the TE and SWC change were less than an
56
increment of 1 stage. Therefore, from a practical point of view, a change as small as 0.5
SWC based on a whole squad’s data could be considered a ‘blanket approach’, it might
be deliberated as more appropriate for coaching and conditioning staff in a field setting.
Indeed, it may be more accurate to calculate the inter-individual SWC [CV x 0.2, half of
CV] (Hopkins, 2004). However, this would require a large amount of individual testing
results to be deemed sensitive, as well as specific spreadsheets that make this method
impractical for large squad’s in team sports, particularly when there are high levels of
homogeneity among the squad (Buchheit et al., 2011b). The results of this study support
2010a). Additionally, the usefulness of the HRpeak measures taken from the tests was
rated as ‘OK’ (Table 3.2). It may then be concluded that HRpeak can be reliably measured
using the 30-15IFT. However, due to the relationship between field-based V̇O2max tests
and HRpeak, supplementary examination into the validity of this measurement against a
gold standard V̇O2max protocol is justified amongst this present population group.
The outcome of the present study suggests the 30-15IFT is a reliable test among
a rugby league cohort. Rugby league players are typically mesomorphically built and are
Moreover, the present study has provided evidence to coaching staff within similar team
sports (e.g. rugby union) on what may be considered a ‘real’ change as well as
establishing the usefulness of this test within rugby league. Although this study provides
an assessment on the reliability of this test, further studies may focus on the validity and
between 30-15IFT, rugby league and its specificity to training regimes. Research may aim
57
at more acutely examining the results of this data across positional groups as well as
playing level. It may be reasonable to suggest that due to the morphological differences
between forwards and backs, the current test may be able to distinguish playing groups.
Therefore, future studies may focus on examining the influence of playing levels on 30-
LIMITATIONS
A limitation of the current manuscript was the absence of grass length and
ground hardness from the test-retest analysis. Whilst this is unlikely to make a large
difference, given the test was performed with nine days of each other on the same ground,
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The 30-15IFT is a reliable and useful test to concurrently evaluate PHIR ability
in rugby league players. From our results, it is reasonable to suggest the 30-15IFT is
reproducible and specific to rugby league players. The test is inexpensive, can
within 30 minutes, and requires little equipment and resources. The strong practicality of
this test is that it can be accurately used for prescribing intermittent shuttle running
compared to other similar field tests (Buchheit, 2008b). It is suggested that the 30-15IFT
is appropriate to monitor the intermittent fitness specific to rugby league players, and
other team sports (e.g. rugby union, Australian football). Based on the TE and SWC
values presented in this study, a change of 1 stage (0.5 km.h-1) can be interpreted as a
58
‘real’ change in performance. Due to the nature of the testing environment, it is suggested
that the interpretation of data must take into account of weather and ground conditions.
59
Chapter IV
This chapter is based on the peer-reviewed paper accepted and published in the Journal
Scott, T. J., Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans J.
A. and Dascombe, B. J. (2017). The validity and contributing physiological factors to 30-
60
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Grant M. Duthie
Jace A. Delaney
Colin E. Sanctuary
David A. Ballard
• Data collection
Jeremy A. Hickmans
• Data collection
Ben J. Dascombe
61
ABSTRACT
This study examined the validity of the 30-15IFT within rugby league. Sixty-
Three Australian elite and junior-elite rugby league players (22.5 ± 4.5 y, 96.1. kg ± 9.5
kg, Σ7 skinfolds: 71.0 ± 18.7 mm) from a professional club participated in this study.
Players were assessed for anthropometry (body mass, Σ7 skinfolds, lean mass index),
aerobic capacity (V̇O2maxMSFT) and power (average aerobic speed; AAS), speed (40 m
sprint), repeated sprint and change of direction (COD; 505 agility test) ability prior to
and following an 11-week pre-season training period. Validity of the 30-15IFT was
identified the fewest variables that could explain VIFT and changes within 30-15IFT
decrement, V̇O2maxMSFT and average aerobic speed were observed. A total of 71.8% of
the adjusted variance in 30-15IFT performance was explained using a 4 step best fit model
(V̇O2maxMSFT, 61.4%; average aerobic speed, 4.7%; maximal velocity, 4.1%; lean mass
index, 1.6%). Across the training period, 25% of the variance was accounted by Δ
V̇O2maxMSFT (R2 = 0.25). These relationships suggest the 30-15IFT is a valid test of PHIR
within rugby league. Poor correlations were observed with measures of acceleration,
speed and COD. These findings demonstrate that whilst the 30-15IFT is a valid measure
62
INTRODUCTION
match play. These efforts include repeated sprints, PHIR, jumping, tackling and/or
collisions (Bangsbo, 2000a; Johnston, Gabbett, & Jenkins, 2014; Twist, Highton,
Waldron, Edwards, Austin, & Gabbett, 2014), typically which occur at decisive efforts
during match-play (Austin et al., 2011). Subsequently, the ability to repeat high-intensity
intensity efforts (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b). High-
intensity interval training sessions have been typically prescribed using an individual’s
V̇O2max or MAS, traditionally measured through either a laboratory based treadmill test
or estimated from field-based tests such as, the MSFT (Ramsbottom et al., 1988) or the
Yo-Yo IRT (Bangsbo, 1994). Interestingly, the limitations concerning the ability to test
these qualities (such as PHIR) and subsequently prescribe movement specific HIT
protocols have recently been recognized (Buchheit, 2008b). For example, the MSFT may
obtain an estimated V̇O2max, yet does not evaluate many qualities of intermittent
performance (e.g. inter-effort recovery ability) (Haydar et al., 2011). In contrast the Yo-
Yo IRT1 and Yo-Yo IRT2 examine these physiological determinants without delivering
a reference speed that can be used in the prescription of HIT (Buchheit, 2008b; Krustrup
et al., 2005).
The 30-15IFT is a graded intermittent shuttle based field test that is both valid
and reliable in the individual assessment of PHIR ability (as described in Chapter III)
(Buchheit, 2008b; Haydar et al., 2011; Scott, Delaney, Duthie, Sanctuary, Ballard,
63
Hickmans, & Dascombe, 2015). The 30-15IFT incorporates many physiological capacities
recovery, acceleration, deceleration and COD ability, aerobic capacity, PHIR ability
(Buchheit, 2008b; Haydar et al., 2011). In addition, VIFT has been demonstrated to
methods (Buchheit, 2008b). As a result, when compared to prescribing HIT based off
vV̇O2max, the use of VIFT has been shown to elicit greater homogenous cardiorespiratory
responses during HIT (Billat & Koralsztein, 1996; Buchheit, 2008b). Whist this has great
application in the prescription of HIT within team sports, it is vital that practitioners
understand how these separate physiological capacities are associated to individual V IFT
movement patterns of rugby league (Austin et al., 2011; Waldron, Twist, Highton,
Worsfold, & Daniels, 2011). Whilst the 30-15IFT has been shown to be valid as a test of
PHIR ability, this has been primarily conducted in basketball, soccer, handball and ice
hockey (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2011b). Compared to straight line running, the
180 degree COD required for shuttle running typical of HIT training may elicit higher
HR, RPE and blood lactate due to greater anaerobic energy requirement (Buchheit,
Bishop, Haydar, Nakamura, & Ahmaidi, 2010; Buchheit, Millet, Parisy, Pourchez,
Laursen, & Ahmaidi, 2008). While the 30-15IFT incorporates the ability of an individual
to tolerate these directional changes, it is theorised that the ability to change direction
may be affected by greater mass, due to the increased inertia and thus superior
proportional impulse required to decelerate and re-accelerate (Frost et al., 2010). Due to
64
this, it has been suggested that heavier team sport athletes would experience a greater
mechanical and metabolic load throughout the 30-15IFT compared to previously assessed
cohorts (e.g. soccer or European handball players) (Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). Therefore,
it is important that the validity of the 30-15IFT is re-examined within this specific
The purpose of this study was to: 1) investigate and re-examine the validity
of the 30-15IFT among a typically mesomorphic population that may exhibit altered
across positional groups in rugby league, and; 3) explore and understand what contributes
METHODS
factors to VIFT, a battery of field and laboratory tests was completed within a cohort study
design. The testing battery was designed to examine isolated physical and physiological
capacities in order to examine this validity. Participants were required to complete the
30-15IFT (to assess PHIR ability), MSFT (estimated V̇O2max), 2000-m time trial (average
aerobic speed), 40-m maximal sprint (maximal speed) and 5-0-5 test (COD ability). All
participants undertook these tests were at two periods; 1) the beginning of the pre-season
phase (following two weeks of pre-conditioning); 2) At the end of the pre-season training
period (11 weeks later). Longitudinal analysis across the training period (11 weeks) was
limited to 47 participants due to player availability during second the testing period.
65
Further, due to unforeseen circumstances the 2000-m time trial was not repeated in the
second testing period and hence this variable was removed from training period
longitudinal analysis.
To further examine the validity of the 30-15IFT within rugby league, a sub-
and laboratory assessment of V̇O2max. The V̇O2max test was conducted 3 days following
the final day of the original testing battery, and the repeated speed test was performed
after a further two days of recovery. As with the original testing procedure, players were
asked to refrain from undertaking any strenuous exercise in the 24-hour period prior to
testing. Participants were separated into positional groups for further analysis as follows:
outside backs (fullbacks, wingers and centres), adjustables (hookers, halfbacks and five-
Subjects
skinfolds: 67.7 ± 15.3 mm) and junior-elite Rugby League players (n=26; 19.0 ± 0.6 y,
93.1 kg ± 9.4 kg, Σ7 skinfolds: 75.8 ± 22.4 mm) from a professional rugby league club
the elite Australian NRL competition (n=37), and players competing in the NYC (Under
20’s) (n=26). To aid a greater understanding of the specific mesomorphic population and
data attained, a sub-sample of players (n=9; 19.3 ± 0.4 y, 95.8 ± 9.1 kg, Σ7 skinfolds:
83.7 ± 17.0 mm) were selected for further testing. All participants underwent medical
screening and did not present any contraindications for vigorous exercise. Subjects were
66
informed of the study and gave their written informed consent prior to participation.
Parental or guardian consent was obtained before junior players were permitted to
Procedures
external factors (such as heat), the testing procedures were largely performed during the
morning period (0900 – 1100 h). The only distinction was the 2000-m time trial, which
was performed in the afternoon (1500 – 1700 h). All sessions were performed in
temperatures between 20-24°C. Each subject completed testing over 3 separate sessions
skinfolds) were taken on the first testing day prior to participants completing the MSFT.
Sprinting ability and COD were assessed during the morning of the second testing day
before participants returned to complete the 2000-m time trial in the afternoon, while the
30-15IFT was performed during the morning of the third testing day. During testing,
players were required to wear their training clothes and either football boots when testing
on grass or enclosed running shoes when testing indoors and on the running track. For
appropriate maximal tests (30-15IFT and MSFT) players wore typical training monitoring
equipment (e.g. HR monitors). Players were asked to refrain from undertaking any
strenuous exercise in the 24-hour period prior to testing. All the players were accustomed
to the procedures involved in the study as they had previously been assessed with the
current testing battery. Players performed a familiarisation session during the week
proceeding testing, with coaching staff providing procedural advice when necessary.
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Anthropometry
Body mass was obtained to the nearest 0.1 kg using electronic scales (Tanita,
Kewdale, Australia). Skinfold thickness was measured at seven sites (biceps, triceps,
subscapular, suprailiac, abdomen, thigh and calf) using calibrated Harpenden skinfold
calipers (British Indicators Ltd, West Sussex, United Kingdom). Percentage body fat was
estimated using the equations previously described by Durnin and Womersley (1974).
Lean mass index (LMI) was calculated as per methods previously described (Slater,
(Ramsbottom et al., 1988). Average aerobic speed (AAS) was evaluated with a 2000-m
time trial (2kmTT). Players were required to complete 5 laps of an outdoor polyurethane
and rubber synthetic surface track. Individual AAS (estimated as the average velocity
during the test) and total time were used as measures of aerobic power.
All sprint and COD times were recorded to the nearest 0.01 second using
electronic timing gates (Fusion Sport, Sumner Park, Australia) that possess acceptable
Sprint and acceleration profiles were assessed over three maximal 40-m sprints that were
from the 0-10-m split, and maximal linear speed (SpMax) was provided from the 30-40-
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m split. The trial selected for analysis was the participant’s fastest 40-m split (and
corresponding split times) (Gabbett et al., 2008b). Change of direction ability was
measured using the 505 agility test as per (Draper & Lancaster, 1985). Participants
performed three trials on both their right and left foot, and the fastest recorded trial
The 30-15IFT used to assess PHIR consists of 30-s shuttle runs interspersed
with 15-s periods of passive recovery. The initial running velocity was set at 8 km.h-1 for
the first 30-s run and increased by 0.5 km.h-1 for every subsequent 45-s stage. Players ran
back and forth between two lines set 40 m apart at a pace governed by a pre-recorded
beep. This pacing strategy assisted players in regulating their running speed as a short
beep sounded as they were to be in the 3-m zones either at each end of the running area,
or the mid-line (20-m line). During the 15-s recovery period, each player walked forward
to the closest of the three lines [Line A (0-m), Line B (20-m) or Line C (40-m), depending
on where the previous stage was completed], in preparation for the next stage. The test
was terminated when the player could no longer maintain the imposed running speed or
when they were unable to reach a 3-m zone around each line at the moment of the audio
signal on three consecutive occasions. If players were unable to complete the stage, then
their score was recorded as the stage that they last completed successfully, and the
running velocity recorded as their maximal 30-15IFT running velocity (VIFT) (Buchheit,
(2008b).
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Heart Rate Measurement
Heart rate was recorded during both the MSFT and 30-15IFT of players using
a Polar T2 system using R-R recording (Polar Electro Oy, Finland). Peak HR (HRpeak)
was recorded as the highest HR recorded during the final 30-s of the test. Due to technical
malfunction, some HR data was lost (n=9; representing 14% of data collected). The final
Repeated-sprint ability
Repeated sprint ability was examined using a repeated 20-m sprint test.
Players performed 12 maximal efforts over 20-m, with each sprint performed on a 20
second cycle. Each player’s total sprint time and percentage decrement was calculated as
treadmill (Cardiovit 100; Schiller, Baar, Switzerland) where V̇O2max was determined.
All players performed a standardized 5-minute warm-up, and the test began at a running
speed of 8 km·h-1, which was increased by 1 km·h-1 every 2 minutes until volitional
exhaustion. The treadmill grade was set to 1%. After a standard calibration procedure of
all apparatus, heart rate and gas exchange parameters (minute ventilation, V̇O2max, CO2
Breath Metabolic Measurement; Sensor Medic MSE, Rungis, France). V̇O2max was
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determined by the criteria described by Taylor et al. (1955), and was classed as a plateau
in V̇O2max despite an increase in running speed and HR >90% of the predicted maximal
value. The velocity associated with V̇O2max (vV̇O2max) was the lowest running speed
Statistical Analysis
All data is presented as either mean ± SD or mean difference (or change) with
95% confidence intervals (95% CI) unless otherwise stated. Preliminary assumption
testing was conducted to check for normality, linearity, univariate and multivariate
distribution of each variable was examined using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and
homogeneity of variance was verified with the Levene test. To investigate the validity of
the 30-15IFT a cross sectional analysis was examined from the first testing batter. The
adopted to interpret the magnitude of the correlation (r) between test measures: <0.1,
trivial; >0.1–0.3, small; >0.3–0.5, moderate; >0.5–0.7, large; >0.7–0.9, very large; and
>0.9–1.0, almost perfect. If the confidence limits overlapped zero, small positive and
negative values for the magnitude was interpreted as unclear; otherwise, that magnitude
performance, a forward stepwise regression model was employed. A forward model was
used in order to identify the fewest variables that could predict VIFT, placing greater
71
practical application to the outcomes. This model was run for all players and then re-run
for various positional groups with the same variables entered each time. A forward
stepwise was also used to determine the effect of these variable to the change in V IFT
over a training period. Due to player availability, this was examined using 47
participants. Coefficients of determinants (R2) were used to indicate the goodness of the
RESULTS
Validity
Descriptive analysis for all variables can be found below in Table 4.1, while
Pearson correlations with VIFT are presented in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
72
Table 4.1: Descriptive measures (mean ± SD) for all measured variables taken from
the testing battery.
Anthropometry
Age (y) 63 22.5 4.6 21.4 – 23.6
Mass (kg) 63 96.1 9.6 93.8 – 98.5
Skinfolds (mm) 63 71.1 18.9 66.4 – 75.7
Lean Muscle Index (kg) 63 54.3 5.2 53.0 – 55.5
Speed and Change of Direction
10-m Speed (s) 63 1.66 0.07 1.65 – 1.68
40-m Speed (s) 63 5.17 0.19 5.13 – 5.22
Average Acceleration (m·s-2) 63 3.63 0.29 3.55 – 3.70
Average Maximal Velocity (m·s-1) 63 8.88 0.40 8.78 – 8.99
505 test (s) 63 2.33 0.15 2.29 – 2.37
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Figure 4.1: Correlations between VIFT and various anthropometrical and physiological
measures (mean ± 95% CI) (LMI – Lean Mass Index).
COD ability (r = -0.42; moderate) and RSA (% decrement) (r = -0.71; large). V̇O2max
74
Figure 4.2: The correlations between VIFT and various physiological measures (mean
+/- 95% CI) (MSFT –Multi-Stage Fitness Test; AAS – Average Aerobic
Speed; RSA –Repeat Speed Ability). * 𝐕̇O2max and RSA tests (n=9).
The stepwise multiple-regression analysis revealed that 71.8% of the adjusted variance
in 30-15IFT performance could be explained through a 4 step best fit model. Estimated
AAS revealed another 4.7% of the variance (66.1% total variance). Maximal velocity
entered the model third explaining an additional 4.1% (70.2% total variance); whilst the
model was completed with lean mass index adding 1.6% of the remaining variance
(71.8%). Age, average acceleration and COD ability provided no significant elevation of
75
Table 4.2: Multiple correlation summary of the deterministic model assuming 30-15IFT
(VIFT) as a dependent variable. *
positional groups discovered several predictors of VIFT. Analysis on the outside backs
revealed 64% of the variance was accounted for by V̇O2maxMSFT (R2 = 0.56) and AAS
(R2 = 0.64), adjustables had 82% of the variance explained from AAS (R2 = 0.68),
V̇O2maxMSFT (R2 = 0.80), COD ability (R2 = 0.85) and skinfold (R2 = 0.88), while hit-up
forwards revealed 41% of the variance from V̇O2maxMSFT (R2 = 0.44). When examining
the testing variables across a training block, only 25% of the variance could be accounted
for from ΔV̇O2maxMSFT (R2 = 0.25) suggesting that other physiological adaptations
76
DISCUSSION
The primary findings of this study were: 1) the 30-15IFT is valid test of PHIR
contribution of 30-15IFT performance varies between positional groups. Past studies have
examined the relationship between VIFT and common field based tests; examining soccer,
basketball, European handball and junior athletes in order to establish the validity of the
30-15IFT (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit, 2010a; Haydar et al., 2011). However, these studies
have utilised participants of relative homogeneity, and few that fit a mesomorphic
physique (Delaney, Scott, Ballard, Duthie, Hickmans, Lockie, & Dascombe, 2015b). The
main finding of the current study support these previous findings, confirming the
validation of the 30-15IFT among a mesomorphic cohort. This study observed strong
relationships between VIFT performance and aerobic capacity (V̇O2max; r= 0.63 and
V̇O2maxMSFT; r= 0.79), aerobic power (2km TT; r= 0.68) and repeat speed ability
this test.
Chimin, Okuno, Lima, Buchheit, & Nakamura, 2009), no significant relationships were
observed between VIFT and measures of speed (r= 0.16), acceleration (r= 0.23) and COD
ability (r= -0.24). This is likely due to the physiological profile of the athlete cohort
assessed. Regardless of playing position, the match play demands of rugby league require
players to have proficient speed and power capacities (Baker & Newton, 2008; Gabbett,
77
Jenkins, & Abernethy, 2011a; Sirotic, Coutts, Knowles, & Catterick, 2009; Sirotic et al.,
2011). It may be that due to the homogeneity of these capacities in rugby league players,
Previously, it has been reported that the deceleration, COD and acceleration phases have
large metabolic implications in VIFT. It is likely that the current test of supra-maximal
COD (505) does not reflect the sub-maximal COD performed during the test (Haydar et
al., 2011). Despite this, the significant correlations between BF (Σ7 skinfolds) with VIFT
and V̇O2max30-15IFT (r= -0.39, moderate; r= -0.51, large) suggest that those with a higher
relative body fat (BF%) have a superior metabolic demand placed on them during the
numerous COD tasks, which limits their VIFT. Collectively, these correlational findings
suggest that while VIFT concurrently relates to many physiological capacities, the extent
of these appear to vary from sport to sport, dependant on the individual physiological
profile (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2009a; Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). Given that
contact sports such as rugby league, rugby union and American football may have a
larger and less homogenous range of body types it appears that these relationships may
be less stable. However, it is vital that practitioners understand the holistic athletic profile
Buchheit (2008b) reported that 75% of the variance of VIFT (r= 0.87) could
be explained from CMJ, 10-m sprint time, V̇O2max and individual heart rate recovery
index (HRRE). However, this study did not reveal the extent to which these physiological
factors concurrently accounted for VIFT. Moreover, given the differences in the
correlational findings of the current study compared to previous work (Buchheit, 2008b;
Haydar et al., 2011), the secondary aim was to determine the contribution of traditional
physiological attributes to 30-15IFT performance and how these differ among playing
78
position and across a training period. The current study reported that an individual’s
estimated aerobic capacity (V̇O2maxMSFT) was the primary variable in the explanatory
model assessing PHIR ability (R2 = 0.62). Following the theoretical physiological model
of the 30-15 test (Buchheit, 2010a), aerobic power (measured from 2km TT time) then
contributed an additional 4.7% to the model (R2 = 0.67). Metabolically, this represents
the shift and advantage of a delaying lactate build up and depletion of glycogen stores,
which would improve PHIR ability. Yet despite the great aerobic demands of the test,
these collective findings confirm past studies that the final velocity is determined through
anaerobic sources (Buchheit, 2008a; Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit, 2010a; Buchheit et al.,
2009a).
correlated maximum velocity (4.1%; R2 = 0.72) proposes that those with higher maximal
velocities possess poorer PHIR ability. However, this is likely to be a reflection of the
mesomorphic rugby league cohort and metabolic profile. In theory, a lower MSS would
limit an individual’s anaerobic velocity reserve (AVR), and subsequently reduce their
ability to sustain high-intensity exercise. One suggestion is that due to the aerobic
foundations of the test, those players who have better speed qualities possess a greater
proportion of fast twitch fibres and potentially lower vV̇O2max. The final 1.6%
improvement in the model came from the inclusion of lean mass index (LMI) (R2 = 0.74).
As previously reported, the metabolic and non-metabolic (greater eccentric stress and
damage on muscle structures) demands associated with the numerous CODs in the 30-
15IFT appear to be accentuated with a greater proportion of relative fat mass. These
findings support previous studies (Delaney et al., 2015b) that have suggested that it is
beneficial for rugby league athletes to have a greater relative muscle mass when
79
performing COD tasks. Additionally, it is reasonable to suggest that an increased BF%
will increase the metabolic demands in running further negating PHIR ability. These
findings further support the conceptual validity of the test by reproducing physiological
Separately, the current study aimed to both explore the contributing physical
qualities to VIFT across positional groups in rugby league as well as further understanding
in match-play demands (McLellan & Lovell, 2013; Sirotic et al., 2009) and reported
PHIR ability (Gabbett et al., 2011b) of positional groups in rugby league, it is not
unreasonable to suggest there exists different physiological profiles across these position.
Moreover, given the differences in the contributing factors of VIFT in the current study
compared to previous studies (Buchheit, 2008b) it appears that VIFT is highly reflective
of individual athlete training history. The current findings indicate that whilst all
positions exhibit an aerobic base, the extent of this contribution to VIFT is variable. For
example, 64% of the variance in outside backs (fullbacks, centres, and wingers) V IFT
could be accounted for by aerobic capacity (V̇O2maxMSFT) (R2 = 0.56) and aerobic power
(2km TT) (R2 = 0.64). Given that outside backs have been shown to undertake
significantly more sprints (Waldron et al., 2011) as well as cover more high speed- and
very high speed-running when compared to other positional groups, these athletes are
typically more anaerobically suited. The current physiological tests could best explain
the variance in VIFT within the adjustables (hookers, half-backs and five-eighths). Indeed,
82% of VIFT could be accounted for from aerobic power (R2 = 0.68), aerobic capacity (R2
= 0.80), supra-maximal COD ability (R2 = 0.85) and BodyFat (Σ7SF) (R2 = 0.88). These
findings parallel the physiological demands of match-play efforts, where it has been
80
shown adjustables have a high aerobic component, covering a greater distance at
moderate to high intensities compared to forwards (Sirotic et al., 2011; Waldron et al.,
2011). Kempton et al., (2015b) also observed that adjustables have the greatest
efficiency these athletes may have to both sub- and supra-maximal COD. PHIR ability
was less predictive for forwards (props, back-rowers and locks), with only 41% of VIFT
explained with current tests. This is likely due to the high anaerobic, sub-maximal COD
(shuttles) and inter-effort recovery ability which is specific to these playing positions.
Within match-play, forwards are required to complete significantly more repeated high-
intensity efforts (accelerations, high speed or contact efforts with less than 21 s of
recovery) per minute of match play than adjustables and outside backs (Austin et al.,
2011). Unfortunately, a clear test of anaerobic capacity was not used in the battery,
potentially limiting the explained variance in this group. Collectively, these findings
demonstrate the discrete nature and contributing factors of VIFT across positional groups
in rugby league, further demonstrating the conceptual validity to use this test across all
populations.
understand how VIFT changes (ΔVIFT) in response to a pre-season training regime (12
weeks). Interestingly, only 25% of the variance (aerobic capacity; V̇O2maxMSFT) in ΔVIFT
(R2 = 0.25) could be explained through the current testing protocols. This is perhaps due
to the modality of training performed across this period and in particular the final weeks.
Due to the match-play demands of rugby league, as the competition phase comes near
training often switches from more aerobic based conditioning to anaerobic emphasised
training incorporating many CODs. It may be that the most dominant changes in V IFT
81
across a pre-season are contributed via anaerobic adaptation, improvement in sub-
maximal COD and inter-effort recovery ability. One limitation of this study was the
broad testing battery used. Unfortunately in an elite team sport setting, it is often difficult
to test for all physiological variables, and whilst the RSA test showed large correlations
with VIFT, it was only performed on a sub-sample of athletes (n=9). Performing this on
the whole testing group may have given greater insight into the contribution of anaerobic
capacity and inter-effort recovery ability. Nonetheless, these findings provide further
these findings and in agreeance with Buchheit (2008b), performance staff should aim to
profile their athletes with other tests before prescribing HIT based from the 30-15IFT,
providing greater insight into the physiological strengths and weaknesses of their
athletes.
LIMITATIONS
Whilst an aim of the current study was to explain the contributing factors to
PHIR capacity in rugby league athletes, it may be noted the sample is too low to have a
limitation in the current forward stepwise regression model. Similarly, findings from the
sub sample analysed (n=9) should be interrupted with these limitations in mind. Future
research may aim at replicating the current study design with a greater population.
82
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
establishing individual aerobic function as a primary determinant of the 30-15IFT and the
HIT and the recent growth in the use of the 30-15IFT (Buchheit, 2010a; Darrall-Jones et
al., 2015) to examine PHIR and prescribe HIT in team sports (such as rugby league and
rugby union), these contributing factors of V IFT among a mesomorphic population need
to be examined. However, the results also confirm previous research suggesting the final
stages of the 30-15IFT are highly dependent on anaerobic metabolism. Collectively, the
demands of the 30-15IFT appear highly specific to the physiological profile of the athlete,
while VIFT is simultaneously impacted many physiological variables, which may differ
physiological profile of their athlete affects PHIR and therefore prescribe HIT with this
in mind.
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Chapter V
collision sports
This chapter is based on the peer-reviewed paper accepted and published in Medicine
Scott, T. J., Dascombe, B. J., Delaney, J. A., Sanctuary, C. E., Scott, M. T. U., Hickmans
84
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Ben J. Dascombe
Jace A. Delaney
Colin E. Sanctuary
• Drafting of manuscript
Macfarlane T. U. Scott
• Drafting of manuscript
Jeremy A. Hickmans
• Data collection
Grant M. Duthie
85
ABSTRACT
(PHIR) performance and running momentum (pIFT) between competition levels and
positional groups in rugby league. Elite Australian National Rugby League (NRL), sub-
elite [state-based competition (SRL); national youth competition (NYC); local league
(LL)] and junior-elite (U18; U16) rugby league players completed the 30-15 Intermittent
Fitness Test (30-15IFT) to quantify PHIR performance. Final running momentum (p IFT;
kg∙m∙s-1) was calculated as the product of body mass and final running velocity (V IFT;
performance was possibly to likely higher in NRL players (19.5 ± 1.0 km.h-1; mean ± SD)
when compared to SRL (ES= 0.6 ± 0.5; ES ± CI), NYC (ES = 0.6 ± 0.5) and U18 (ES =
0.8 ± 0.5) players. NRL players (537 ± 41 kg.m.s-1) possessed possibly to very likely
greater pIFT than SRL (ES = 0.7 ± 0.5), NYC (ES = 1.2 ± 0.5), U18 (ES = 2.3 ± 0.6), U16
(ES = 3.0 ± 0.7) and LL players (ES = 2.0 ± 0.7). Middle forwards attained a likely
superior pIFT (ES = 0.5−1.8) to all other positional groups. This study demonstrated that
elite rugby league players possess superior PHIR capacities, while highlighting that p IFT
Keywords:
86
INTRODUCTION
sports, such PHIR activity is often punctuated by forceful tackles and highly demanding
eccentric muscular activities (i.e. decelerating and jumping). For example, rugby league
incorporates HIR, repeated accelerations, COD and intense physical collisions (Gabbett,
2012; Johnston et al., 2014; Sirotic et al., 2011). Since the activity profile of most team
sports like rugby league are largely acyclic in nature and require these intense activities
(e.g. HIR, COD) at varying speeds, the energy supply for muscular effort are derived
from both aerobic and anaerobic sources (Bangsbo et al., 2007; Bangsbo et al., 2006).
efforts (including sprint and tackles) is seen to be central to success (Austin et al., 2011;
Austin & Kelly, 2014; Gabbett & Gahan, 2016). For example, it has been demonstrated
that these high-intensity efforts occur at decisive moments during match-play in rugby
highlighting their importance (Austin et al., 2011; Gabbett & Gahan, 2016).
The 30-15IFT has been shown as a valid, reliable and practical alternative (see
Chapter III and IV) to quantify PHIR capacity in team sport athletes when compared to
commonly used aerobic based field tests (e.g. Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test, Multi-
Stage Fitness Test) (Buchheit, 2010a; Buchheit et al., 2009b; Mosey, 2009). The 30-15IFT
incorporates and examines several physiological capacities associated within team sports
and ASR) (described in Chapter IV of this thesis) (Buchheit, 2008b; Haydar et al., 2011;
87
Scott et al., 2015). At termination, VIFT may be used to prescribe HIT (Buchheit, 2008b).
However, whilst the 30-15IFT may be an appropriate to assess PHIR capacity that require
test does not directly take into account the discrepancy of individual physical
It has been suggested that a higher body mass is beneficial for collision sport
athletes, due to the proportional increase in momentum they may achieve prior to contact
(Barr, Sheppard, Gabbett, & Newton, 2014; Duthie, 2006). However, an increased body
mass results in greater inertia during running, requiring more force to decelerate during
the braking phase of a change of direction task (Enoka, 2002). This increased force may
apply greater mechanical and metabolic stress during shuttle running activities such as
the 30-15IFT, negatively impacting on an individual’s final result (Buchheit et al., 2009a;
Haydar et al., 2011). The interaction between body mass and PHIR is critical for collision
sports, as both are often viewed as important factors in match performance (Gabbett,
Kelly, & Pezet, 2008a; Sirotic et al., 2011). For example, it has been demonstrated that
individual sprinting force (mass × 10-m acceleration) relates better to successful ball
carries in rugby league than sprint speed or acceleration qualities alone (Waldron,
Worsfold, Twist, & Lamb, 2014a; Waldron, Worsfold, Twist, & Lamb, 2014b),
indicating the inclusion of mass plays a significant role in physical match-specific tasks.
However, whilst it has been shown that relative power production is important to match
play performance, little is known on the effect of body mass to the mixed aerobic-
anaerobic demands of collision sports (McLellan & Lovell, 2013; Waldron et al., 2011).
88
It has recently been reported that PHIR performance (V IFT) remains relatively
stable from U16 to senior rugby union players, despite a continued increase in body mass
(Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). Due to these findings it has been suggested that by
monitoring the interaction of body mass and PHIR performance, a more sensitive change
However, currently there is not a commonly reported measure in team sports to examine
this interaction. As most team sports have varying physical positional demands
(Bangsbo, 1994; Duthie, 2006; Sirotic et al., 2011), understanding the interaction
between changes in body mass and PHIR performance may assist practitioners in
It is often accepted that elite team sport athletes are required to develop greater
Mendez-Villanueva, Simpson, & Bourdon, 2010; Pyne et al., 2005; Rampinini et al.,
competition in rugby league (Gabbett et al., 2011b) only trivial differences in PHIR
performance have been observed when comparing elite players with both sub-elite (1.4%
mean difference) and junior-elite (1.3%) players during a 12-s maximal repeated sprint-
shuttle test (Gabbett, 2013; Gabbett et al., 2011b). These results may reflect the maximal
sprint-shuttle nature and work to rest durations (1:3) of the test protocol, thus eliciting a
higher reliance on anaerobic metabolism than the mixed aerobic-anaerobic profile that is
89
more representative of team-sports activity (Austin et al., 2011; Bangsbo, 1994; Johnston
et al., 2014). Further, the 12-s maximal shuttle sprint test has been reported to have a
typical error of 4.3% (Gabbett et al., 2011a). Whilst this typical error is considered as
good reliability, the error is higher than the 1.9% reported for the 30-15IFT, which may
better reflect the mixed aerobic and anaerobic contribution of PHIR in teams sports.
capacities when compared to SRL players (including aerobic capacity, speed and lower
body power), with suggestions these qualities are important to match-play performance
(Gabbett et al., 2011b). However, these physiological differences are yet to be observed
during PHIR performance. Further, unlike other team sports, the large contact loads in
these sports mean that PHIR may not purely reflect the demands and requirements of the
body mass that may better distinguish these athletes as previously suggested. Indeed, past
authors have demonstrated that there is a substantial effect of body mass and PHIR in
rugby union players (Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). As such, the calculation of this
interaction may better differentiate between levels of competition and positional groups
than VIFT in isolation. Such a variable would provide a new and novel method associated
calculation of PHIR ‘final momentum’ (pIFT) may better distinguish levels of competition
and positional groups than traditional velocity-based measures (VIFT). Additionally, this
study aimed to investigate if there were any differences in VIFT between elite, sub-elite
and junior-elite players, given only trivial differences in PHIR performance have been
previously observed.
90
METHODS
Participants
Elite, sub-elite and junior elite male rugby league cohorts from a professional
National Rugby League (NRL) club (n=136) were recruited to participate in this study.
Players competed in either the National Rugby League (NRL, n=22; 27 ± 4 y, 100.1 ±
8.7 kg), sub-elite state-based competition (SRL, n=23; 26 ± 4 y, 96.5 ± 11.5 kg), National
Youth Competition (NYC, n=28; 19 ± 1 y, 92.3 ± 11.3 kg), local country rugby league
competition (Local League [LL], n=22; 25 ± 2 y, 93.7 ± 13.6 kg) as well as players
competing in state-level under 18 (U18, n=21; 17 ± 1 y, 86.9 ± 11.2 kg) and state-level
under 16 (U16, n=20; 15 ± 1 y, 78.2 ± 10.9 kg) competition. NRL, SRL and NYC players
were then pooled to report positional differences of professional rugby league players.
All participants underwent medical screening and did not present any contraindications
for vigorous exercise. Participants were informed of the study and gave written informed
consent prior to participation. Parental or guardian consent was obtained for players
under eighteen years of age. The University of Newcastle Human Research Ethics
Design
In order to examine the influence of body mass on PHIR, the current study
developed a new method, calculating the final momentum of the athlete at the completion
of the 30-15IFT (pIFT - as the product of an individuals’ body mass and final running
velocity [m.s-1] during the 30-15IFT). To investigate the usefulness of pIFT to quantify
PHIR ability in team sport athletes, all participants were required to complete the 30-
15IFT. To limit the circadian effect on performance, each playing group performed the
91
testing procedure at times when their regular training was scheduled. Two weeks prior
running patterns and audio signals of the 30-15IFT. Data were analysed between the
identified playing groups as well as between positional groups including: outside backs
(fullbacks, wingers and centres), adjustables (hookers, halfbacks and five-eights), edge-
Methodology
on a grass oval in temperatures between 20-24°C. Players wore their typical training
attire and football boots to ensure ecological validity. Nutritional and hydration strategies
were implemented as per the club guidelines, with players refraining from undertaking
strenuous exercise or taking stimulants for 24-h prior to testing. Briefly, the 30-15IFT
consists of 30-s shuttle runs interspersed with 15-s periods of passive recovery. The
initial running velocity was set at 8 km.h-1 for the first 30-s run after which it increased
by 0.5 km.h-1 for every subsequent 45-s stage. During the 30-s run effort, players ran
back and forth between two lines set 40-m apart at a pace governed by a pre-recorded
beep, before walking to the nearest line during the 15-s recovery period in preparation
for the next stage. The test ended when a player could no longer maintain the imposed
running speed or when they were unable to reach a 3-m zone around each line at the
moment of the audio signal on three consecutive occasions. If players were unable to
complete the stage, their score was recorded as the last stage that they had completed
successfully. VIFT was recorded as their maximal 30-15IFT running speed in km∙hr-1
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(Buchheit, 2005b; Buchheit, 2008b). As demonstrated earlier in Chapters III and IV of
the current thesis, VIFT is a valid and reliable measure of PHIR performance in a similar
rugby league population (Scott et al., 2015; Scott, Duthie, Delaney, Sanctuary, Ballard,
Hickmans, & Dascombe, 2016c). Final 30-15IFT momentum (pIFT) was calculated as a
new novel indicator of PHIR performance as: pIFT (kg.m.s-1) = body mass (kg) x VIFT
(converted to m.s-1) . Using a test-retest method design within 3 days, a reliability analysis
was performed in a sub-sample of rugby league players (n=55) which demonstrated good
Statistical Analysis
Shapiro-Wilk test, and data were log transformed where necessary. Effect sizes (ES) and
90% CI were used to describe the magnitude of difference, interpreted as; ES <0.20
trivial, 0.21 – 0.6 small, 0.61 – 1.2 moderate, 1.21 – 2.0 large and >2.1 very large
(Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009). Furthermore, the likelihood of the
observed effect was established using a progressive magnitude based approach, where
quantitative chances of the true effect were assessed qualitatively, as: <1%, almost
certainly not; 1- 5%, very unlikely; 5-25%, unlikely; 25-75%, possibly; 75- 97.5%,
likely; 97.5-99% very likely; >99%, almost certainly (Hopkins, 2007). A customised
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RESULTS
Figure 5.1 shows the raw data (pooled mean values) in VIFT and pIFT across the
NRL, SRL, NYC, U18, U16 and LL cohorts presented as a box plot. Differences in both
VIFT and pIFT between NRL and lower levels of competition are presented in Figure 5.2.
30-15IFT performance was possibly to likely higher in NRL players (mean ± SD; 19.5 ±
1.0 km.h-1) when compared to SRL (ES= 0.6 ± 0.5), NYC (ES = 0.6 ± 0.5) and U18 (ES
= 0.8 ± 0.5) players. NRL players (537 ± 41 kg.m.s-1) possessed possibly to very likely
greater pIFT than SRL (ES = 0.7 ± 0.5), NYC (ES = 1.2 ± 0.5), U18 (ES = 2.3 ± 0.6), U16
(ES = 3.0 ± 0.7) and LL players (ES = 2.0 ± 0.7). Figure 5.3 displays a comparison of
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Figure 5.1: Box plots of 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
momentum (pIFT) for the different rugby league competition levels. Solid
line is median, + represents the mean. Whiskers above and below the box
indicate the 90th and 10th percentiles. NRL: National Rugby League players;
SRL: state-based rugby league players; NYC: National Youth Competition
payers; 18s: state-level under 18 players; U16: state-level under 16 players;
LL: local country rugby league competition players.
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Figure 5.2: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
momentum (PIFT) between NRL and other levels of competition. Values
presented as standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI). NRL: National
Rugby League players; SRL: state-based rugby league players; NYC:
National Youth Competition players; 18s: state-level under 18 players;
U16: state-level under 16 players; LL: local country rugby league
competition players.
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Figure 5.3: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
momentum (PIFT) between lower levels of competition. Values presented as
standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI). NRL: National Rugby League
players; SRL: state-based rugby league players; NYC: National Youth
Competition players; 18s: state-level under 18 players; U16: state-level
under 16 players; LL: local country rugby league competition players.
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Positional Differences
NRL, SRL and NYC players were pooled to report positional differences of
professional rugby league players (n = 73). Effect sizes between positional groups are
presented below in Figure 5.4. 30-15IFT performance was likely higher for adjustables and
edge forwards when compared to middle forwards (ES = 1.3 ± 0.6 and 1.2 ± 0.6,
respectively). Middle forwards attained a likely superior pIFT (ES = 0.5−1.8) to all other
positional groups.
Figure 5.4: Differences in 30-15IFT performance (VIFT) and final 30-15IFT running
momentum (PIFT) across rugby league positional groups. Values are as
standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI). ADJ: Adjustables; EDG: Edge
forwards; MID: Middle forwards; OB: Outside Backs.
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DISCUSSION
The primary aim of the study was to investigate the efficacy of a novel approach
to quantify PHIR performance in collision based sports. The current study observed likely
to very likely increases in final momentum attained at the completion of the 30-15IFT
(pIFT) between NRL and NYC, LL, U18 and U16, as well as between positional groups.
Importantly, these findings provide further evidence that this new method may better
isolation. Given recent studies (Gabbett, 2013; Gabbett et al., 2011b) have reported
interaction of body mass with PHIR may provide practitioners with a separate indictor
of PHIR performance with greater application in collision sports. Additionally, this study
aimed to investigate whether any differences existed in VIFT between elite, sub-elite and
junior-elite players, as only trivial differences in PHIR performance has previously been
observed (Gabbett, 2013; Gabbett et al., 2011b). The current study found NRL players
possessed possibly to likely greater VIFT than all other levels of competition, signifying
the superior PHIR required at the elite level. Collectively these findings confirm that
due to the greater differences in pIFT witnessed across competition levels, the data
suggests that pIFT, and not simply VIFT, presents a more appropriate and holistic method
This investigation found that the calculation of momentum (pIFT - as the product
of an individual’s body mass and final running velocity [m.s-1] during the 30-15IFT)
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As highlighted previously (including above in Chapter IV), an increased body mass is
desirable in collision sports (Barr et al., 2014), despite perhaps being detrimental on
increase in lean muscle mass may improve running momentum whilst potentially
(Delaney et al., 2015b; Delaney, Thornton, Scott, Ballard, Duthie, Wood, & Dascombe,
2015c). Darrall-Jones et al. (2015) recently suggested that maintaining VIFT while
increasing individual body mass is very likely to almost certainly to increase VIFT (or
more appropriately, greater pIFT) in rugby union players. The current study supports these
playing levels. For example, NRL players exhibited substantially superior p IFT than both
U16 and U18 players, whilst only demonstrating a moderately higher VIFT. These
findings demonstrate that changes in pIFT may better monitor an individual’s PHIR
The current study also examined whether pIFT could differentiate between
positional groups, given the disparity observed in body mass in rugby league players due
pIFT than the other playing groups. Given the importance of collisions for middle
forwards, it is highly advantageous for these players to have a greater momentum, whilst
mass influences running momentum. Previous studies have suggested that rugby league
players benefit from a greater relative muscle mass when performing changes of direction
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(Delaney et al., 2015b). Conversley, it is reasonable to assume that the metabolic and
mechanical (greater eccentric stress and damage on muscle structures) demands are
increased with a greater proportion of relative fat mass during the change of direction
phases of PHIR efforts. Typically, middle forwards have both a greater body mass and
relative fat mass than other positional groups, which is predominately to increase the
momentum of these athletes into collisions (Baker & Newton, 2008; Barr et al., 2014).
While this study supports the observation of an increased momentum, ideally an athlete
should aim to concurrently improve pIFT and VIFT. To facilitate this, collision sport
athletes should aim to improve their underlying physiological qualities while increasing
lean muscle mass to improve both running momentum and PHIR performance.
While substantial differences were evident in VIFT between NRL and lower levels
of competition, only small differences were present in VIFT when comparing the SRL and
NYC to the U18 and U16 playing levels. The greater differences reported in the elite
level competition is likely to reflect the difference in training loads between full-time
elite players with part-time sub-elite and lower league players. Over the past decade, the
evolution of strength and conditioning practices have greatly improved the physical
capacities of elite rugby league players (Johnston et al., 2014), with these players
physiological capacities, such as PHIR performance (Scott et al., 2016c). While training
loads were not monitored for all groups in the current study, elite rugby league players
in the current study completed ~520 minutes of training a week, which is considerably
more than the ~350 minutes per week previously reported for sub-elite players (Morgan
& Callister, 2011). Collectively these findings demonstrate a difference in the PHIR
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performance of NRL elite rugby league players compared with their lower league
counterparts. Additionally, these results reinforce the need for extremely well developed
Finally, this study aimed to determine whether PHIR performance (VIFT) differed
between positional groups, given the well documented variation in match-play demands
(Sirotic et al., 2009; Waldron et al., 2011), and the disparity in anthropometrical
dimensions (Gabbett et al., 2008a). The current study revealed likely large differences in
VIFT when comparing adjustables and edge forwards to the middle forwards. The greater
VIFT reported for the adjustable and edge forwards reflects the previously demonstrated
greater PHIR demands of these positions compared to middle forwards during match-
play (Kempton et al., 2015b; Sirotic et al., 2011; Waldron et al., 2011). In addition, the
moderately poorer PHIR performance reported for outside backs (compared to edge
forwards and adjustables) reflects observations that outside backs are required to
demonstrate greater sprint and anaerobic qualities than other positional groups (Sirotic
et al., 2011; Waldron et al., 2011). Whilst the 30-15IFT examines both aerobic and
similar rugby league cohort (explaining 66% of VIFT variance) (Scott et al., 2016c).
Indeed, Chapter IV demonstrated that adjustables and edge forwards rely more heavily
on aerobic capabilities throughout the 30-15IFT, as opposed to outside backs and middle
forwards who utilise an increased anaerobic contribution (Scott et al., 2016c). Given the
greater aerobic capabilities of adjustables and edge forwards, it is likely that these
qualities enhance PHIR performance. Taken together, these results are the first to
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demonstrate that PHIR performance (as defined from pIFT and VIFT) can distinguish
CONCLUSIONS
collision-based sports. This study suggests that pIFT may be a separate indicator of
physical performance in sports that demonstrate heterogeneity in body size. This analysis
may be useful when monitoring an individual over time as they may experience large
changes in body mass due to morphological adaptation. Separately, this study provides
evidence that elite rugby league players possess physiological capacities that allow for a
superior PHIR performance than either sub-elite or junior-elite players. It has also been
shown that PHIR performance varies across playing position, in accordance with match-
play and training demands. Taken together, these findings provide evidence for
individual specific conditioning programs that aim to improve the physical qualities
related to match demands such as PHIR performance. Future research may aim at
sports.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The current study establishes the use of the pIFT and VIFT from the 30-15IFT as
positional groups in rugby league. Further, the 30-15IFT may provide a suitable test to
examine more specific elements of PHIR performance in collision sports. The calculation
of pIFT provides a new novel and meaningful way to express the inter-play of body mass
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and PHIR performance in mesomorphic athletes. It is suggested that pIFT should be used
effect of PHIR rather than representing the specific physiological capacities incorporated
in VIFT. Additionally, pIFT may provide an informative tool to monitor longitudinal PHIR
performance in collision sports, due to large changes in body mass during physical
development.
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Chapter VI
This chapter is based on the peer-reviewed paper accepted and published in the International
Scott, T. J., Thornton, H. R., Scott, M. T. U., Dascombe, B. J. & Duthie, G. M. (2018).
Differences between relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds in rugby league.
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Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Heidi R. Thornton
Macfarlane T. U. Scott
• Data collection
Ben J. Dascombe
Grant M. Duthie
• Conception of study; data collection and interpretation; drafting and critical revision
of manuscript
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ABSTRACT
This study compared relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds for
quantifying match output in elite rugby league. Twenty-six professional players competing in
the National Rugby League (NRL) were monitored with global positioning system (GPS)
devices across a rugby league season. Absolute speed [moderate-intensity running (MIRTh >3.6
m∙s-1); high intensity running (HIRTh > 5.2 m∙s-1)] and metabolic (>20 W·kg-1) thresholds were
estimated from the 30-15IFT, as well as the metabolic threshold associated with VT2IFT
146%, 138%, 167% and 144% increase in the HIR dose across adjustables, edge forwards,
middle forwards and outside backs. Distance covered above VT2IFT was almost certainly
greater (ES range = 0.79 – 1.03) than absolute thresholds across all positions. Trivial to small
differences were observed between both VT1IFT and MIR, while small to moderate differences
were reported between HPmetVT2 and HPmetTh. These results reveal that the speed at which
players begin to run at higher intensities is dependent on individual capacities and attributes.
As such, using absolute HIR speed thresholds underestimates the physical HIR load. Moreover,
absolute MIR and high metabolic thresholds may over- or under- estimate the work undertaken
above these thresholds depending on the respective fitness of the individual. Therefore, using
relative thresholds allows for better prescription and monitoring of external training loads
Keywords: 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, global positioning systems, team sports
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INTRODUCTION
microtechnology within team sports to quantify movement demands. The ability to more
reliably quantify and interpret these demands has led to a greater understanding of the external
loads experienced by athletes during training and match-play, albeit with noted limitations
(Scott et al., 2016b). Ultimately, such methods provide performance staff with greater capacity
to monitor athletes training loads and prescribe field conditioning, increasing the specificity of
the provided stimulus. Given the repeated high-intensity intermittent nature of team sports
match play, including rugby league (Austin et al., 2011; Kempton et al., 2015b; McLellan &
Lovell, 2013; Sirotic et al., 2009), it is important to accurately measure the physical output of
these demands. As such, HIR distance is often considered an important measure in physical
match-play output and commonly reported (McLellan & Lovell, 2013; Sirotic et al., 2009).
This measure has been shown to distinguish between elite and sub-elite levels of competition
in team sports, while also separating playing positions (Austin & Kelly, 2014; McLellan &
Lovell, 2013; Sirotic et al., 2009). Furthermore, it has been revealed that 70% of high-intensity
efforts (including HIR) occur prior to pivotal match moments in rugby league, reflecting their
acceleration and deceleration efforts is crucial in quantifying the repeated intermittent efforts
performed by players (Gabbett, Jenkins, & Abernethy, 2012; Kempton et al., 2015b; Sirotic et
al., 2009). The interaction of the associated metabolic cost of acceleration and velocity has led
to a new approach for analysing time-motion data (di Prampero, Fusi, Sepulcri, Morin, Belli,
& Antonutto, 2005). Briefly, this method calculates the metabolic cost of accelerations on flat
surfaces as equal to the known metabolic cost of incline running (the equivalent angle) at a
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constant velocity (Osgnach, Poser, Bernardini, Rinaldo, & di Prampero, 2010). Using this
velocity reveals an individual’s metabolic power (W·kg-1). This method has been applied to
team sports to report the related acceleratory demands of match-play (Coutts, Kempton,
Sullivan, Bilsborough, Cordy, & Rampinini, 2015; Furlan, Waldron, Shorter, Gabbett,
Mitchell, Fitzgerald, Osborne, & Gray, 2015; Osgnach et al., 2010), however little research
exists within rugby league (Delaney, Duthie, Thornton, Scott, Gay, & Dascombe, 2015a;
Kempton et al., 2015b). Delaney et al., (2015a) established significant differences between
load in rugby league. Likewise, it is reported that when compared to HIR (>4 m·s-1), the
distance covered over a pre-defined high power metabolic threshold (HPmetTh) was strongly
affected by position, with greater acceleration demands exhibited from middle forwards
(covering 76% more distance at HPmetTh than HIR), compared to outside backs (37%)
(Kempton et al., 2015b). However, while these studies outline the inter-positional running and
acceleration-based demands, they fail to take into account individual physiological capacities
Despite the propensity to describe physical performance as an index of HIR and high
metabolic power, current literature provides little agreeance on the most appropriate thresholds
to use. Osgnach and colleagues (2010) suggested the use of an absolute high metabolic power
threshold (HPmetTh; > 20 W·kg-1), reflecting a power output (W) corresponding to a V̇O2 of ~57
mL∙kg-1∙min-1. However, whilst this may be appropriate for soccer athletes (who are relatively
aerobically homogenous), there is great variability in V̇O2 among rugby league and other team
sport athletes due to the variability in match-play requirements (Scott et al., 2016c). Similarly,
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there has been a wide range of speed thresholds used when reporting the locomotive movement
demands of team sports, without any physiological justification for their definition. It has been
demonstrated that team sports athletes greatly differ in their physiological profile, resulting in
varying speeds where high-intensity running begins (Abt & Lovell, 2009). As such, it has
recently been suggested that absolute high-intensity speed thresholds should be described as a
physical performance speed threshold rather than a high-intensity speed threshold (Abt &
Lovell, 2009).
Owing to this, there have been recent efforts to better understand physical demands of
sports using relative thresholds. Gabbett (2015) analysed youth rugby league match-play using
absolute and relative thresholds, relative to a players’ individual peak velocity. This study
reported that HIR distance, when expressed in relative thresholds, increased in slower players
and decreased in faster players. Further, it has been revealed that distance covered at high-
treadmill test) compared to absolute thresholds (> 5.5 m·s-1) (Abt & Lovell, 2009). Similarly,
Clarke et al., (2015) evaluated utilising VT2 as a reference speed for HIR in rugby sevens,
demonstrating absolute thresholds (> 5.0 m·s-1) may over- or underestimate HIR by up to 14%
during match-play. Whilst the proposed VT2 speed threshold appears an appropriate
physiological marker in examining HIR, its application in team sports may be limited due to
the impracticality of regular laboratory testing for large squads (Abt & Lovell, 2009). As such,
it is important to examine these values using field based test that are easy to implement and
Chapter II and IV of the current thesis confirmed past findings, demonstrating the 30-
15IFT to be a valid, reliable and sensitive measure of PHIR performance in team sport athletes
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(Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2009a; Buchheit et al., 2011b). The 30-15IFT is easily
conducted and can test multiple athletes simultaneously, making it appealing for team sports
practitioners. Importantly, this test has been shown to relate well to various physiological
responses, such as peak oxygen uptake, as well as both the first (VT1) and second (VT2)
ventilatory thresholds (Buchheit et al., 2009a). Indeed, Buchheit et al., (2009a) revealed that
the mean VT1 and VT2 corresponded to 68% and 87%, respectively, of VIFT, respectively in
team sport athletes. Given these observations, the 30-15IFT may provide a basis on which
possible to apply the power associated with VT2 during the 30-15IFT to individualised high
metabolic power thresholds, giving greater insight into the acceleration demands of rugby
league match-play. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the differences between
relative and absolute (1) speed; and (2) high metabolic power thresholds across rugby league
match-play.
METHODS
Design
A longitudinal research design was adopted, where GPS match-play data was
collected across a complete National Rugby League competitive season to examine the
differences in previously reported absolute speed bands (Sirotic et al., 2009) and metabolic
power thresholds (Osgnach et al., 2010), and individualised relative speed and metabolic power
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Subjects
Twenty-six professional male rugby league players (n= 26, 26.4 ± 3.7 y, 99.7 ± 8.3
kg) competing in the NRL competition participated in this study. In total, three-hundred and
forty-six individual match files were analysed across twenty-two home and away, and three
finals matches, across the 2013 NRL season. Players were classified as either outside backs
(fullbacks, wingers and centres; n=8, 102 individual files), adjustables (hookers, halfbacks and
(props and locks; n=8, 101 files). Interchange players were split into the positional group they
participated the majority of the match in. Subjects were informed of the aims and procedures
of the study and gave their written informed consent prior to participation. The Institutional
Human Ethics Committee approved all experimental procedures (HREC no: H-2013-0283).
Methodology
Match-play data was collected using portable non-differential GPS devices, sampling
at 5 Hz and interpolated to 15 Hz (SPI HPU GPSports, Canberra, Australia). The mean (± SD)
number of satellites during data collection was 8.9 ± 1.5. For the purpose of validity and
reliability, participants were fitted with the same GPS unit each match (Jennings, Cormack,
Coutts, Boyd, & Aughey, 2010; Scott et al., 2016b). GPS data was downloaded following the
completion of each match using Team AMS (GPSports, Canberra, Australia) and trimmed to
include only match time (average match duration was 86 ± 7, 72 ± 18, 72 ± 19 and 41 ± 14 min
for outside backs, adjustables, edge forwards and middle forwards, respectively). Once
trimmed, each file was exported for analysis with both absolute and relative thresholds applied.
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Absolute thresholds were taken from previous research in rugby-league match play
(Sirotic et al., 2009) with terminology modified for the purpose of this study. Absolute speed
thresholds analysed were: (a) moderate-intensity running (MIRTh; distance at speeds > 3.6
m·s-1) and (b) high-intensity running (HIRTh; distance at speeds > 5.2 m·s-1). Running volumes
over these speed thresholds were directly compared to speeds of the (a) first ventilatory
threshold (VT1IFT; distance at speeds > 68% VIFT) and (b) second ventilatory threshold (VT2IFT;
distance at speeds > 87% VIFT) (Buchheit et al., 2009a). Distance travelled over a high
metabolic power threshold was also analysed, with previously reported methods described by
Osgnach (Osgnach et al., 2010) (HPmetTh; >20 W·kg-1) directly compared to the metabolic
Where EC: energy cost of running at constant speed on flat compact terrain = 3.6 (J∙kg-1∙m-1);
vVT2IFT: relative velocity at VT2IFT = 87% VIFT; and GRCF: grass running correction factor
2016c) and consequently update relative thresholds throughout the season, participants were
required to complete the 30-15IFT at four time points across the season. This testing was
interspersed by approximately six weeks. If 30-15IFT performance changed during these time
points, subsequent VT1IFT, VT2IFT and HPmetVT2 thresholds were modified. The intra-individual
typical error (TE) across these four testing points was considered low (TE: 0.42 km·h-1; CV:
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1.9%; unpublished data). The 30-15IFT was performed as previously described by Buchheit
(2008b) on a grass field in temperatures between 18-23°C. Players wore their typical training
attire and football boots to ensure ecological validity. Nutritional and hydration strategies were
implemented as per the club guidelines, with players refraining from undertaking strenuous
Statistical Analysis
Prior to statistical analyses, assumptions of normality were tested using the Shapiro-
Wilk test, and data were log transformed where necessary. The relationship between relative
and absolute threshold data was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients (r). The
magnitude of r was classified as 0.1 – 0.3 small, 0.3 – 0.5 moderate, 0.5 – 0.7 large, 0.7 – 0.9
very large and 0.9 to 0.99 nearly perfect (Hopkins, 2002). Following this, effect sizes (ES) and
90% CI were used to describe the magnitude of difference, interpreted as; ES <0.20 trivial,
0.21 – 0.6 small, 0.61 – 1.2 moderate, 1.21 – 2.0 large and >2.1 very large (Hopkins et al.,
2009). Furthermore, the likelihood of the observed effect was established using a progressive
magnitude based approach using a customised spreadsheet (Hopkins, 2007), where quantitative
chances of the true effect were assessed qualitatively, as: <1%, almost certainly not; 1 – 5%,
very unlikely; 5 – 25%, unlikely; 25 – 75%, possibly; 75 – 97.5%, likely; 97.5 – 99% very
RESULTS
Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between distances covered above VT1IFT and
MIR (r = 0.94), VT2IFT and HIR (r = 0.94) and HPmetVT2 and HPmetTh (r = 0.93), show a strong
positive relationship between absolute and relative measures of running and metabolic loads.
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Raw absolute and relative threshold velocities across positional groups are outlined in Table
6.1. Table 6.2 presents the distances covered over absolute and relative speed and metabolic
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Table 6.1: Mean velocity (mean ± SD) for relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds across positional groups.
VT1IFT: First ventilatory threshold (> 68% VIFT), MIRTh: Absolute moderate intensity running threshold (> 3.6 m·s-1), VT2IFT: second ventilatory threshold (> 87% VIFT), HIRTh:
Absolute high-intensity running distance (> 5.2 m·s-1), HPmetTh: absolute high metabolic power threshold (>20 W·kg-1), HPmetVT2: relative high metabolic power threshold
(power associated with VT2IFT).
Table 6.2: Distances (mean ± SD) covered across relative and absolute speed and metabolic thresholds across positional groups.
Distance covered above different thresholds
Running Threshold Adjustables Outside Backs Edge Forwards Middle Forwards Squad
VT1IFT (m) 1110 ± 339 1520 ± 211a 1301 ± 103 836 ± 184a 1192 ± 358
MIRTh (m) 1108 ± 365 1415 ± 208 1319 ± 103 730 ± 176 1133 ± 367
VT2IFT (m) 387 ± 132b 809 ± 161b 572 ± 76b 316 ± 65b 526 ± 240
HIRTh (m) 270 ± 83 535 ± 89 413 ± 76 187 ± 35 351 ± 161
HPmetVT2 (m) 1137 ± 324c 1377 ± 189c 1296 ± 109d 797 ± 175c 1144 ± 321
HPmetTh (m) 1315 ± 373 1468 ± 216 1486 ± 118 851 ± 204 1264 ± 365
VT1IFT: First ventilatory threshold (> 68% VIFT), MIRTh: Absolute moderate intensity running threshold (> 3.6 m·s-1), VT2IFT: second ventilatory threshold (> 87% VIFT), HIRTh:
Absolute high-intensity running distance (> 5.2 m·s-1), HPmetTh: absolute high metabolic power threshold (>20 W·kg-1), HPmetVT2: relative high metabolic power threshold
(power associated with VT2IFT). Positional effect sizes between thresholds: a = small effect with MIRTh; b = moderate effect with HIRTh; c = small effect with HP metTh; d = moderate
effect with HPmetTh
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Differences (expressed as effect sizes ± 90% CI) in the distance covered above each
of the relative and absolute thresholds for each positional group are displayed in Figure 6.1.
Adjustables and edge forwards covered most likely same distances above VT1IFT when
compared to MIRTh (ES = 0.01; ± 0.20 and ES = 0.05; ± 0.29, respectively). Whilst outside
backs and middle forwards completed a likely and very likely greater volume of VT1IFT when
compared to MIRTh (ES = 0.21; ± 0.24 and ES = 0.34; ± 0.23, respectively). Moderate
differences were witnessed between VT2IFT and HIRTh for all positional groups. The VT2IFT
mean values represent a 146%, 144%, 138% and 167% increase in HIR (compared to HIRTh)
across adjustables, outside backs, edge forwards and middle forwards respectively.
Figure 6.1: Magnitude of differences in running and high metabolic distance between relative
and absolute thresholds across positional groups. Values are as standardised
effects (effect size ± 90% CI). ADJ: Adjustables; OB: Outside Backs; EDG: Edge
Forwards; MID: Middle Forwards.
The relationship between VT2IFT raw velocity and the differences in distance covered
above VT2IFT and HIR is presented in Figure 6.2, reflecting a tendency toward players with a
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lower VT2IFT velocity (and therefore level of fitness) to have a greater underestimation in high-
intensity running when using absolute values. Relative high metabolic power thresholds were
likely to almost certainly lower than absolute HPmetTh across positions (ES range = 0.24 – 0.63).
However, some athletes completed a greater volume of running above HPmetVT2 when compared
Figure 6.2: A: VT1IFT raw velocity and the differences in distance covered above VT1IFT vs.
MIR; B: VT2IFT raw velocity and the differences in distance covered above VT2IFT
vs. HIR; C. HPmetVT2 raw power and the differences in distance covered above
HPmetVT2 and HPmetTh.
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DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to identify differences between relative and absolute
speed and metabolic power thresholds in quantifying the match-play output of elite rugby
league players. The initial finding in the current study demonstrates that whilst strong
correlations exist between distances covered at relative and absolute speed thresholds,
substantial differences in match-play output were evident when examined across positional
groups. This investigation confirmed that HIR should be considered relative to an individual,
Similarly, the use of estimated VT2 as a physiological marker for high metabolic power
thresholds may provide a better reference for individual high metabolic running than absolute
The present findings demonstrate that there is an almost perfect correlation between
distance covered above relative and absolute speed thresholds (r = 0.93 – 0.94). Additionally,
while only small differences existed for distance covered above VT1IFT compared to MIRTh,
greater (moderate) differences were observed when comparing distances above VT2IFT with
HIRTh. These findings suggest that absolute speed thresholds may underestimate HIR in rugby
league match play, particularly for players possessing lower levels of fitness, mirroring results
previously reported in soccer (Abt & Lovell, 2009). For example, Abt and Lovell (2009)
reported substantially greater distances in HIR (167%) during match-play using VT2 as their
speed threshold, compared to an absolute HIR threshold (> 5.5 m∙s-1). The importance of HIR
and repeated high-intensity efforts in rugby league match-play has previously been outlined
(Austin et al., 2011; Austin & Kelly, 2014; Sirotic et al., 2009). Indeed, HIR and repeated high-
intensity efforts have been shown to differentiate team success in rugby league (Gabbett &
Gahan, 2015; Hulin & Gabbett, 2015), and commonly occur around pivotal match moments
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(Austin et al., 2011; Austin & Kelly, 2014). Due to the importance of HIR and repeated high-
intensity efforts to performance, there has been an augmented shift to high-intensity interval
training to develop these capacities (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b), however underestimation or
misrepresentation of the physical HIR load may lead to poor monitoring and prescription of
training load. Further, it has been proposed that an individual’s ventilatory threshold (VT2)
maximal aerobic capacity (Edwards, Clark, & Macfadyen, 2003; Impellizzeri et al., 2005).
Hence, the use of relative thresholds appears desirable for appropriate player monitoring.
The current investigation observed positional differences for distances run above
VT2IFT in comparison with distance run above HIRTh. Due to the variations in rugby league
middle forward is required to carry greater body mass and possess explosive qualities to
increase their momentum in collisions (Baker & Newton, 2008; Delaney et al., 2015b). In
contrast, adjustables are often smaller and require greater PHIR ability due to the increased
running demands of their position during match-play (see Chapter IV) (Scott et al., 2016c).
When examining the differences in distance covered above VT2IFT and HIRTh, all playing
positions had an almost certainly greater output (ES range = 0.79 – 1.03) when HIR was
considered relative to their level of fitness, with the greatest magnitude observed among middle
forwards and outside backs. This is reflected in the lower VIFT of middle forwards and outside
backs in the current study which mirrors previous findings reported in Chapter IV (Scott et al.,
2016c). Indeed, Chapter IV demonstrated that these two positional groups contribute greater
anaerobic qualities during the 30-15IFT to other positions, potentially limiting their performance
in this test (Scott et al., 2016c). Due to the heterogeneity in physical characteristics across
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positions, the relative HIR velocity substantially differs between positions within rugby league.
As such, when examining HIR across positions, the use of relative thresholds (e.g. VT2IFT) may
It has been suggested that HIR above VT2 during match-play does not account for the
entire physical running load, as the distance and/or time spent at moderate intensities is not
included (Abt & Lovell, 2009). The current findings indicate that absolute MIR thresholds may
not only under-estimate the MIR loads in players with lower fitness levels but also over-
estimate these loads for players with higher levels of fitness. Adjustables and edge forwards
covered substantially less distance above VT1IFT when compared to MIRTh. Conversely, outside
backs and middle forwards completed a greater volume of VT1IFT when compared to MIRTh.
The small practical differences witnessed in middle forwards and outside backs are likely due
to the lower VIFT of these positions, resulting in greater differences between VT1IFT and MIRTh
velocities. Further, this study has demonstrated that when applying absolute MIR thresholds,
individuals with high levels of fitness may have a tendency to over-estimate the running
undertaken above this intensity. Given these findings it appears important that relative speed
thresholds also take into account the running load undertaken at moderate intensities as this too
physiological threshold that offers a relative value across individuals with heterogeneous
physiological capacities, particularly for those with lower fitness levels. The present findings
demonstrate that a strong positive correlation was observed (r = 0.94) between distance run
above HPmetVT2 and HPmetTh. Similar to the differences witnessed between running thresholds
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at moderate intensities, running undertaken above absolute high metabolic power thresholds
may under- and over- estimate running load depending on the respective fitness of the
individual. The current study showed a main effect in distance travelled above relative and
absolute high metabolic power thresholds across positional groups. Edge forwards undertook
moderately less distance above HPmetVT2 when compared to HPmetTh, whilst small lower
differences were reported across all other positions. Despite adjustables recording a higher
relative high metabolic threshold than any other position (22.0 ± 0.7 W∙kg-1), only small
differences in high metabolic running distances were observed between thresholds. It has been
previously demonstrated that edge forwards and adjustables undertake a greater metabolic
power output during match play compared to other positions when using HP metTh (Delaney et
al., 2015a). As adjustables and edge forwards have higher relative metabolic power thresholds,
this may contribute in part to the previously reported greater metabolic power outputs, when
using absolute thresholds, than other positions during match-play. Further, whilst it has been
demonstrated that HPmetTh may over-estimate the high metabolic running load of these
positions, it appears edge forwards are most greatly affected. In addition, the current study
demonstrates that for players with lower levels of fitness, absolute thresholds may under-
estimate this high metabolic running volume. Consequently, the use of estimated VT2 as an
individualised marker for high metabolic power output may provide a better reference for
Collectively, these findings confirm previous reports in soccer which have shown that
the HIR load is under-estimated using current absolute methods, which is directly affected by
levels of fitness (Abt & Lovell, 2009). Additionally, the current study demonstrates that the
differences between absolute and relative HIR load vary substantially across individuals during
match play. It has been suggested that VT2 is a more appropriate marker to implement as a
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relative HIR threshold due to its sensitivity in measuring training-induced physiological
changes (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Edwards et al., 2003; Impellizzeri et al., 2005). However, given
the laboratory nature of incremental treadmill testing to examine ventilatory thresholds, it may
be difficult to calculate these physiological functions within large team sport squads. The
current study presents the 30-15IFT as a practical field-based test to implement relative
thresholds for match demands due to the strong relationship between VIFT and both VT1 and
VT2 (Buchheit et al., 2009a). Whilst this methodology only provides estimates of these
physiological markers, the authors recommend the use of 30-15IFT derived relative thresholds
due to the practicality of this measure and its ability to be implemented across large groups.
repeated testing is required across the preparation and competition phase. Whilst the 30-15IFT
was performed at four-time points across the competition season to modify relative thresholds,
further research should aim at understanding how variable the 30-15IFT is across a competitive
CONCLUSION
output across positions when relative thresholds speeds (derived from the 30-15IFT) where
compared to absolute methods. Similar to previous findings in soccer, it is apparent that the
speed at which players begin HIR is dependent on individual capacities and attributes. As such,
current absolute methods underestimate the HIR undertaken by rugby league players during
match-play. Further, this study found that absolute MIR may not only under-estimate the MIR
loads in players with lower fitness levels but also over-estimate these loads for players with
higher levels of fitness, confirming the suggestions this needs to be investigated in team sports.
Likewise, it is apparent that absolute high metabolic power thresholds may under- and over-
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estimate this load depending on the respective fitness of the individual, when compared to
VT2IFT- based high metabolic power thresholds. Taken together, these findings will impact on
the understanding of the HIR running ‘load’ athletes are exposed to both during training and
match-play. Importantly, these findings may have great effect on the periodisation of training,
recovery protocols and prescription of high intensity interval training for performance staff.
LIMITATIONS
team sport, it is important to identify that these zones are estimates. As such, drawing
conclusions of the physiological cost of running above these thresholds may be inappropriate
across populations. Future research should re-asses the running demands of team sport athletes
using the physiological suggested derived in a laboratory setting using appropriate protocols.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
• VT2IFT presents a relative HIR threshold that can be applied across a large squad in team
sports. It is proposed that this estimated threshold may provide a more practical value
• Current absolute HIR thresholds (> 5.5 m∙s-1) underestimate the physical running load
indicator of this running load, particularly for those with lower fitness levels.
• The relative nature of this ‘running load’ may provide greater insight into the volume
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Chapter VII
in team sports
Scott, T. J., and McLaren, S. J. (2018). The validity of relative speed thresholds to quantify
125
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Shaun J. McLaren
126
INTRODUCTION
Training load (TL) encompasses both external and internal dimensions, with
external TLs representing the physical work performed during the training session or match
and internal TLs being the associated biochemical (physical and physiological) and
biomechanical stress responses (Impellizzeri, et al., 2005). The relationships between internal
and external loads in team-sport athletes have received much attention to date, with a myriad
of studies reporting correlation magnitudes ranging from trivial to very large (Bartlett,
O'Connor, Pitchford, Torres-Ronda, & Robertson, 2017; McLaren, Macpherson, Coutts, Hurst,
Spears, & Weston, 2018). The dispersion in these effect sizes would suggest that internal-
external load relationships are not yet fully understood, which has led some to question the
validity of specific external load measures. Greater external loads, particularly those common
to the stochastic demands of team-sport training and competition, have been shown to increase
Nedergaard, Robinson, & Drust, 2017), thereby increasing the internal response.
The external TLs are typically measured through global positioning systems (GPS)
devices with locomotor demands further analysed using absolute speed thresholds. However,
the physiological justification for the definition of these speed thresholds has been recently
questioned (see Chapter VI). Indeed, it is suggested that absolute high-intensity speed
thresholds should be described as a physical performance speed threshold rather than a high-
intensity speed threshold (Abt & Lovell, 2009) and therefore analysed relative to an
individual’s physical profile. Chapter VI proposed the use of relative speed thresholds derived
from the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT). This chapter demonstrated differences in
running output during match-play when comparing these relative speed thresholds with
absolute thresholds commonly reported in rugby league. However, the validity of these 30-
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15IFT based speed thresholds are yet to be examined with relation to the internal response
derived from training. Therefore, the current technical report aims to assess the construct
validity of these speed thresholds examining their relationship with measures of internal TL.
METHODS
Eighteen professional male rugby league players (n= 18, 23.3 ± 3.4 y, 101.5 ± 8.3
kg) competing in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition participated in this study.
Training was monitored over a three-week pre-season training period (14.8 ± 0.8 field-based
sessions) to examine the relationships between relative locomotor output and measures of
internal load. Training data was collected using portable non-differential GPS devices,
mean (± SD) number of satellites during data collection was 12.4 ± 1.3. For the purpose of
validity and reliability, participants were fitted with the same GPS unit each training session
(Jennings et al., 2010). The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test was undertaken, with the end-stage
velocity (VIFT) used to determine relative speed thresholds proposed in Chapter VI. The internal
TL for each session was calculated using the sRPE method (Foster et al., 2001) for each player
during the study period. This method involved multiplying the training duration in minutes by
the mean training intensity (measured using Borg CR10 scale). The HR-based training impulse
(TRIMP) method proposed by Edwards (1993) and time ≥90% HRmax were also used as a
above the VIFT based thresholds were associated with higher session internal loads. This is the
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subject differences (Bland & Altman, 1995). Confidence limits (CL; 90%) for the within-player
correlations were calculated as per Altman and Bland (2011). The following scale of
magnitudes was used to interpret the magnitude of the correlation coefficients: <0.1, trivial;
0.1–0.3, small; 0.3–0.5, moderate; 0.5–0.7, large; 0.7–0.9, very large; >0.9, nearly perfect
(Hopkins et al., 2009). Correlations were evaluated mechanistically and only deemed clear if
the 90% CL did not overlap substantially positive and negative effect thresholds by a likelihood
of ≥ 5% (Batterham & Hopkins, 2006). Otherwise, the chances of the true (population)
correlation being at least that of the observed magnitude was interpreted using the following
scale of probabilistic terms: 5–24.9%, possibly; 75–94.9%, likely; 95–99.4%, very likely; ≥
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RESULTS
Table 7.1: Within-athlete relationships between session distances covered above VIFT-
derived speed thresholds and session internal loads during a three-week pre-
season training block in elite rugby league players.
Distance covered Relationship (r; ±90% CL) with measures of internal load
above relative
threshold sRPE-TL TRIMP Time ≥90% HRmax
CL: confidence limits; HRmax, maximum heart rate; r, Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient; sRPE-
TL, session rating of perceived exertion training load; TRIMP, Edwards heart-rate-derived training impulse,
VIFT, end-stage velocity during the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test.
DISCUSSION
These relationships may also provide evidence for the validity of relative external TL measures.
The current study found moderate to large relationships exist between relative locomotor
output (using VIFT derived thresholds) and internal measures of TL, demonstrating the validity
of this method to quantify running demands in rugby league. Importantly, establishing the
construct validity of relative speed thresholds may be an integral aspect of athlete monitoring
in team sports that include athletes with heterogenous physical qualities (see Chapter VI). The
lower intensities and measures of internal load. These results are in support of past findings
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that have reported on the relationship between internal TL and absolute external TL measures,
observing weaker correlations between these measures at higher velocities (McLaren et al.,
2018).
influence on our perception of effort, and may give reason for the poor linear relationship
between running velocity and internal training response (Vanrenterghem et al., 2017). Given
the ability to sustain muscle contractions during locomotion is largely dependent on the
cumulative provision of substrate and oxygen to the peripheral systems, this association seems
neuronal process experienced from central motor commands to the lower-limb and respiratory
muscles during locomotion (Marcora, 2009). As such, it appears sensical that the distance of
running covered above a lower-intensity threshold would see greater relationships with
perceived exertion and other measures of internal TL (i.e. heart rate response) than that
relative thresholds valid in the quantification of external TL. Whilst there is an imperfect
association between the external loads assessed and measures of internal load, this is
external and internal TL is likely due to the myriad of non-load-related factors that influence
an individual’s perceived exertion and internal response during exercise (Robertson & Noble,
1997). Taken together, these findings establish the construct validity of VIFT derived speed
thresholds to evaluate relative external TLs and further our understanding of the dose–response
131
Chapter VIII
132
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Gregory Dupont
Heidi R. Thornton
Jace A. Delaney
• Data collection
David A. Ballard
Jeremy A. Hickmans
• Conception of study
Ben J. Dascombe
Grant M. Duthie
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ABSTRACT
effects of differently structured high-intensity interval training (HIT) and tactical training
Australian rugby league players completed four × 4 min HIT exercises typical of team sport
athletes with a 2 min passive recovery in between exercises. Exercise intensity was prescribed
relative to 30-15IFT performance conducted prior to each testing period, ranging from 85 –
105% VIFT, with manipulations made to shuttle length, work: rest ratios, recovery modalities
(active and passive) to alter the physiological response of each HIT exercise. Blood lactate
([La−]b), counter-movement jumps (CMJ) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were
recorded following HIT exercises (within 60 s of completion), while time spent above 90%
heart rate maximum (HR90) was calculated. The order of HIT exercises where randomised over
three protocols undertaken two days apart to assess the influence on exercise arrangement.
Each protocol was re-tested following a six-week training period. Effect sizes (ES) quantified
min exercise bout (ES range = 0.94 – 1.18). No differences were witnessed following each
protocol in [La−]b or RPE, despite some substantial differences witnessed in HR90 between each
protocol at the conclusion. The 4 min HIT exercise incorporating active recovery had the
greatest effect on (ES range = 0.06 – 0.88). Following the training period, [La−]b (protocol one;
ES= 0.68 ± 0.31; ES ± CI) and HR90 (protocol one; ES = 0.75; ±0.37 and two: ES = 0.40; ±0.29)
reposes were substantially lower. CMJ power outputs showed no substantial changes across
any condition. These findings demonstrate that the arrangement of HIT exercises can influence
the physiological responses of a training session. The accumulation of [La−]b may be more
sensitive to HIT incorporating active recoveries rather than HIT with greater mechanical
134
Keywords:
135
INTRODUCTION
interspersed with periods of low-intensity activity, requiring physical efforts derived from both
aerobic and anaerobic sources (Bangsbo, 2000a; Bangsbo et al., 2007; Bangsbo et al., 2006).
Aerobic fitness has been shown to be a determinant in the performance of team sports,
especially in the ability to finish a match (Kempton et al., 2015a; Mohr et al., 2003), to cover
distance (Rampinini et al., 2007b), to repeat and recover from high-intensities efforts (Bishop
& Spencer, 2004; Dupont et al., 2010b), and to reduce the deterioration in some technical skills
(Rampinini et al., 2009). Further, high-intensity efforts typically occur at decisive moments of
match-play (Austin et al., 2011) and may differentiate successful and non-successful teams
(Gabbett & Gahan, 2015). As a result, coaches must appropriately develop these aerobic and
Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b). Briefly, HIT incorporates either
repeated short (<45 s) or longer (2-4 min) bouts of high-intensity exercise, interspersed with
active or passive recovery periods (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a). Alongside other methods of
conditioning (e.g., small sided games), the appropriate prescription and continual progression
of HIT has been shown to enhance an athlete’s physiological capacities (Wong, Chaouachi,
Chamari, Dellal, & Wisloff, 2010). More specifically, the implementation of HIT may lead to
rapid improvement in aerobic and repeated high-intensity running capacities (Wong et al.,
2010). High intensity interval training is commonly viewed as an effective method to maximise
physiological adaptations during physical preparation phases, with the aim to improve the
outcome of physical output during match-play. However during this preparatory phase, the
136
organisation and outcome of these sessions may be compromised due to concurrent tactical and
physical training sessions. For example, residual neuromuscular fatigue post-HIT may inhibit
the rate of force development during succeeding training sessions, potentially compromising
HIT with tactical, speed, agility and strength sessions that practitioners understand the
exercises within a training session. This is important as seldom do HIT sessions only
incorporate one drill repeated over multiple sets. Indeed, it is more typical for practitioners to
manipulate work and rest intensities and recovery periods within drills across a training session
to stress different physiological systems. Despite this, the majority of studies have aimed to
examine the physiological responses to independent HIT strategies, such as assessing the
influence of work: rest intervals, work intensity and recovery modality (Buchheit & Laursen,
2013a; Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b). For example, it has been found that there is an increased
intermittent exercise at the same intensity was performed in shuttle format compared with
traditional in-line running (Dellal, Keller, Carling, Chaouachi, Wong del, & Chamari, 2010).
Also, introducing an active recovery between HIT efforts induced a faster decline in
from these individual HIT exercises, it is not known how these physiological responses are
effected by preceding and/or succeeding HIT exercises with varying metabolic and
137
compromised and altered during preparatory periods when tactical, agility, speed or strength
session are performed in the hours prior to HIT. Indeed, while eight weeks of concurrent HIT,
strength and tactical training has shown improvement in explosive performances (vertical jump
height, 10-m and 30-m sprint times) and aerobic fitness in soccer players (Wong et al., 2010),
it is not known what influence these concurrent sessions have on physiological responses when
performed prior to HIT. Furthermore, while improvements in absolute aerobic fitness may be
achieved during this period of concurrent training, it is unknown whether this adaptation may
also improve physiological functioning at a relative running intensity rather than increasing
peak fitness.
The current study aims to (1) identify the metabolic and neuromuscular effects of
different exercise arrangements within an HIT session; (2) investigate how team sport athletes
respond to the same session following a six-week training period and (3) examine how these
responses are influenced by tactical/ technical sessions undertaken immediately before HIT.
Methods
Participants
Thirty-one junior-elite rugby league players (19.2 ± 0.6 y, 93.6 kg ± 10.4 kg, Σ7
skinfolds: 78.4 ± 25.4 mm) competing in the Australian National Youth Competition (NYC;
Under 20’s) participated in this study. All participants underwent medical screening and did not
present any contraindications for vigorous exercise. Participants were informed of the
experimental procedures, risks and/or benefits involved and provided written consent and
138
Experimental procedures
To limit the circadian effect on performance as well as to reduce the effect of external
factors (such as temperature), all testing procedures were performed during regular training
times. The first testing period was performed following two weeks of pre-conditioning to ensure
players were physically capable to undertaking the HIT protocols. To standardise athlete
nutritional substrate status prior to all testing periods the team dietician provided nutritional and
hydration strategies to all players as per club guidelines. In order to ensure sufficient
carbohydrate intake during the testing period, nutritional records were taken as was typical of
club player monitoring policy. Athletes were also required to consume identical mixed diets
(i.e., no CHO-loading) for 24 h before each experimental trial. To examine the influence of
separate HIT drills within a training session, four 4 min HIT exercises were conducted in
different orders across three separate sessions with 2 min passive recovery in-between each
exercise (described below). Capillary blood samples were collected following each exercise in
protocol one and three and at the halfway (following exercise two) and completion of protocol
two, within 30-60 seconds from the cessation of exercise, from a hyperaemic fingertip for the
analysis of blood lactate ([La−]b) concentration using a lactate Scout (EKF-Diagnostic, Berlin,
Germany). Likewise, within 30-60s of completing the exercise drill athletes performed three
GymAware optical encoder; Kinetic, Canberra, ACT) attached to a broomstick which sat across
the athletes’ shoulders, with their best result (considered peak jump height) analysed for peak
concentric force and peak velocity. The use of an LPT to quantify power and velocity during
this movement has been shown to demonstrate moderate levels of reliability (9.3 – 12.2% CV),
despite the observed decrease in the validity of mechanical measurements as velocity increases
(Giroux, Rabita, Chollett, & Guilhem, 2015). However, it is suggested that the variability of
139
(Jidovtseff, Crielaard, Cauchy, & Croisier, 2008) and therefore when examining velocity and
power based measures in the field, LPT may be an appropriate method. Players undertook the
testing protocols in a staggered rotation to ensure there was no delay when performing CMJ
and to standardise the time between [La−]b collection and the completion of the recent HIT drill.
groups were divided with one group (n=15) completing a standardised skill session prior to HIT
Players were required to complete the 30-15IFT prior to both training interventions to
prescribe relative distances for individual HIT protocols, and were asked to refrain from
undertaking any strenuous exercise in the 24-hour period prior to testing. Players underwent a
familiarisation session one week prior to testing, with coaching staff providing procedural
advice when necessary. Briefly, the 30–15IFT consisted of 30-second shuttle (40-m) runs
interspersed with 15-second passive recovery periods. The initial running velocity was set at 8
km∙h-1 for the first 30-second stage, and speed was increased by 0.5 km∙h-1 every 30-second
stage thereafter. To assist athletes in regulating their running speed a short beep sounded as
they were to be in the 3-m zones either at each end of the running area, or the mid-line (20-m
line). If players were unable to reach the 3-m zone on 3 consecutive occasions, scores were
recorded as the last stage completed successfully (VIFT) (Buchheit, 2008b). This test has been
demonstrated to be valid (Buchheit, 2008b; Covic et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2016c) and reliable
among team sport athletes, with a TE of 0.36 km.h-1 (CV 1.9%) reported in a similar cohort of
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Physical Training
Following the first HIT testing period, players took part in six weeks of normal team training,
which was prescribed by performance staff and tactical coaches. Training was not modified or
altered in any way for the purposes of this study, with no influence or obstruction given to staff
or players. Across the six-week training period players undertook 24 scheduled on-field
training sessions. Each week was comprised of two conditioning sessions, four skills sessions
and a speed and agility session across four training days (see Table 8.1). After this training
Table 8.1: Training events (commencement time) [mean individual session training load ±
SD; determined from the sRPE method] completed by rugby league players
during the six-week training period (pre-season).
Monday (PM) Tuesday (PM) Wednesday Thursday (PM) Friday Saturday (AM) Sunday
Speed/ Skills Conditioning/ Agility/ Skills Conditioning/
Training Skills Training Training Skills Training
(1630 h) (1630 h) (1630 h) (0700 h)
[468 ± 92 AU] [639 ± 136] [440 ± 82 AU] [605 ± 119 AU]
The HIT protocol prescribed was designed to elicit differing physiological responses
(with varied metabolic and neuromuscular emphasises), with all exercises typical of that
prescribed for team sports (Table 8.2). To assess the effect of exercise order, each HIT exercise
rotated in differing drill orders, which formed protocol one, two and three. The outline of these
protocols can be viewed in Table 8.3. These protocols where performed two days apart with a
recovery day scheduled in-between (Figure 8.1). To standardise the relative physiological
141
response to this training stimulus, all HIT methods were prescribed from V IFT obtained from
SHTL30: 30 m shuttle length as described in the table; SHTL15: 15 m shuttle length as described in the table;
SLACTREC: Straight line active recovery based drill as described in the table; SHTLE30HI: 30 m shuttle length at an
intensity greater than SHTL30 as describe above in the table; VIFT: final velocity at termination of the 30-15
Intermittent Fitness Test.
SHTL30: 30 m shuttle length as described in the table; SHTL15: 15 m shuttle length as described in the table;
SLACTREC: Straight line active recovery based drill as described in the table; SHTLE30HI: 30 m shuttle length at an
intensity greater than SHTL30 as describe above in the table.
Figure 8.1: A schematic depiction of the study protocols and high-intensity interval training
exercises within each protocol (ordered from top to bottom).
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Training Load Variables
External loads were measured using portable non-differential GPS devices, sampling at
5Hz and interpolated to 15 Hz (SPI HPU GPSports, Canberra, Australia). The mean (± SD)
number of satellites and HDOP during the data collection periods was 11.8 ± 2.7 and 1.1 ± 0.1,
respectively. For the purpose of reliability, participants were fitted with the same GPS unit each
training session (Scott et al., 2016b). GPS data was downloaded and trimmed using Team AMS
(GPSports, Canberra, Australia) and exported for analysis. External measurements collected for
analysis included measures validated in Chapter VI as well as total distance. Relative high-
intensity running and high metabolic load were calculated from estimated second ventilatory
speed thresholds based on the 30-15IFT as per Chapter VI. Due to the reported poor inter-unit
reliability of GPS for measuring acceleration (Buchheit et al., 2014), the current study
described previously (Delaney, Cummins, Thornton, & Duthie, 2017). Briefly, this technique
utilised customised software (R, v R-3.1.3.) to examine the raw GPS movement data (sampled
at 5 Hz), taking the absolute value of all acceleration/deceleration data, and averaging over the
duration of the defined period. This method has been demonstrated to have good to moderate
levels of reliability (1.2 – 5.7% CV) (Delaney et al., 2017). Internal TL was calculated using
the sRPE method (Foster et al., 2001) for each player across the study period. In addition, during
the testing protocols, training intensity was measured using the CR10 scale, collected following
each exercise and at the conclusion of the HIT protocol. Heart rate was recorded throughout
each training session at one second intervals using a Polar T2 system using R-R recording
monitors (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland), with average HR and time spent above 90%
maximal HR (determined as peak HR achieved during the 30-15IFT; HR>90) calculated for
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Statistical Analysis
metabolic and neuromuscular responses between each exercise, and separately between each
protocol were examined using linear mixed models. In these models, individual athletes were
included as a random effect. The least squares mean test provided pairwise comparisons
between responses between each exercise and protocol, where differences were described using
standardised effect sizes (ES) and 90% confidence intervals (CI), categorised using the
thresholds of <0.2 trivial, 0.21 – 0.60 small, 0.61 – 1.20 moderate, 1.21 – 2.0 large and >2.0
very large (Hopkins et al., 2009). The likelihood of the observed effect was established using a
likelihood that the true value was greater than the smallest worthwhile difference (SWD; 0.2 ×
the between -subject SD) exceeded 75% (Batterham & Hopkins, 2006). All statistical analyses
RESULTS
A summary of the metabolic and neuromuscular responses, and internal/external loads to each
144
Table 8.4: Raw data collected across all variables over each high-intensity interval training protocol (mean ± SD).
Protocol Exercise Blood RPE HRAvg HR>90 Distance HIR HML (m) Ave Peak
Lactate (AU) (b∙min-1) (min) (m) (VT2IFT) Acc/Dec Concentric
(mM) (m) (m∙s-2) Power (W)
SHTL30 7.1 ± 2.5 6.0 ± 1.4 167 ± 13 1.20 ± 1.13 569 ± 45 296 ± 48 335 ± 25 2.8 ± 0.3 7208 ± 2243
SHTL15 8.0 ± 2.6 7.2 ± 1.2 176 ± 14 2.24 ± 1.08 481 ± 23 49 ± 30 232 ± 21 3.4 ± 0.2 7404 ± 2019
One
SLACTREC 11.1 ± 2.7 8.5 ± 0.9 185 ± 8 3.33 ± 0.50 916 ± 73 186 ± 107 224 ± 82 2.4 ± 0.3 6951 ± 1376
SHTL30HI 10.5 ± 2.4 8.9 ± 0.9 183 ± 9 3.08 ± 0.49 608 ± 38 155 ± 81 293 ± 60 3.2 ± 0.3 7486 ± 2483
SHTL30HI 7.1 ± 1.3 166 ± 12 1.64 ± 1.10 616 ± 38 323 ± 48 382 ± 29 3.4 ± 0.2 7240 ± 1722
SLACTREC 9.8 ± 2.4 7.9 ± 1.0 183 ± 14 3.19 ± 0.56 925 ± 49 229 ± 108 253 ± 84 2.4 ± 0.3 7433 ± 2245
Two
SHTL15 7.9 ± 1.0 176 ± 11 2.16 ± 1.08 483 ± 69 33 ± 44 208 ± 28 3.4 ± 0.2 7631 ± 2408
SHTL30 10.7 ± 2.3 8.4 ± 1.1 176 ± 11 2.49 ± 0.86 554 ± 45 224 ± 72 294 ± 46 2.7 ± 0.3 7787 ± 2211
SHTL15 6.2 ± 1.6 6.3 ± 1.0 165 ± 12 0.99 ± 0.98 472 ± 19 56 ± 39 232 ± 15 3.4 ± 02 7337 ± 2071
SHTL30HI 8.3 ± 1.9 8.1 ± 0.8 177 ± 11 2.60 ± 0.77 623 ± 41 265 ± 82 354 ± 40 3.3 ± 0.3 7309 ± 1664
Three
SHTL30 9.4 ± 2.3 8.2 ± 0.7 177 ± 10 2.40 ± 0.96 561 ± 42 193 ± 70 281 ± 30 2.8 ± 0.3 7695 ± 1959
SLACTREC 10.1 ± 2.2 9.0 ± 0.7 181 ± 11 3.15 ± 0.55 913 ± 76 182 ± 108 215 ± 87 2.4 ± 0.3 7853 ± 1916
RPE: Rating of perceived exertion, determined by Borg CR10 scale; HR Avg: Heart rate average across each 4 minute exercise; HR>90: Time above HR>90% maximal heart rate;
HIR: High-intensity running; VT2IFT: running distance above second ventilatory threshold (> 87% VIFT), HML: metabolic power threshold (power associated with VT 2IFT).
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Figure 8.2 provides a graphical display of the raw metabolic and neuromuscular
responses for each exercise for each protocol, listing substantial differences for each exercise
between protocols. Differences between protocols for each variable are shown in Figure 8.3.
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Figure 8.2: Box plots of metabolic and neuromuscular responses for each exercise over
protocol one, two, three and all data. Solid line is median, + represents the mean.
Whiskers above and below the box indicate the 90th and 10th percentiles. HR>90:
Time above HR>90% maximal heart rate. a Substantially greater than the same exercise in protocol
1; b Substantially greater than the same exercise in protocol 2; c Substantially greater than the same
exercise in protocol 3.
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Figure 8.3: Magnitude of differences in metabolic, cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular responses between HIT exercises and between protocols.
Values are as standardised effects (effect size ± 90% CI). P1: Protocol 1; P2: Protocol 2; P3: Protocol 3. HR90: Time above HR>90% maximal heart
rate; RPE: Rating of Perceived Exertion.
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As presented in Figure 8.3, accumulated HR90 was higher in protocol one and two when
compared with protocol three (ES = 0.70; ±0.36 and ES = 0.61; ±0.35, respectively). When
comparing exercises, [La−]b was moderately lower following SHTL15 when compared to
SLACTREC and SHTL30HI (ES = 0.88; ±0.44 and ES = 0.66; ±0.33, respectively). SLACTREC had
moderately and largely higher HR90 than SHTL30 and SHTL15 (ES = 0.99; ±0.49 and ES =
1.20; ±0.60, respectively), while SHTL30HI was moderately greater than SHTL15 (ES = 0.60;
±0.30,). SLACTREC reported substantially higher RPE than SHTL15 (ES = 0.77; ±0.38).
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Figure 8.4 above displays [La−] b and HR90 responses pre- and post- the six-week
training period. Blood lactate responses were moderately lower post- training period following
protocol one (ES = 0.68; ±0.31). Accumulated HR90 was moderately lower post- training period
at the completion of protocol one (ES = 0.75; ±0.37) and moderately lower following protocol
two (ES = 0.40; ±0.29). Only trivial differences were observed in RPE, peak concentric power
and peak velocity for each protocol when comparing pre- and post- training period. No
substantial differences were reported for any GPS variable between protocols. When
comparing GPS variables between the post- and pre- training periods, total distance and Ave
Acc/Dec observed a likely small increase (ES = 0.42; ±0.34 and ES = 0.34; ±0.29, respectively),
Unclear differences were observed in relative HIR and HML distances across these periods.
The tactical skills session undertaken by the training group conducted prior to each HIT
protocol was considered ‘somewhat hard’ (RPE = 4.2 ± 1.1 AU; sRPE = 131 ± 28). No
substantial differences in any measure was recorded during or at the conclusion of any protocol
DISCUSSION
The primary aim of the study was to identify the acute metabolic, cardiorespiratory and
neuromuscular effects of team sport-based HIT drills during various arrangements of a typical
conditioning session. The current study observed that [La−]b and RPE responses differed across
each protocol despite no substantial differences at the conclusion of each protocol. A secondary
finding was whilst no differences in [La−]b and RPE were observed, accumulated HR90 was
substantially greater in the first and second protocol in comparison to the protocol three.
Despite these acute metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses, the current study observed little
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display of acute neuromuscular fatigue, determined using power outputs from CMJ between
drills. In addition, whilst no changes in RPE were reported, the current findings suggest that
athletes may have improved elements of metabolic and cardiopulmonary efficiency when
completing the same relative session following the training period, with dampened responses
of these measures observed under some conditions. Given individual drill intensities were re-
calculated based on 30-15IFT testing conducted prior to the second testing period; these findings
may be linked to specific local and central adaptations, including greater efficiency at utilising
aerobic and anaerobic sources of energy, reducing blood lactate accumulation and
These current findings reveal that the arrangement of HIT exercises can influence the
physiological responses throughout a training session. Within each protocol, we observed the
greatest increase in [La−]b accumulation and RPE occurred at different stages despite no
substantial differences at the completion of each protocol. The current study observed the
greatest acute [La−]b and RPE changes occurred following either SLACTREC (protocol one) or
SHTL30HI (protocol three). These two exercises incorporate either active recovery periods
(SLACTREC) or increased running intensities (SHTL30HI; > 100% VIFT) when compared to the
remaining two exercises, likely attributing to the greater central and peripheral disturbance
witnessed. It is probable that during the initial phases, if moderate levels of running intensity
are met with reasonably adequate recovery periods, the initiation of the respiratory and
circulatory systems may be delayed before commencement is essential to meet the excess
oxygen requirements (Astrand, Astrand, Christensen, & Hedman, 1960). Indeed, despite
possible individual variation, the initial rate of oxygen uptake, combined with the interaction
of enzyme activation and intrinsic inertia in cellular metabolic signals may prevent excessive
peripheral physiological disturbance and psychophysical stress during these lower intensity
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exercises (Jones & Burnley, 2009). Similar results were apparent when examining the
cardiorespiratory responses during each protocol with HR90 highest when an active recovery
was performed. Moreover, the accumulated HR90 was highly effected by the placement of
The current study observed almost certain increases in [La−]b following SLACTREC, with
this exercise causing a peak in [La−]b in two of the protocols. Currently, there is limited research
evaluating the impact of exercise intensity during the recovery periods within HIT, however,
it is suggested that an active recovery may initiate lower levels muscle oxygenation (Dupont et
al., 2004b). For example, shorter time to exhaustion and moderately higher post- HIT [La−]b
values have been reported when athletes performed an active recovery [(15 s (120% maximal
aerobic speed)/15 s (50% maximal aerobic speed)] when compared to a passive recovery
(Dupont, Blondel, & Berthoin, 2003). This was suggested to be likely due to inadequate oxygen
& Berthoin, 2004; Dupont et al., 2004b). The current study also observed substantially higher
RPE for SLACTREC when compared to SHTL30 and SHTL15, however no differences were
witnessed between SLACTREC and SHTL30HI. This is likely due to the higher running intensity
during SHTL30HI, causing greater psychophysical stress than shuttle-based HIT performed at
lower intensities. During SLACTREC there was also substantial increases in HR>90 compared to
all other exercises. Further, when SLACTREC was introduced in the middle of the HIT protocol
(one and two), there was an increase in accumulated HR90 for the protocol. As such, it appears
that introducing active recovery into HIT strategies may increase the metabolic and
cardiopulmonary demands of both current and subsequent HIT drills. Therefore, if practitioners
are aiming to increase time above 90% V̇O2max (often considered a primary promoter of
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cardiovascular adaptation) whilst maintaining shorter intervals, utilising an active recovery
earlier in the HIT session will likely improve the desired outcomes (Buchheit & Laursen,
In contrast to other research (Dellal et al., 2010), the current study observed that shuttle-
based HIT exercises did not appear to increase [La−]b to the same degree as straight-lined HIT
utilising active recovery. It is suggested that increased COD causes superior peripheral
energy contribution (Dellal et al., 2010). However the present study did not observe this, with
the current findings demonstrating greater metabolic disturbance during HIT with active
recovery rather than an increased COD requirement. Whilst there were still substantial
increases in [La−]b following these drills, the lower magnitude of increase observed is likely
due to the work intensities being adjusted in the current study to incorporate the time lost for
the COD task, rather than simply adding CODs (Buchheit, Haydar, Hader, Ufland, & Ahmaidi,
2011a). Indeed, the greatest physiological responses (from shuttle-based HIT) were observed
following SHTL30HI, likely due to the increased running intensity performed, somewhat
overcoming this reduction in time. These findings confirm past observations that have reported
similar or lower [La−]b when the COD time is removed from the work intensity compared with
straight-line HIT (Buchheit, 2011; Buchheit et al., 2011a). The current study observed similar
findings when reporting HR90 and RPE. As previously reported, SLACTREC had a greater
cardiorespiratory response (HR90) than all shuttle-based HIT exercises. However, while no
substantial differences were witnessed between SHTL30 and SHTL15, SHTL30HI resulted in
substantially higher RPE and HR90 when compared to SHTL15. As mentioned, this is likely due
to a combination of the higher running intensity (during SHTL30HI) and the time removed for
the increased CODs during the 15m shuttle (SHTL15), creating a greater disparity between
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intensities. Collectively, these findings suggest accumulation of [La−]b and HR90 may be more
sensitive to HIT incorporating active recoveries rather than HIT with greater mechanical
(acceleration and deceleration) loads (Table 8.4). Moreover, if the aim is to increase peripheral
disturbance during shuttle-based HIT, practitioners may need to increase the intensity of the
running (compared to straight line) or aim to individualise the time removed for the
fatigue was evident throughout the HIT protocols. Whilst there is little research assessing the
glycolytic energy contribution decreases force production due to increased fatigue of motor
units and the musculoskeletal system (Vuorimaa, Virlander, Kurkilahti, Vasankari, &
Hakkinen, 2006). However, the current study suggests this may not be evident during HIT
protocols lasting 20 minutes or less, with no substantial evidence of any acute change in peak
power output through each protocol. It has been proposed that there is a bell-shaped
relationship between the intensity of an HIT session and the acute neuromuscular performance
(Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a). Given the intensities of the prescribed running ranged from 80
– 105% VIFT it is possible that these HIT strategies incurred a ‘positive neuromuscular loading’
despite a high anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution. Similarly, when examining the
influence of tactical training undertaken before HIT, no substantial acute decrement in peak
concentric power (or increased physiological disturbance) was evident when compared to those
who initially performed HIT. Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate differences
in the physiological fatigue during the acute stages during and following HIT. For example,
while there may be considerable metabolic fatigue resulting from HIT, neuromuscular fatigue
maybe it less effected during the acute stages. These findings confirm some past studies in
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team sport which suggest, unlike endurance runners, these athletes may be able to tolerate low-
volume HIT strategies, demonstrating minimal acute neuromuscular fatigue (Buchheit, 2012).
Lastly, this study aimed at assessing the physiological responses of rugby league
athletes to complete HIT following an extended period of training (six-week pre-season block).
Whilst the ability for these athletes to better tolerate these sessions was not conclusive (with
no changes witnessed in RPE), it does appear that these athletes may have improved metabolic
following the training period. These results suggest athletes may become more effective at
utilising aerobic and anaerobic energy sources at a given running intensity with regular training
over an extended period (typical of the pre-season phase), however further research is needed
CONCLUSIONS
The findings of this study demonstrate that the metabolic and cardiorespiratory
responses are highly variable through the prescription of exercise intensity, recovery intensity
and exercise duration. The current findings reveal that the arrangement and prescription of
exercises are highly important when planning HIT. As such, it is important performance staff
ruminate about the specific physiological focus of the session. For example, the primary aim
recovery earlier will elicit greater cardiorespiratory stress on ensuing exercise. However, this
may come at the cost of quality high-intensity movements and greater exposure to higher
mechanical loads. Taken together, it is apparent the implementation of HIT sessions needs to
be structured as a function of the periodised aims of the physical program with concurrent
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training strategies taken into account (Yeo, Paton, Garnham, Burke, Carey, & Hawley, 2008).
Importantly, this study observed no substantial differences between training groups completing
HIT prior- and post- tactical training. Given it is often difficult to ideally periodise conditioning
and tactical sessions to allow athletes to be in a recovered state prior to conditioning during
pre-season, this finding provides evidence to suggest HIT may not be compromised from short,
moderate-intensity tactical skills sessions. Finally, the results of this study suggest that
following an extended training period, athletes may have improved efficiency at utilising
aerobic and anaerobic energy sources with a dampened metabolic and cardiorespiratory
LIMITATIONS
Whilst there may be limitations using [La−]b concentration to evaluate the anaerobic
glycolytic metabolic demand of HIT (e.g. large individual responses and poor association with
muscle lactate) (Jacobs & Kaiser, 1982; Krustrup, Mohr, Steensberg, Bencke, Kjaer, &
Bangsbo, 2006b), there is not yet an agreeable and established gold standard to assess anaerobic
glycolytic energy contribution (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013a; Medbo, Mohn, Tabata, Bahr,
Vaage, & Sejersted, 1988). As a result, [La−]b still appears to be an appropriate measure to
estimate anaerobic contribution during exercise. A further limitation was the absence of [La−]b
analysis during protocol two, which limits the understanding of this profile across that protocol.
The short tactical sessions (~30 mins) implemented in the current study may be less
demanding than that incorporated during the pre-season phase of training (typically 45 – 90
minutes). While increasing the demands of these tactical session may result in greater
metabolic and neuromuscular demands, further depleting glycolic stores, these findings are the
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first to suggest that HIT sessions following tactical sessions may not be as compromised as
previously suggested. Future research may directly asses the metabolic effect of these tactical
sessions conducted prior to HIT while further addressing the interplay between metabolic
functions and mechanical changes in HIT sessions. Finally, it must be noted that a control
group is absent from the current study and the results should be interpreted as such. Whilst this
is often difficult and impractical within the current population, it would likely aid in the
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
• When designing HIT sessions in team sports, it is important to establish the desired
physiological outcome of the session as exercise arrangement may affect the specific
• Superior HIR distance had a greater effect on the acute metabolic demands during HIT
sessions, than shorter shuttle exercises with increased mechanical loads (acceleration/
deceleration)
• Moderate-intensity tactical sessions undertaken prior to HIT sessions may not have as
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Chapter IX
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OVERVIEW
This thesis has presented five studies that have extended the current knowledge
regarding the appropriate methods to examine, monitor and prescribe HIT within an elite rugby
league cohort. Initially, the reliability and usefulness of the 30-15IFT to examine PHIR capacity
within rugby league players was assessed in Chapter III (Scott et al., 2015). Following this,
Chapter IV investigated the validity and contributing factors to 30-15IFT performance within a
similar cohort (Scott et al., 2016c). The purpose of these studies was to determine whether the
30-15IFT was an appropriate physical test to examine PHIR capacity in a mesomorphic athletic
population. Chapter V then used these outcomes to provide a novel method to assess PHIR in
team sport athletes (particularly collision-based sports) through the calculation of ‘running
momentum’ (as the product of body mass and 30-15IFT performance). Additionally, this chapter
demonstrated that both these measures could differentiate between competition levels (Scott,
Dascombe, Delaney, Sanctuary, Scott, Hickmans, & Duthie, 2017a). Chapter VI (Scott,
Thornton, Scott, Dascombe, & Duthie, 2017b) examined the practicality of the 30-15IFT to
individualise relative speed and metabolic thresholds to quantify match-play outputs and
imposed external loads. Chapter VII validated the use of these 30-15IFT derived speed
external TL measures and criterion internal TLs. Finally, Chapter VIII (Scott, Dupont,
Thornton, Delaney, Ballard, Hickmans, Dascombe, & Duthie, 2018) assessed the acute
metabolic, cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular effects across a various HIT protocols in team
arrangement of HIT drills within a session and the effect of concurrent tactical/technical
training. In the final section of this thesis, the significant outcomes of the present series of
studies are highlighted in the context of the current literature, whilst implications for future
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RESEARCH OUTCOMES
Background
understanding of the processes and outcomes of the training stimulus provided. Practitioners
must correctly assess the training outcome (physical testing), manipulate training prescription
(training process) and review the dose-response relationship (training monitoring) in order to
individualise their physical preparation and evaluate the program’s success. However, due to
the multifaceted nature of the physical demands of team sports, the interactions between these
processes are highly complex. The current thesis has proposed a physical preparation feedback
loop (Figure 9.1) as a method to conceptualise this interaction, with the current series of studies
aimed at presenting new and novel methods to incorporate within this system.
Figure 9.1: The physical preparation feedback loop as proposed by the current thesis.
Training prescription (training process) is reinforced (R) by the feedback from
physical testing (training outcome) and balanced (B) by the positive and negative
training status of the athlete (training monitoring).
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Physical Testing
When aiming to individualise the training process for athletes, it is important that the
training outcome guides and reinforces training prescription (training process). The 30-15IFT
has previously been demonstrated to be valid and reliable among basketball, handball, ice
hockey, soccer and rugby union cohorts (Buchheit, 2008b; Buchheit et al., 2011b; Covic et al.,
2016; Darrall-Jones et al., 2015; Scott et al., 2015). In addition, the 30-15IFT has been shown
to elicit more homogenous physiological responses during HIT protocols than other criterion
Chapter III demonstrated that the reliability of the 30-15IFT was very good, with a
TE of 0.36 km.h-1 (CV 1.9%) (Scott et al., 2015). This is similar to that reported previously by
Buchhiet (2005b), who also demonstrated the test-retest reliability of the 30-15IFT to be very
good (TE of 0.30 km.h-1 [CV 1.7%]) among 20 regional-to-national level European handball
players. Despite the usefulness of the 30-15IFT being deemed ‘marginal’, it must be noted that
both the TE and SWC change were less than 1 stage of the test. As a result, this study
demonstrated that a change as small as 0.5 km.h-1 (1 stage) in VIFT could be interpreted as
demonstrating that the 30-15IFT is a valid test of PHIR among a typically mesomorphic
population (Scott et al., 2016c). Furthermore, whilst this test appears to be related to many
performance most likely through an increased aerobic capacity. Importantly, the physiological
influenced by the varying physiological profiles between positions. Chapter III and IV provide
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a strong foundation for practitioners to confidently use the 30-15IFT to assess PHIR among
mesomorphic athletes. Taken together, these chapters add to past findings (Buchheit, 2008b;
Buchheit et al., 2009a; Darrall-Jones et al., 2015) outlining that 30-15IFT performance is the
product of various physiological factors and is influenced by the inter-play between these
capacities during HIR. Resultantly, these studies demonstrate that the prescription of HIT
utilizing VIFT controls for these individual capacities across squads that are heterogeneous in
anthropometric characteristics.
Previously it has been suggested that heavier team sport athletes would experience
greater mechanical and metabolic loads throughout the 30-15IFT compared to previously
assessed cohorts (e.g. soccer or European handball players) (Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). Indeed,
the ability to change direction appears to be negatively affected by a greater body mass, due to
the increased inertia and higher proportional impulse required to decelerate and re-accelerate
(Frost et al., 2010). Past data has observed that VIFT remains relatively stable in rugby union
players ranging from U16 to senior competitions, despite a continued increase in body mass
(Darrall-Jones et al., 2015). Performance staff in collision-based sports aim to increase the body
mass (specifically lean mass) of athletes over time to benefit performance. As these sports
of the interaction between running performance and body mass appears vital, particularly given
the suggested greater mechanical and metabolic demands of heavier athletes during shuttle
based conditioning (Enoka, 2002). Chapter V provided a new and novel method to calculate
this interaction, with pIFT (the product of VIFT and body mass) expressing the inter-play of this
relationship. This chapter demonstrated that pIFT was reliable and able to differentiate between
performance levels, which is highly useful in collision-based sports given the heterogeneity in
body size. This analysis is useful when monitoring an individual over time as they may
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experience large changes in body mass due to morphological adaptation, whilst it references
the ability to overcome the prolonged inertial effect of PHIR rather than representing the
specific physiological capacities incorporated in VIFT. Chapter V concluded that the use of the
pIFT and VIFT established from the 30-15IFT, provided an index of PHIR performance that can
separately distinguish between levels of competition and positional groups in rugby league.
Collectively, these studies add to the body of literature, suggesting the 30-15IFT provides a
suitable test to examine more specific elements of PHIR performance in collision sports.
Training Monitoring
between the training process and training outcome (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter I). The current
thesis aimed at providing new methods to quantify the training process with a specific emphasis
on HIR. To account for the known limitations of using absolute speed zones to quantify
physical running demands of team sports (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Clarke et al., 2015; Gabbett,
2015), Chapter VI (Scott et al., 2017b) examined the use of relative speed zones to quantify
running loads whilst Chapter VII assessed the construct validity of these proposed zones.
Currently there is little consensus on the absolute GPS speed zones used to define running
output in team sports (particularly HIR), with no physiological justification for their definition.
Past thresholds have been largely based off maximal speed (Gabbett, 2015), despite a greater
relationship witnessed between VT2 and HIR (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Clarke et al., 2015). Given
that HIR running is considered an important measure in physical match-play output and
commonly reported (McLellan & Lovell, 2013; Sirotic et al., 2009), it appears that utilising an
athletes ventilatory thresholds better classifies these intensities (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Clarke et
al., 2015). Yet, there are limitations when establishing individual ventilatory thresholds, most
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of all, the regular laboratory testing required across large squads (Abt & Lovell, 2009). Hence,
Chapter VI explored using estimated individual ventilatory thresholds based on the 30-15IFT,
based on the known relationship between this test and the VT1 and VT2 thresholds (Buchheit
et al., 2009a).
When examining the differences in match-play output across positions using relative
speed thresholds (derived from the 30-15IFT) or absolute methods, it was established that
absolute speed thresholds underestimate the HIR (Scott et al., 2017b). This is in agreement
with findings reported in soccer and rugby union (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Clarke et al., 2015).
Taken together, these studies conclude that the speed at which players exceed HIR is dependent
on individual capacities and attributes and therefore applying relative speed thresholds is
warranted. Chapter VI proposes a new method to easily manipulate relative speed thresholds
that is more precise to MIR and HIR than percentage based maximal speed thresholds (Scott
et al., 2017b). The validity of specific external load measures have been questioned due to both
the lack of physiological justification and/or their association with constructs of internal
training load (Abt & Lovell, 2009; McLaren et al., 2018). Chapter VII demonstrated that the
VIFT-derived relative speed thresholds proposed in Chapter VI relate well to various measures
of internal training load, providing sufficient evidence to deem these thresholds valid in team
sports.
Collectively, the findings from these chapters (VI and VII) provide a valid and novel
method to individualise relative speed thresholds in team sports athletes through the use of a
field-based test, which increases the practicality of employment across large squads. Taken
together, when evaluating the dose-response relationship of HIT and concurrent field
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tactical/technical sessions, the use of relative thresholds allows for more precise monitoring of
external training loads as they account for the individual demands placed upon team sport
athletes. As such, the use of relative thresholds may allow performance staff to more
Training Prescription
It has been established (Buchheit, 2008b; Scott et al., 2015; Scott et al., 2016c) that VIFT
provides a suitable HIR prescription reference speed across athletes with heterogenous
physiological profiles. When examining the acute metabolic and neuromuscular responses of
common HIT protocols employed within team sports, Chapter VIII (Scott et al., 2018)
demonstrated that the arrangement of HIT exercises can influence the physiological responses
accumulation and RPE occurred at different stages within a HIT session based on the
session. As such, performance staff must decide on the specific physiological focus of the
session. For instance, if the primary aim of the session may be to induce metabolic adaptations,
including an active recovery earlier will increase the metabolic stress at an earlier period.
However, this may come at the cost of quality high-intensity movements and greater exposure
It has been suggested that incorporating active recovery produces lower levels of
muscle oxygenation, reducing the available oxygen to reload myoglobin and haemoglobin as
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Berthoin, 2004; Dupont et al., 2004b). However, this research has been conducted in isolation
with little known on the effect that these HIT strategies have when conducted prior to and
following other HIT methods. Importantly, Chapter VIII (Scott et al., 2018) revealed that
accumulation of [La−]b may be more sensitive to HIT incorporating active recoveries rather
than HIT with greater mechanical (acceleration and deceleration) loads independent of their
arrangement in the session. Further, introducing active recovery based HIT earlier in the
session was shown to elicit an increased accumulated HR90 for the session. These findings
.
provide new evidence suggesting that if practitioners are aiming to increase time above 90% V
Laursen, 2013b)] whilst maintaining shorter intervals, manipulation of these HIT strategies will
likely improve the desired outcomes (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013b; Dupont & Berthoin, 2004).
Collectively, this study demonstrated that practitioners should develop sessions with the overall
It has been observed that residual neuromuscular fatigue post-HIT may inhibit the rate
neuromuscular loadings (Blazevich, 2012). In contrast, Chapter VIII demonstrated that HIT
performance was not compromised from any acute fatigue arising from moderate intensity
neuromuscular response between athletes those who completed tactical training before HIT
and those that undertook HIT immediately following warm up. As it is often difficult to ideally
periodise conditioning and tactical sessions in order to allow athletes to be in a recovered state
prior to conditioning, these findings provide new evidence to suggest acute physiological
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Additionally, Chapter VIII aimed at assessing the physiological responses to HIT in
rugby league athletes following an extended period of training (six-week pre-season block).
Whilst the ability for these athletes to better tolerate (no changes in RPE) these sessions was
not conclusive, it does appear that these athletes may have improved metabolic and
cardiopulmonary efficiency. Indeed, the current study observed a dampened response of these
measures following the training period, despite an increase in the work (distance) prescribed
during the re-testing period (due to improved fitness). These findings may be linked to specific
local and central adaptations, reducing blood lactate accumulation and cardiorespiratory stress
(McArdle et al., 2007). Taken together, the findings of Chapter VIII recommends that HIT
sessions need to be structured as a function of the periodised aims of the physical program with
Lastly, this thesis aimed at presenting new strategies to prescribe HIT within
mesomorphic team sport athletes. Previously, Buchhiet (2011) published an example of how
the 30-15IFT may be prescribed across team sport athletes (Table 9.1). However, given the
heterogeneity of team sport athletes, this may not be applicable across all sports. While it has
been suggested that a higher body mass is beneficial for collision sport athletes due to the
proportional increase in momentum they may achieve prior to contact (Barr et al., 2014; Duthie,
2006), this would result in greater inertia and require more force to decelerate during the
braking phase of a COD task. In turn, this would increase the neuromuscular and metabolic
stress which results from shuttle based HIT. Further, given collision-based 180-degree sports
(i.e. rugby league, rugby union, American football) have differing physical demands to 360-
degree sports (i.e. soccer, Australian football, Gaelic football), these athletes are likely to
require differing methods of physical field conditioning. As such, Table 9.2 provides a
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progression of these VIFT-based HIT strategies that may be more specific to the conditioning
of these collision based sports where shorter, repeated explosive efforts are common.
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Table 9.1: Original VIFT-based HIT strategies developed by Buchheit (2011).
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Table 9.2: VIFT-based HIT strategies developed as a result of Chapter VI to VIII.
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
and strength and power training. As such, HIT is often incorporated in to the physical
physiological responses across large squads, overcoming the heterogeneity which results
from differences in athlete body sizes and physical capacities. However, employing a
physical test that provides both a training prescription reference speed while possessing
suitable reliability and validity among heterogeneous athletes has previously proven to
be difficult.
This thesis examined the validity, reliability and usefulness of the 30-15IFT
the assessment of PHIR while outlining the contributing physiological factors to V IFT.
Additionally, for collision-based sport athletes that require greater lean muscle mass (and
consequently body mass), it may be more appropriate to monitor the interaction of this
change between mass and physiological performance. Understanding the capacity for
junior and senior athletes to perform PHIR with greater body mass may allow
practitioners to better gauge the physical progression of their athletes. Indeed, this
analysis may be useful when monitoring an individual over time as they may experience
large changes in body mass due to morphological adaptation. Further, this interaction can
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better distinguish levels of competition and positional groups across team sports where
great promise, although it may be limited due to the impracticality of regular laboratory
from the 30-15IFT may provide a more practical indicator of this HIR loads, particularly
for those with lower fitness levels. As such, performance staff may gain greater insight
into the volume of running performed at higher relative intensities allowing for more
sport physical program. Utilising HIT may be a time efficient method to effectively target
specific physiological adaptation. However, whilst individual drills may aim to elicit
responses and adaptation. However, it is vital practitioners review with the training
feedback loop, understanding the inter-play between the training outcome and training
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DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The outcomes of the present series of studies suggest that areas for further investigation
include:
• Examine the influence and relationship between pIFT and VIFT and measures of
match performance. This study may aim to further develop the construct validity
of relative thresholds through the relationship between running output and match-
threshold loads and injury and illness in team sports. Following on from the work
of the current thesis and suggested future studies above, this research may attempt
to observe if relative thresholds are more sensitive to detect injury and illness risk
response.
173
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Yeo, W. K., Paton, C. D., Garnham, A. P., Burke, L. M., Carey, A. L., & Hawley, J. A.
versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. Journal of Applied
202
Chapter XI
Appendices
203
Appendix I
This chapter is based on the peer-reviewed paper accepted and presented at Exercise and
Scott, T. J., Delaney, J. A., Duthie, G. M., Sanctuary, C. E., Ballard, D. A., Hickmans,
J. A. & Dascombe, B. J. (2014). Effect of playing level on 30-15 Intermittent Fitness test
204
Statement of Joint Authorship and Author Contribution
Jace A. Delaney
Grant M. Duthie
• Conception of study
Colin E. Sanctuary
• Data Collection
David A. Ballard
• Data Collection
Jeremy A. Hickmans
• Data Collection
Ben J. Dascombe
205
INTRODUCTION
maximal measure of intermittent fitness. An important benefit of the 30-15IFT is that the
during conditioning. Past data is available on the 30-15IFT in various field-based team
sports, however, no data has reported on the use of the 30-15IFT in rugby league. The
current study reports data for the 30-15IFT performance within rugby league squads across
METHODS
Rugby league players from the Newcastle Knights U16 (n=20), U18 (n=21),
National Youth Championship (U20, NYC; n=28) and National Rugby League (NRL;
n=24) playing groups completed the 30-15 IFT test at the end of the general preparation
phase of the 2012 and 2013 pre-seasons. A one-way ANOVA with LSD post-hoc tests
determined if there was any significant effect of playing level on 30-15IFT performance
RESULTS
30-15IFT performance differed across the U16 (18.5 ± 1.0 km.h-1), U18 (18.6
± 1.2 km.h-1), NYC (18.9 ± 1.0 km.h-1) and NRL (19.7 ± 0.6 km.h-1) playing groups. This
in rugby league. Individual significant differences were present between the 30-15IFT
performance of the NRL and the U16 (p<0.001) and U18 (p=0.001) and NYC (p=0.006)
playing squads.
206
CONCLUSIONS
The data demonstrates that 30-15IFT performance can distinguish between specific
playing groups in well-trained rugby league players. The significant effect of age on the
30-15IFT demonstrates that intermittent fitness continues to develop with training age and
can discriminate between performance levels. This aids the prescription of training and
playing groups. However, future research should examine the interaction with mass and
VIFT given the physical development of athletes from youth the senior selection.
207