Aircraft Structures 1

Lecture 2: Beams Analysis

2023
Beam
Dầm

• A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied

laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of de ection is primarily by
bending.

• The total e ect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce
shear forces and bending moments within the beams
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Beam
Examples
Beam
Examples
Loads on a Beam
Lực/Tải trọng tác động lên dầm

• Normal concentrated loads (Lực tập trung vuông góc)

• Inclined concentrated loads (Lực tập trung xiên)
• Uniformly distributed loads (Lực phân bố đều)
• Varying distributed loads (Lực phân bố không đều/biến thiên)
• Concentrated moments (Moment tập trung)
Beam
Example - Varying distributed Load
Beam
Example - Concentrated Moment
Reactions at Supports
Phản lực ở các gối đỡ

• Show completely the loads and support reactions on a free-

body diagram: the rst step in analyzing a beam to determine
its safety under a given loading arrangement.

• Compute the magnitude of all support reactions using static

equilibrium equations
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Shearing Force
Lực cắt

• Shearing forces are internal

forces developed in the material
of a beam to balance externally
applied forces: to secure
equilibrium of all parts of the
beam.

• We need to consider rst

vertical shearing forces,
indicated by the symbol V

• We will need to compute V at

each cross-section of the beam

• V will cause shearing stress at

each cross-section
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Bending Moment
Moment uốn

• Bending moments are

internal moments
developed in the material
of a beam to balance the
tendency for external
forces to cause rotation of
any part of the beam.

• Bending moments M cause

the beam to bend or curve

• Bending moments causes

normal stress at a cross-
section
The Area Rule for Bending Moment Diagrams
Nguyên tắc tính diện tích cho biểu đồ moment uốn

• In general, the area rule can be

stated mathematically as

dM = V dx

• Between two points, A and C:

• What’s the result if V is

constant?
Example Problem
Example Problem
Beam bearing Uniformly Distributed Loads
Beam bearing Uniformly Distributed Loads

Analyzing using free-

body diagram
General Loadings
Dầm chịu tải tổng quát

• Bending moment, shear force, and

distributed load intensity:
General Shapes
Shearing Forces and Bending Moment Diagrams
General Shapes
Shearing Forces and Bending Moment Diagrams
Cantilever Beam
Example

• Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam

Different failure modes of beams
Different failure modes of beams
Stresses in Beams
Ứng suất ở dầm

• Bending moments (M) cause normal stresses at a cross-

section.

• Shearing forces (V) cause shearing stresses at a cross-

section.

𝜏
𝜎
Stress distribution on a cross-section

• At a distance y from the neutral axis:

• c is the distance from the neutral axis to the outer most ber of
the beam

What if
cbottom is
different from
ctop?

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Stress distribution on a cross-section

• In general:
Stress distribution on a cross-section

• It is zero at the centroidal axis of the cross section of the beam.

Bằng 0 tại trục trung tâm của mặt cắt ngang của dầm.

• It is a maximum tensile stress at the bottom surface.

Ứng suất kéo lớn nhất nằm tại mặt đáy

• It is a maximum compressive stress at the top surface.

Ứng suất nén lớn nhất nằm ở mặt trên cùng

• It varies linearly from the top to the bottom.

Biến thiên tuyến tính từ mặt trên đến mặt đáy.
Flexure Formula
Công thức tính ứng suất gây ra do uốn

• Force resultant over a • Moment resultant over a

cross-section: cross-section:

• Because max and c are

constants:
• Simplifying:
,

Ȳ = 0:
Neutral axis = Moment of
Centroidal Inertia
axis
𝜎
Flexure Formula

Mc My
σmax = σ=
I I

Requirements:
• The cross-sectional area is symmetric about an axis perpendicular to
the neutral axis

• The resultant moment M acts along the neutral axis.

Section Modulus
• Section modulus is de ned as:

• Flexure formula becomes:

• Section modulus of basic shapes are pre-calculated

• Used in design of beam
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Example
• The tee section carries a bending
moment of 100 000 lb · in. due to
a load on the top surface.

• It has been determined that I =

18.16 in.4 The centroid of the
section is 3.25 in. up from the
bottom of the beam.

Objective:

• Compute the stress due to

bending in the beam at the six
axes a to f

• Plot a graph of stress versus

position in the cross section.
Example
Solution
Example

• Figure below shows the bending moment diagram for a 25 ft long

beam in a large machine structure. It has been proposed that the
beam be made from a standard W 14×43 steel shape. Compute
the maximum stress due to bending in the beam.

• Find the values of I and c from the table of properties for W-

beam shapes in Appendix A−7(a).
Design
• Determine the required dimensions for a beam, given loading
pattern and material

• Specifying a material for a given beam, given loading pattern,

shape, and dimensions for the beam

• Design factor: apply the same concept from direct normal stress.

Note: These are just general guidelines. Designer should consult Codes and Standards
 Unsymmetrical Bending
• The exure formula can be applied only
when bending occurs about axes that
represent the principal axes of inertia
for the cross section. These axes have
their origin at the centroid and are
oriented along an axis of symmetry, if
there is one, and perpendicular to it.

• If the moment is applied about some

arbitrary axis, then the moment must
be resolved into components along
each of the principal axes, and the
stress at a point is determined by
superposition of the stress caused by
each of the moment components.
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Unsymmetrical Bending
Sign conventions and notation
T = Torque
M = Bending moment
S = Shear force
P = Axial or direct load
w = distributed load intensity
(u, v, w) = displacement
Unsymmetrical Bending
Resolution of Bending Moment

• A bending moment applied in any plane may be resolved into

two components

• Normal rules of vector:

Mx = M sin θ
My = M cos θ
Unsymmetrical Bending
Stress Distribution due to Bending

• The beam bends about the neutral axis (NA): zero

stress
• Origin of axes: at centroid C
• Consider a point at distance ξ from NA; the beam is
bent to the radius of curvature ρ

• Normal stress: σz = Eεz

ξ
• Normal strain: εz = ρ
• Pure bending, resultant normal load:

∫A ∫A
σzdA = 0 ξdA = 0

The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross-section

Unsymmetrical Bending
Stress Distribution due to Bending

• NA inclines α to Cx:
ξ = x sin α + y cos α
E
σz = (x sin α + y cos α)
ρ
• Moment resultants: Moment of Inertia of Area

E sin α E cos α ∫A
Ixx = y 2 dA

∫A
Mx = σz y dA = Ixy + Ixx
ρ ρ
∫A
Iyy = x 2 dA
E sin α E cos α
∫A ∫A
My = σz x dA = Iyy + Ixy Ixy = xy d A (Product of inertia
ρ ρ
- Mô-men quán tính ly tâm
Unsymmetrical Bending
Stress Distribution due to Bending

• Moment resultants in matrix form:

Unsymmetrical Bending
Stress Distribution due to Bending

• Solution for normal stress:

• Alternative form:

What stories can we get from these formulas? Special cases?

Stress distribution due to bending
Special cases

• When either Cx or Cy is an axis of symmetry, Ixy = 0

Mx My
σz = y+ x
Ixx Iyy

• In addition, if Mx = 0 or My = 0:
Mx My
σz = y or σz = x
Ixx Iyy
• The position of the neutral axis depends on the form of the applied loading
as well as the geometrical properties of the cross-section

• There exists, in any unsymmetrical cross-section, a centroidal set of axes for

which the product moment of inertia of area is zero: principal axes
Position of Neutral Axis
Vị trí của Trục Trung Hòa

Neutral axis of the cross-section

• Passes through the centroid C of the cross-section

• Inclines α to Cx

How to determine C and α?

Why?
Position of Neutral Axis
• At all points on the neutral axis the normal stress is zero
MyIxx − Mx Ixy Mx Iyy − MyIxy
( Ixx Iyy − Ixy
2 ) ( Ixx Iyy − Ixy
2 )
xNA + yNA = 0

yNA MyIxx − Mx Ixy

tan α = − =
xNA Mx Iyy − MyIxy

• Notes: α is positive when

xNA and yNA are of opposite sign
Example
Example 16.4, p. 466
Problem:

A beam having the cross-section shown in

the Figure is subjected to a bending
moment of 1500 N.m in a vertical plane.
Calculate the maximum normal stress
due to bending stating the point at which
it acts.

Solution: Answers:
(x̄, ȳ) = (16,21.6)
Position of Centroid: moment of areas
about a convenient point Ixx = 1.09 × 106 mm4
Iyy = 1.31 × 106
Moments and Product of Inertia:
Ixx, Iyy, Ixy Ixy = 0.34 × 106
σz = 1.5y − 0.39x
Normal Stress: σz =? σz, max = − 96 N/mm2
Maximum normal stress: inspection of at (x, y) = (−8, − 66.4)
σz, usually on the upper and lower corners Ixy calculations is on next page
Product of Inertia of Area
Moment quán tính ly tâm (diện tích)

∫A ∫A
Ixy = xy dA = (X − a)(Y − b) dA

∫A ∫A ∫A ∫A
Ixy = XY dA − b X dA − a Y dA + ab dA

Ixy = IXY + abA

Shear stress in beam
Shear Stress in Beam
Ứng suất cắt/trượt/tiếp trong dầm

• Examine a beam of rectangular cross

section: shear stress act parallel to the
shear force V

• Assumption: shear stress distributes

uniformly across the width of the beam

• Shear stress on one side of an element

is accompanied by shear stress of equal
magnitude acting on perpendicular
faces of an element
𝜏
Shear Stress
• Considering element pp1n1n and summing forces in the x
direction along with several substitutions yields:

V
It ∫
τ= y dA
Static
Moment Q
• V = transverse shear force
Q = static moment/ rst moment of area
I = moment of inertia/second moment of area
t = width of section
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General Formula for Shear Stress

VQ
τ=
It
• Q is often the most challenging part to calculate. Practically,
section modulus of a cross-section with di erent members:

∑
Q= ȳi Ai

Note: ȳi is the distance from the centroid of the member area to
the neutral axis

• The pattern of shear stress distribution over a cross-section

depends on the geometry of that section
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Shear Stress Distribution
Rectangular cross-section

• Parabolic distribution

The shearing force, V, on the section of

interest is 1200 lb.
Shear Stress Distribution
I-shape cross-section

• Shear stress change abruptly where width changes abruptly

Example 7.3, p. 378, Mechanics of Materials

Shear Stress Distribution
Cross shape
Shear Stress in Beam

• It is more complicated to calculate shear stress distribution than

normal stress distribution at a cross-section

• Beam subjected to both normal stress and shearing stress

• Normal stress is dominate in designing long beam
Combined Loadings
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Bồn thành mỏng chịu áp suất

• Cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels are commonly used in

industry to serve as boilers or storage tanks.

• Thin wall refers to a vessel having an inner-radius to-wall-

thickness ratio of 10 or more (r/t ≥ 10)

• Consider a vessel under gas pressure that is above

atmospheric pressure
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
• For cylindrical vessels under normal loading, there
are normal stresses in the circumferential or hoop
direction and in the longitudinal or axial direction.

• Equilibrium in x direction:
2[σ1(tdy)] − p(2rdy) = 0
pr
σ1 =
t
• Equilibrium in y direction:
σ2(2πrt) − p(πr 2) = 0
pr
σ2 =
2t
Spherical Thin-Walled Vessels
Bồn thành mỏng hình cầu

• Equilibrium in y direction:
σ2(2πrt) − p(πr 2) = 0
pr
σ2 =
2t
States of Stress Caused by Combined Loadings
Ứng suất gây ra do tải hỗn hợp

A structural member normally subjected to di erent types of

loading:

• Normal/Axial Force
• Shear Force
• Bending Moment
• Torsional Moment
• Thin-Walled Pressured Vessels
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Combined Loadings
Procedure for Analysis

• Internal Loadings
• Stress Components Analysis
• Superposition: to get the resultant stress components (normal
and shear)
Example
Problem:

The solid rod has a radius of 0.75

in. If it is subjected to the force of
500 lb, determine the state of
stress at point A.

Solution:
Internal Loadings: free-body diagram;
equilibrium equations (force and
moment)
Stress Components:
• Normal force
• Bending moment
Superposition
Shaft Design
Thiết kế trục

• Shafts that have circular cross sections are

often used in mechanical equipment and
machinery

• Shafts subjected to loads applied to pulley

and gears: combined bending and
torsional loads

• Loads can be in any directions

Replacing these loads by equivalent
static loadings

Resolving into components in two

perpendicular planes
Shaft Design
• Drawing bending moment diagram in each
plane

• Resultant internal bending moment at each

cross-section can be determined by vector
addition M = Mx2 + Mz2

• Drawing torque diagram

 Shaft Design
Critical Stress Analysis

• Critical cross-section: the combination of a resultant

moment M and a torque T creates the critical stress situation

• The exure formula using the resultant moment to obtain

the maximum bending stress can be applied for circular
cross shaft
Mc
σmax =
I
• Maximum shear stress due to torque
Tc
τmax =
J
• Shear stress due to shear force can be neglected
Plane Stress
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Shaft Design
Maximum Shear Stress Theory

• Allowable stress:

( I ) ( J )
2 2
2 2 Mc Tc
σ + 4τ ≤ [σ] or +4 ≤ [σ]

πc 4 πc 4
I= ,J=
4 2
• Allowable geometry
M2 + T 2 ⋅ c 4 M2 + T 2
≤ [σ] or ≤ [σ]
I πc 3
• M 2 + T 2 sometimes is called Meqv (moment tương đương)
Shaft Design
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

• Allowable stress:

( I ) ( J )
2 2
2 2 Mc Tc
σ + 3τ ≤ [σ] or +3 ≤ [σ]

• Allowable geometry
2 3 2 2 3 2
M + 4
T ⋅c 4 M + 4
T
≤ [σ] or ≤ [σ]
I πc 3
23 2
• M + T sometimes is called Meqv (moment tương đương)
4
 Example
Problem:

The shaft is supported by journal bearings at A

and B. Due to the transmission of power to and
from the shaft, the belts on the pulleys are
subjected to the tensions shown. Determine the
smallest diameter of the shaft using the maximum
shear stress theory, with τallow = 50 MPa.

Solution:
Diagram: bending moment diagrams, torque
diagram
Critical sections: Meqv = M 2 + T 2 to be the
largest
Maximum Shear Stress:
The smallest possible radius of the shaft c
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory: what will Ans:
be di erent? d = 23.33 mm.
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Statically Indeterminate
Similar to axially loaded members, the
procedure for analysis is:

• Equilibrium:
Draw a free-body diagram of the shaft in
order to identify all the external torques that
act on it. Then write the equation of moment
equilibrium about the axis of the shaft.

• Compatibility:
Write the compatibility equation. Give
consideration as to how the supports
constrain the shaft when it is twisted.

• Load-displacement:
Express the angles of twist in the
compatibility condition in terms of the
torques, using a load–displacement relation.
Statically Indeterminate - Example
Problem:

The solid steel shaft has a diameter of 20 mm.

If it is subjected to the two torques, determine
the reactions at the xed supports A and B.

Solution:
Equilibrium: free-body diagram; moments
equilibrium; one equation, two unknown
Compatibility: ϕA/B =0
TL
Load-Displacement: ϕ =
JG
• Internal torque on each segment
• Displacement on each segment
• Sum up displacements ϕA/B
Ans: TA = − 345 N.m; TB = 645 N.m
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