9-1 GCSE OCR B

Geography Knowledge
Organisers
1. Global Hazards
2. UK in the 21st Century
3. Distinctive Landscapes
4. Changing Climate
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 Global pattern of air circulation Distribution of Droughts Distribution of Tropical Storms.
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air by Drought can occur anywhere throughout the world but they are more frequent They are known by many names, including hurricanes (North America),
which heat is distributed on the surface of the Earth. between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Many countries in Africa suffer cyclones (India) and typhoons (Japan and East Asia). They all occur in a
from severe drought, such as Ethiopia but Australia also suffer. band that lies roughly between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and
Hadley cell Largest cell which extends from the Equator to despite varying wind speeds are ferocious storms. Some storms can form
between 30° to 40° north & south. Causes of Drought: El Nino and La Nina effect just outside of the tropics, but generally the distribution of these storms
is controlled by the places where sea temperatures rise above 27°C.
Ferrel cell Middle cell where air flows polewards between The El Nino effect is also associated with creating dry conditions.
60° & 70° latitude. Formation of Tropical Storms
Normally, warm ocean currents
Polar cell Smallest & weakness cell that occurs from the off the coast of Australia cause 1 The sun’s heats large areas of ocean in the summer and autumn.
poles to the Ferrel cell. moist warm air to rise and This causes warm, moist air to rise over the particular spots
condense causing storms and
Climate Zones rain over Australia. 2 Once the temperature is 27⁰, the rising warm moist air leads to a
low pressure. This eventually turns into a thunderstorm. This
The global circulation system controls temperatures by influencing causes air to be sucked in from the trade winds.
precipitation and the prevailing winds. This creates distinctive
climate zones. In an El Niño year (every 2-7 years) the 3 With trade winds blowing in the opposite direction and the
cycle reverses. Cooler water off the rotation of earth involved (Coriolis effect), the thunderstorm will
Temperate Mid-latitude, 50° - 60° north &south of the coast of Australia reverses the wind eventually start to spin.
Climate Equator. Here air rises and cools to form direction leading to dry, sinking air over
clouds and therefore frequent rainfall. e.g. Australia causing hot weather and a lack 4 When the storm begins to spin faster than 74mph, a tropical
UK. of rainfall. storm (such as a hurricane) is officially born.

5 With the tropical storm growing in power, more cool air sinks in
Tropical
Climate
Found along the Equatorial belt, this zones
experiences heavy rainfall and Topic 1 the centre of the storm, creating calm, clear condition called the
eye of the storm.

Global Hazards
thunderstorms. E.g. Brazil.

Polar Climate Within the polar zones cold air sinks causing 6 When the tropical storm hit land, it loses its energy source (the
dry, icy and strong winds. E.g. Antarctica. warm ocean) and it begins to lose strength. Eventually it will ‘blow
itself out’.
Desert Climate 30° north and south of the equator, sinking A La Niña event may, but does not Case Study: UK Heat Wave 2015
dry airs leads to high temperatures without always, follow an El Niño event.
conditions for rainfall. E.g. Libya. Unusually cold sea surface Causes
temperatures (3-5oC colder) found
High and Low Pressure What is wind? in the eastern tropical Pacific. The heat wave was caused by an anticyclone (areas of high pressure)
Impacts of La Niña are the opposite that stayed in the area in July. This blocked any low pressure systems
High Pressure Low Pressure Wind is the movement of of El Niño, where Australia would that normally brings cooler and rainier conditions.,
air from an area of high experience droughts during El Niño,
Caused by cold air Caused by hot air rising. Likewise, Peru could experience
pressure to one of low there could be an increased risk of Effects Management
sinking. Causes clear and Causes stormy, cloudy droughts during La Niña.
pressure. flooding during La Niña.
calm weather weather. Could be described as a more
• People suffered from heat • The NHS and media gave
exaggerated version of a normal year in
strokes and dehydration. guidance to the public.
Types of wind Extremes in weather conditions the Pacific Ocean.
• Fires due to lightening • Train speed limits imposed
• Government implemented
Katabatic Winds that carry air from the high strikes.
Changing pattern of these Hazards ‘level 3 heatwave action’.
Winds ground down a slope due to gravity. Wellington, New Zealand Puerto Lopez • Rail network disrupted • Warning about open water
e.g. Antarctic. Very high wind speeds (248mkm/h) Found along the equator, high • Sports days cancelled swimming
due to the surrounding mountains temperatures lead to rapid Tropical Scientist believe that
Trade Winds Wind that blow from high pressure funnelling wind. condensation and heavy rainfall. Storms global warming is having Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan 2013
belts to low pressure belts. an impact on the
frequency and strength of Causes
Jet Streams These are winds that are high in the tropical storms. This may
atmosphere travelling at speeds of be due to an increase in Started as a tropical depression on 2rd November 2013 and gained
225km/h. The Atacama, Chile Mawsynram, India ocean temperatures. strength. Became a Category 5 “super typhoon”.
The Andes mountains block moist This village see a lot of rain each year
warm travelling any further west. This (11m per yr). This is due to the Effects Management
What is precipitation? Droughts The severity of droughts
causes rainfall to the east, but a rain reversal of air conditions/directions have increase since the
shallow to the west. from sea to land. In the summer, this • Almost 4,000 deaths. • The UN raised £190m in aid.
This is when water vapour is carried by warm air that 1940s. This may be due • 130,000 homes destroyed • USA & UK sent helicopter
rises. As it gets higher, the air cools and the water contributes to monsoons. to changing rainfall and • Water and sewerage systems carrier ships deliver aid
vapour condenses to form a cloud. As water molecule evaporation patterns destroyed caused diseases. remote areas.
collide and become heavier, the water will fall to Earth related to gradual climate • Emotional grief for lost ones. • Education on typhoon
as precipitation. change. preparedness.
 Volcanic Hazards
The structure of the Earth Types of volcanoes
Ash cloud Small pieces of pulverised rock and glass
The Crust Varies in thickness (5-10km beneath the Shield Made of basaltic rock and form gently sloping cones from which are thrown into the atmosphere.
ocean. Made up of serval large plates. layers of runny lava. Gas Sulphur dioxide, water vapour and carbon
Location: hot spots and constructive margins. dioxide come out of the volcano.
Eruptions: gentle and predictable Lahar A volcanic mudflow which usually runs
The Mantle Widest layer (2900km thick). The heat and
pressure means the rock is in a liquid state Composite Most common type found on land. Created by layers of ash down a valley side on the volcano.
that is in a state of convection. and lava. Pyroclastic A fast moving current of super-heated gas
Location: Destructive margins flow and ash (1000oC). They travel at 450mph.
The Inner and Hottest section (5000 degrees). Mostly made
Eruptions: explosive and unpredictable due to the build of Volcanic A thick (viscous) lava fragment that is
outer Core of iron and nickel and is 4x denser than the
pressure within the magma chamber. bomb ejected from the volcano.
crust. Inner section is solid whereas outer
layer is liquid. Hotspots These happen away from any plate boundaries. They occur Managing Volcanic Eruptions
Convection Currents because a plume of magma rises to eat into the plate above. Warning signs Monitoring techniques
Where lava breaks through to the surface, active volcanoes
The Lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates which are moving can occur above the hot spot. E.g. Hawaii. Small earthquakes are caused as magma rises
Seismometers are used to detect earthquakes.
due to convection currents in the asthenosphere. up.
Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull Eruption, Iceland 2010 Temperatures around the volcano rise as Thermal imaging and satellite cameras can be
1 Radioactive decay of some of the elements in the core and activity increases. used to detect heat around a volcano.
mantle generate a lot of heat. Causes When a volcano is close to erupting it starts to Gas samples may be taken and chemical
• The North-American and Eurasian plates move apart- called constructive plates. release gases. sensors used to measure sulphur levels.
2 When lower parts asthenosphere heat up they become less • The disruption caused by Eyjafjallajökull was the result of a series of small volcanic eruptions,
dense and slowly rise. Preparation
starting on the 20th March and ending in the October.
Creating an exclusion zone around the volcano. Being ready and able to evacuate residents.
3 As they move towards the top they cool down, become Effects Management Having an emergency supply of basic provisions, Trained emergency services and a good
more dense and slowly sink. The thick ice cap melted which caused major Iceland had a good warning system with texts such as food communication system.
flooding. being sent to residents with a 30 minute Earthquake Management
4 These circular movements of semi-molten rock are No reported deaths. warning.
convection currents Airspace closed across Europe, with at least Large sections of European airspace were PREDICTING
17,000 flights cancelled closed down due ash spreading over the
5 Convection currents create drag on the base of the tectonic Costed insurers £65million to customers with continent.
plates and this causes them to move. Methods include:
cancelled flights. Airlines developed ash monitoring equipment • Satellite surveying (tracks changes in the earth’s surface)
Types of Plate Margins • Laser reflector (surveys movement across fault lines)
Causes of Earthquakes
• Radon gas sensor (radon gas is released when plates move so this
Destructive Plate Margin Earthquakes are caused when two plates become locked causing friction to build up. From this
finds that)
stress, the pressure will eventually be released, triggering the plates to move into a new • Seismometer
When the denser plate subducts beneath the other, • Water table level (water levels fluctuate before an earthquake).
position. This movement causes energy in the form of seismic waves, to travel from the focus
friction causes it to melt and become molten magma. The
towards and the epicentre. As a result, the crust vibrates triggering an earthquake. • Scientists also use seismic records to predict when the next event
magma forces its ways up to the surface to form a
volcano. This margin is also responsible for devastating will occur.
The point directly above Depth of Earthquake
earthquakes. the focus, where the PROTECTION
seismic waves reach first, Shallow Focus Deep Focus
Constructive Plate Margin is called the EPICENTRE.
You can’t stop earthquakes, so earthquake-prone regions follow
-Usually small -Occur on
Here two plates are moving apart causing new magma to SEISMIC WAVES (energy these three methodsto reduce potential damage:
and common. destructive
reach the surface through the gap. Volcanoes formed waves) travel out from the
-Seismic waves margins. • Building earthquake-resistant buildings
along this crack cause a submarine mountain range such focus.
spread and -Damage is • Raising public awareness
as those in the Mid Atlantic Ridge. • Improving earthquake prediction
The point at which damage wide localised as
Conservative Plate Margin pressure is released is area. seismic waves
called the FOCUS. travel vertically.
A conservative plate boundary occurs where plates slide Earthquake proof buildings ideas
past each other in opposite directions, or in the same How do we measure earthquakes?
direction but at different speeds. This is responsible for 1. Counter-weights to the roof to 2. Roof made from reinforced
earthquakes such as the ones that happening along the Mercalli Scale Richter Scale help balance any swaying. cement concrete.
San Andreas Fault, USA.
• Measures how much damage is caused, • Is a scientific measurement based on 3. Foundations made from 4. Windows fitted with shatter-
Collision Zones based on observations, not scientific the energy released. reinforced steel pillars, bail-bearings proof glass to reduce breakage.
instruments. • Measured by seismometers using or rubber.
Collision zones form when two continental plates collide. • Base from ‘Instrument’ and ‘Weak’ to measurement from 1 – 10
Neither plate is forced under the other, and so both are ‘Extreme’ and ‘Cataclysmic’. • Logarithmic – each point up the scale 5. Lightweight materials that cause 6. Ensure gas pipes have an
forced up and form fold mountains. These zones are • Limitations is that its subjective due to it is 10 times greater than the one minimal damage if fallen during an automatic shut off to prevent risk of
responsible for shallow earthquakes in the Himalayas. being based on perception. before. earthquake. fire.
 UK Physical Characteristics Land use in the UK UK Population Distribution
• Most mountains are located in the Land use varies Arable farmland Low
north and west, such as Wales and throughout the UK. dominates because of
Scotland. However our land is the warm, sunny and Much of Northern Scotland is
• These areas have few roads and always changing. dry climate. Crops sparse due to a mountainous
settlements but beautiful scenery. – Nonetheless, the vast such as cereals and landscape and difficult climate.
Sparsely populated. majority of the UK is vegetables are found
• South and east of the UK is flat with High
farmland. in the South and East.
a few hilly areas. Rest of the UK because of the
• These areas are suited for UK mountain areas Coniferous woodland
gentle hills, moderate climate and
settlements, roads and railways – (Scotland) have rough are found in northern
good transport routes.
Densely populated. pastures and England, Wales and
• Rivers flow from mountainous areas moorlands. The Scotland. There areas Very High
down to the sea. climate is harsh and have poor soils and
soil is poor for crops are remote. Population is concentrated around
UK Rainfall Patterns the South East of England, in cities
Grasses 52% Urban areas are such as London, due to attractions
Grasslands are found
Arable 20% growing. This outward of employment, shops and
in the west. It is ideal
• Highest rainfall is in the north and west Urban 14% growth or sprawling entertainment.
for cattle and sheep
where average rainfall is 2500mm. Forest 12% urban developments
because of the mild
Water 1% is cased by population Factors affecting population density
and wet climate.
Other 1% growth.
Remote and poor
• Lowest rainfall is in the south and east Moderate climate. Opportunities for work
with average rainfall of 500 – 625mm. Topic 7 communications.

UK Relief Rainfall
UK in the 21st Century A presence of raw
materials.
Steep and
mountainous.
Fertile and suitable for
farming.

Plentiful supplies of
Poor quality of soil. Flat land for farming.
When air carrying water.
Most UK rainfall is
moisture reaches
The other side of the Population in the UK
caused by prevailing upland area has UK Housing Shortage
upland areas, it is The UK population is 65 million and still rising. It is predicted to reach 70
wind blowing from little moisture, this
forced up to million by 2030. Problem and Reasons
the southwest. is called the rain
produce relief
shallow. •
rainfall. Reasons for growth Future of growth The UK population is rising and therefore more houses are needed.
• UK needs to build 240,000 homes a year, but only half that are built.
Natural increase – the difference The UK’s population pyramid • As a result, house prices are rising and becoming too expensive.
between deaths and births. shows that the country’s birth rate
• Planning permission for new houses leads to local opposition.
Net migration – the difference is fairly low and death rate is also • Green belt areas prevents urban areas becoming bigger.
between immigration to the UK and low meaning there are more elderly • The price of lands keeps rising due to demand.
emigration from the UK. people.
Life expectancy – the average age Population pyramids are useful to Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
someone will live up to. help plan for the future.
As countries experience economic development they
Water stress in the UK also go through stages of population transition. The
DTM describes this change and shows the UK in stage 4.
Water stress is when areas have limited water supply.
1 Birth rates high and death rates fluctuates.

Problems Solutions Birth rate high but death rate is falling rapidly.
2
Natural change increases.
• Most rainfall occurs in North • Water can be transferred
& West but least rainfall in from the wetter west to drier Birth rate and death rate falling rapidly. Natural
3
change is rapid.
South & East. east by pipelines or rivers.
• South & East UK therefore • Construct new reservoirs in Birth rate and death rate is low and fluctuating.
4 Little Natural changes.
have High demands. the east to capture/store
• Demands involve domestic, more water.
Birth rate is falling and death rate is rising slightly.
industrial & agricultural uses. • Greater water conservation. 5
Natural change falls.
 Ethnic Diversity in the UK UK Employment Sector The UK’s Role in the World
• 13% of the population in the Key changes since 2001 The UK may be a small island state, but it does play a significant role in the wider
UK where born in another world. It is also part of several key international organisations.
country. • The quaternary industry has
increased, whilst secondary NATO UN G7
• In London, this value is about
37%. This has increased has decreased. Is made up of 193
• Number of people employed in Involves seven of the
between 2001 and the A group of 28 countries member states with the
wealthiest western
present day. primary and tertiary industry who work militarily and aim of maintaining peace
countries to discuss
• The change was driven by an has stayed the steady. politically to resolve and resolving issues. UK
relevant issues and come
increase in white non-British, • Big increase in professional conflict as a last resort. is part of the Security
to economic agreements.
and technical jobs. Council.
Black African and Asian
people. • Employment in manufacturing
has decreased the most due to
Case Study: The UK’s role in the Middle East
Case Study - Changes in Merthyr Tydfil,
UK Ageing Population cheap labour abroad. South Wales Basic Background
Distribution of Ageing Population UK Working Hours The UK has a long history within the
Middle East with parts of it controlled by
Around 18% of the population are over 65. The distribution of older • In 2011 the average number of hours worked in the UK was 42.7. the British Empire (such as Palestine) &
people is high in coastal areas, especially in east and south-west • This figure is the 3rd highest figure within the EU. as a decision maker in how countries &
• Fathers now work fewer hours to look after children. their borders came to exist. The region is
England. However, it is lower in Northern Ireland and Scotland and • Number of mothers in fulltime work has increased.
generally in big cities. very important in trading for its valuable
imports of oil & gas with exports from
UK’s Core Economic Hubs the UK in military hardware.
• Large number of people were born after the WW2 and are
now moving into old age – Baby boomers.
Causes

An economic hub is a central point or area associated with economic success and UK Involvement
• Improved healthcare and new treatments to prolong life. innovation. Many of these economic hubs are located near universities. Below is a
• Greater awareness of the benefits of a good diet and selection of economic hubs throughout the UK. • Recently the UK has been involved as part of NATO in invading Iraq (2003) &
exercise. currently, since 2015, supporting military action in Syria. The UK is also part of
Aberdeen ongoing training & peace keeping activities within the region.
Belfast Titanic Quarter
• Healthcare cost are very high and will increase with an Centre for the North Sea
Film studio, offices and
oil and gas industry, now UK Media Exports
increasing ageing population. education based on the
developing as a research
Effects

• Shortage of places in care homes, many of which are old shipyard.

and development hub. • The UK exports many different UK’s Media’s influences
becoming increasingly expensive. types of media products such as
• Many older people join clubs and spend on travel therefore Salford Silicon Glen films, TV and music and books. • Most exports are in English,
helping to boast the economy – the grey pound. Media industry including High-tech industries • Exporting media is key to the UK meaning it develops other’s
BBC and ITV. based in key Scottish economy as it employs 1.7 million understanding of our language.
• Government pension bonds to encourage older people to Manufacturing of cities. They focus on people and generates £17 billion. • Many people around the world copy
save money for the future. chemicals. electronics and software. • Example: Harry Potter sold 400 fashion & styles seen in UK media.
Response

• Pensioners receive support in care, transport and heating million copies to 200 territories. • Can attract people to visit the UK.
Bristol Silicon Fen
allowance to make life more comfortable. Creative and digital High tech research hubs
• Allowing more immigration will provide the demand needed industries. Key services associated with Multicultural UK
of a younger workforce needed for the economy. such as law and finance. Cambridge University.
The UK is a multicultural country due to many ethic minorities moving here from
Case Study: UK Economic Hub – Cambridge India, Pakistan, Caribbean and parts of Africa. These groups have shared there culture
UK’s Changing Economy and have influenced the UK in many ways.
Cambridge is one of the UK’s education hotspots – with a world class university and
• UK has one of the largest economies in the world. Fashion Media Food
being a science city. It now has fourteen billion-dollar companies and continues to
• The last few decades, heavy manufacturing industries have expand.
declined due to competition from aboard. • Many shops sell • Many ethnic • Food that has
• Now the UK is moving into the service industry such as finances, Significance of Cambridge to the UK Advantages and Disadvantages traditional clothing. minorities have originated from
technology and media. • As these traditional influenced music other countries have
• World leading University of • Leading university means a highly skilled clothing become (i.e. dubstep) and become very
• Between 1997-2007, the UK economy grew strongly & Cambridge. workforce. more common, television (i.e. established (i.e.
Political Changes

• Located on main routes to London, other cultures have Bollywood). Curry and Pizza).
unemployment decreased. This was due to increase • Income 34% higher than national
Birmingham etc. – e.g. M11, A1. started to wear • With greater • Many mainstream
average. •
investment in education & technology. Science Park means large TNC’s (health
them too. i.e. Saris influence, greater supermarkets sell a
• Cambridge makes a net companies for example) want their
contribution to the UK economy. businesses here. • Hair styles from understanding from great range of
• In 2008 the UK entered a recession and unemployment • other cultures such other ethnic groups ingredients and
• 4,000 knowledge-intensive However, a lot of university students
increased. Recession ended in 2009, creating a strong focus companies. move out of Cambridge due to high rental as dreadlocks from have been ready made foods
for decreasing the national debt occurred in 2010 elections. costs. the Jamaica. established. from other cultures.
What is a landscape? Relief of the UK Areas - Erosion Transportation
+600m:
A landscape has visible features that make Relief of the UK Peaks and The break down of rocks – smooth, round and A natural process by which eroded material is
up the surface of the land. Landscapes can can be divide ridges. sorted. carried/transported.
be broken down into four ‘elements’. into uplands and Cold, misty
lowlands. Each Attrition Rocks that bash together to become Solution Minerals dissolve in water and
Landscape Elements & snow
have their own smooth/smaller. are carried along.
common.
Physical Biological characteristics. i.e. Scotland Solution A chemical reaction that dissolved Suspension Sediment is carried along in
• Mountains • Vegetation rocks. the flow of the water.
• Coastlines • Habitats Key Areas -
• Rivers • Wildlife 200m: Flat Abrasion Rocks hurled at the base of a cliff to Saltation Pebbles that bounce along the
Lowlands
or rolling break pieces apart. sea/river bed.
Human Variable hills.
• Buildings • Weather Warmer Hydraulic Water enters cracks in the cliff, air Traction Boulders that roll along a
• Infrastructure • Smells Uplands
weather. Action compresses, causing the crack to river/sea bed by the force of
• Structures • Sounds/Sights i.e. Fens expand. the flowing water.

Glaciation in the UK Human activity on Landscape

Over many thousands of years, glaciation has made an impression Farming has changed the Much of the rural landscape has Infrastructure such as roads and
on the UK’s landscape. Today, much of upland Britain is covered vegetation which grows there. been replaced by urban sprawls. pylons cover most of the UK.
in u-shaped valleys and eroded steep mountain peaks.
Over thousands of years, much of Increasing population of the UK UK’s marshes and moorlands are
During the ice age the UK’s woodlands have gone. means more houses are needed. heavily managed by people.
Ice covered areas eroded and weathered
landscapes to create dramatic mountain scenery.
Topic 3
After the ice age

Deep valleys and deposition of sediment revealed

Distinctive Landscapes Mass Movement

A large movement of soil and rock debris that

moves down slopes in response to the pull of
Climate and Weather in the UK Average rainfall in the UK
Geology of the UK gravity in a vertical direction.
The variations of climate and weather means there are different
The UK is made from a variation of different rock types. The influences on the UK’s landscape. Rain saturates the permeable rock above
1
varied resistance of these rocks influences the landscape above. the impermeable rock making it heavy.
Climate Weathering
Igneous Rock Waves or a river will erode the base of
The rainfall map of the UK shows Mechanical 2
Volcanic/molten rock brought the slope making it unstable.
up to the Earth’s surface and variations in average rain. Caused by the physical action of
cooled into solid rock. • Less precipitation occurs in rain, frost and wind. Eventually the weight of the permeable
low land areas. East England 3 rock above the impermeable rock
• Most precipitation occurs in Chemical weakens and collapses.
Sedimentary Rock
upland areas. Scotland. Action of chemicals within rain
Made from broken fragments
dissolving the rock. The debris at the base of the cliff is then
of rock worn down by These differences mean… 4 removed and transported by waves or
weathering on Earth’s surface. Uplands experience more Biological river.
weathering, erosion and mass Rocks that have been broken
Metamorphic Rock
movement. down by living organisms.
Rock that is folded and
distorted by heat and pressure. Freeze-thaw weathering

Soil & Landscape Stage One Stage Two Stage Three

When the
• Soils are created from weathered rocks, organic material and water. Water seeps water freezes, With repeated
Rock types have influence over fertility of soil. into cracks freeze-thaw
• Low-laying areas such as the Cambridgeshire Fens have deep soil
it expands
and fractures about 9%. This cycles, the
whereas uplands have thin soil. in the rock. rock breaks
• Deep soil is more often associated with deciduous woodland rather wedges apart
than coniferous woodlands. the rock. off.
Deposition Formation of Bays and Headlands Formation of Ox-bow Lakes (Lower)

When the sea or river loses energy, it drops the sand, rock particles Soft rock 1) Waves attack the coastline. Step 1 Step 2
and pebbles it has been carrying. This is called deposition. Bay 2) Softer rock is eroded by the sea
quicker forming a bay, calm area Erosion of outer bank Further hydraulic
cases deposition. forms river cliff. action and abrasion of
Formation of Coastal Stack Hard rock
3) More resistant rock is left jutting out Deposition inner bank outer banks, neck gets
into the sea. This is a headland and forms slip off slope. smaller. (swan’s neck)
is now more vulnerable to erosion.
Headland Step 3 Step 4

Erosion breaks Evaporation and

Formation of Coastal Spits - Deposition through neck, so river deposition cuts off
takes the fastest main channel leaving
route, redirecting flow an oxbow lake.

Lower Course of a River

Example: Old Harry Rocks, Dorset
Near the river’s mouth, the river widens further and becomes flatter. Material transported is deposited.
1) Hydraulic action widens cracks in the cliff face over time.
2) Abrasion forms a wave cut notch between HT and LT.
Formation of Floodplains and levees
3) Further abrasion widens the wave cut notch to from a cave.
4) Caves from both sides of the headland break through to form When a river floods, fine silt/alluvium is deposited
an arch. on the valley floor. Closer to the river’s banks, the
5) Weather above/erosion below –arch collapses leaving stack. Example: Chesil beach, Dorset (spit that has joined up forming a tombolo) heavier materials builds up to form natural levees.
6) Further weathering and erosion eaves a stump.
1) Swash moves up the beach at the angle of the prevailing wind. Nutrient rich soil makes it ideal for farming.
Coastal Engineering (Walton-on-the-Naze fieldwork) 2) Backwash moves down the beach at 90° to coastline, due to gravity. Flat land for building houses.
3) Zigzag movement (Longshore Drift) transports material along beach.
Hard Engineering Defences 4) Deposition causes beach to extend, until reaching a river estuary. River Management Schemes
5) Change in prevailing wind direction forms a hook.
Groynes Wood barriers Beach still accessible. 6) Sheltered area behind spit encourages deposition, salt marsh forms. Soft Engineering Hard Engineering
prevent No deposition further
longshore drift, down coast = erodes Afforestation – plat trees sock up rainwater, Straightening Channel – increases velocity to
Upper Course of a River reduces flood risk. remove flood water.
so the beach faster.
can build up. Demountable Flood Barriers put in place when Artificial Levees – heightens river so flood water is
Near the source, the river is flows over steep gradient from the warning raised. contained.
Sea Walls Concrete walls Long life span hill/mountains. This gives the river a lot of energy, so it will erode Managed Flooding – naturally let areas flood, Deepening or widening river to increase capacity
break up the Protects from flooding the riverbed vertically to form narrow valleys. protect settlements. for a flood.
energy of the Curved shape
wave . Has a lip encourages erosion of Formation of a Waterfall (Upper) Case Study: Walton on the Naze Case Study: The River Tees
to stop waves beach deposits.
going over. 1) River flows over alternative
Location and Background Location and Background
types of rocks.
East coast of the UK, near Clacton. A rural coastal area. Located in the North of England is flows 137km from
Gabions or Cages of Cheap
2) River erodes soft rock faster Has features such as the Naze tower the Pennines to the North Sea at Red Car.
Rip Rap rocks/boulders Local material can be
absorb the used to look less creating a step.
Geomorphic Processes
waves energy, strange. Geomorphic Processes
3) Further hydraulic action and Upper – Features include V-Shaped valley, rapids and
protection the Will need replacing. Erosion, transportation and deposition all take place in
abrasion form a plunge pool waterfalls. Highforce Waterfall drops 21m and is made
cliff behind. this area. Weathering is a factor in the degradation of
beneath. from harder Whinstone and softer limestone rocks.
the cliffs at the Naze. Slumping takes place as a result of
Gradually a gorge has been formed.
Soft Engineering Defences coastal waves, mechanical, and chemical weathering.
4) Hard rock above is undercut Middle – Features include meanders and ox-bow lakes.
Problem: Suffers from coastal erosion, London Clay and
Beach Beaches built Cheap leaving cap rock which collapses The meander near Yarm encloses the town.
Red Crag rocks easily eroded. Slumping and LSD takes
Nourishment up with sand, Beach for tourists. providing more material for Lower – Greater lateral erosion creates features such as
place.
so waves have Storms = need erosion. floodplains & levees. Mudflats at the river’s estuary.
to travel replacing. Management
further before Offshore dredging 5) Waterfall retreats leaving 1977: Major Council Project on Southern Part of the Management
eroding cliffs. damages seabed. steep sided gorge. coast – water drainage installed, cliff profile changed, -Towns such as Yarm and Middleborough are
large groynes installed, sea wall enhanced. economically and socially important due to houses and
Managed Low value Reduce flood risk Middle Course of a River 1998: £167,000 for 300 tonnes of granite near the Tower jobs that are located there. Tees barrage system.
Retreat areas of the Creates wildlife – reduced erosion of the cliffs. -Dams and reservoirs (Cow Green) in the upper course,
coast are left to habitats. Here the gradient get gentler, so the water has less 1999: Beach replenishment took place to reduce wave controls river’s flow during high & low rainfall.
flood and erode Compensation for land. energy and moves more slowly. The river will begin to speed and erosion. - Better flood warning systems, more flood zoning and
naturally. erode laterally making the river wider. river dredging reduce impact from flooding.
What is Climate Change? Natural Greenhouse Effect Linking CO2 and Global temperatures

Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet's weather patterns or average The Earth is kept warm by a natural process called the The rate of carbon dioxide and increase in global
temperatures. Earth has had tropical climates and ice ages many times in its 4.5 billion years. Greenhouse Effect. As solar radiation hits the Earth, temperatures is strong. Scientist agree that this increase is
some is reflected back into space. However, greenhouse cause by human activity.
Quaternary geological period gases help trap the sun’s radiation. Without this process,
the Earth would be too cold to support life as
The quaternary period is the last 2.6 million years. During temperature would average as -18°C instead of +15°C.
this period temperatures have always fluctuated. The cold
‘spikes’ are the glacial periods, whereas the warm points are Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
the interglacial periods.
Recently, there has been an increase in humans burning
Today’s temperature is higher than the rest of the period. fossil fuels for energy. These fuels (gas, coal and oil)
Despite alternate cold and warm moments within this emit extra greenhouse gases. This is making the Earth’s
period, global temperatures have increased above average in atmosphere thicker, therefore trapping more solar
the past 100 years. This current trend is what's become know radiation but causing less to be reflected. As a result, our
as global warming. Earth is becoming warmer.

Evidence for climate change Greenhouse Gases

Earth’s temperature has changed over the last 2.6 million years. Scientist know Most greenhouse gases occur naturally. Some greenhouse gases have
this by collecting a range of evidence that is trapped or stored in the environment greater potential to increase global warming than occurs as different
around us. gases trap and absorb different amounts of radiation.

Geological fossil Plants and animals fossils/remains which favour certain Carbon Accounts for 60% of the enhanced greenhouse
evidence environmental conditions have been found in dioxide gases. It is produced by burning fossil fuels through
contractionary conditions, thus suggesting periods of a
warmer and colder time. E.g. Mastodon in USA.
Topic 2 producing electricity, industry, cars and
deforestation.

Ocean Sediment Layers of sediment that has built up over time have
provided scientist trapped oxygen isotopes. Scientist
have used them to calculate and understand that
CHANGING CLIMATE Methane Accounts for 15% of the enhanced greenhouse
gases. 25x more efficient than Carbon dioxide.
Produce from landfills, rice and farm animals.
atmospheric temperature have indeed changed. Past Evidence: The Little Ice Age (1300-1870)
Halocarbons Human made and makes a tidy proportion of all
Ice Cores Ice cores are made up from different layers that each The Little Ice Age was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm greenhouse gases. 15000x more efficient at trapping
represents a different historical time. By exploring the Period in parts of Europe and North America. Impacts included… radiation than Carbon dioxide. Produced from air-
water molecules of these cores, scientist have conditioning, refrigerators and aerosols.
calculated fluctuating temperatures of the atmosphere. 1. Price of grain increased and vineyards become unproductive.
Nitrous Accounts for 6% of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Historical records Historical records from ancient cave paintings, diaries 2. Sea ice engulfed Iceland and the sea force around parts f the UK. Frost Fairs Oxide 250x more efficient than Carbon dioxide. Produced
and written observations have provide evidence of were held on rivers such as the River Thames. from fertilisers and car exhausts.
climate change through personal accounts from the
people through them. 3. People suffered from the intense cold winters as food stock were limited. Whose responsible?

Recent Evidence for climate change. Evidence of natural change LIDCs Countries in Africa, such as Kenya,
emit low levels of carbon dioxide.
In the past 100 years, scientists have become pretty good at collecting Climate change has occurred in the past without human ever being present. This suggests This is due to these countries not
accurate measurements from around the world. These measurements that there are natural reasons for the climate to change. being industrialised or having a
have suggested a trend that the climate is yet again changing. population wealthy enough to
Milankovitch Milutin Milankovitch argued that climate change was linked to the consume lots of energy
Global Evidence collected by NASA suggests average cycle way the Earth orbits the Sun, and how it wobbles and tilts as it does
temperature global temperatures have increased by more than it. There are three ideas that are thought to change climate. EDCs Countries such as China and India
are increasingly more industrialised Not what is seems
data 0.6°C since 1950.
1. Eccentricity: Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit. and therefore are emitting more
Ice sheets Evidence from maps and photos have shown many carbon dioxide. These increasing Although China is
and glaciers of the world’s glaciers and ice sheets are melting. 2. Obliquity: Changes in how the Earth tilts on its axis. population sizes and steadily responsible for the
E.g. the Arctic sea ice has declined by 10% in 30 increasing wealth mean more highest amount of
years. 3. Precession: The amount the Earth wobbles on its axis. energy is being consumed. carbon emission, 1.4
billion people do live
Sea Level Evidence from the IPCC has shown that the Sun Spots Dark spots on the Sun are called Sun spots. They increase the ACs Countries such as the USA and UK there. However, per
Change average global sea level has risen by 10-20cms in amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun. are industrialised with a wealthier person, the USA
the past 100 years. This is due to the additional population that enjoy lifestyles (320 million) actually
water from fresh water ice and thermal expansion of Volcanic Volcanoes release large amounts of dust containing gases. These which required a large consumption contributes far more
the ocean due to higher temperatures. Eruptions can block out sunlight and results in cooler global temperatures. of energy. CO2 emissions.
Global impacts of climate change Rising Sea Levels: Tuvalu Climate change management:
Paris Agreement 2015
The impact of rising temperatures is affecting the world socially, Tuvalu is a group of tiny islands in the South Pacific. Most islands are low-
economically and environmentally in several potential problematic ways. lying with the highest point being 4.5m above sea level. Population is Paris climate conference involved 195
11,000 people and the economy relies mainly from exporting copra. countries making a legally binding global
Extreme Weather Climate is causing more unpredictable and severe
climate deal. This agreement objective is
weather events. This includes more frequent and Impacts from climate change
to limit global warming to below 2°C. The
powerful tropical storms; more extreme heatwaves
aims of this objective are…
and lasting droughts. E.g. Typhoon Haiyan 2013 Social Economic Environmental
• Limit emissions to pre-industrial
Rising sea levels Sea levels have risen by 20 cm since 1901. due to - Water supply due to - Increased levels of - Ocean acidification levels.
thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps. droughts becoming salinization affecting is reducing fish stocks • Meet every 5 years to set new
Some coastal countries are now disappearing such more common. soil for agriculture. around the island. targets.
as the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. - Wells are becoming - Coastal erosion is - Warmer • Communicate plans to the public.
polluted by seawater. destroying productive temperatures are • Provide support to developing
Food supply Warmer temperatures and changing rainfall will - High tides are farmland. destroying fragile countries at reducing emissions.
make it harder to produce a reliable source of food starting to threaten - Main runway ecosystems such as
to sustain a rising global population. E.g. In 2011, homes and roads. threaten by flooding. coral reefs.
Russia banned crop exports after a incline in yield.
Management
Plants and About a quarter of animals and plants on Earth
Animals could become extinct. With warmer temperatures • Campaigning internationally for a reduction in carbon emissions.
and changing rainfall environments will no longer be • Migration to safer islands off the coast of New Zealand.
able to provide for the world’s fragile ecosystems. • Low sea walls have been constructed to prevent erosion and flooding.
• Japan supporting coral reef restoration by introducing new species to
Disease and Warmer temperatures will increase the spread of damaged reefs.
Health infectious diseases like malaria. In addition, more
frequent floods could cause more waterborne
disease such as dysentery.

Water Supply People need freshwater to drink but with 1 billion

people predicted to not have excess to enough
water by 2025 due to climate change, this might
cause several social, economic and environmental
problems. E.g. fishing, irrigation and sanitation.

Climate refugees Climate refugees are people who are forced to leave
their home due to the impact of climate change.
This can be due to sea level rises or extreme
weather conditions such as drought.

Impacts of climate Negative impacts of climate change for the UK Positive impacts of climate change for the UK
change on the UK.
Coastal Flooding Extreme Rainfall Tourism Environment
The UK’s climate is • Vulnerable low • Increase in • More people likely to • New wetlands from
also changing. It is lying areas extreme flash take holidays within the coastal flooding
expected to… could flood floods. UK. could become
homes and • Flood damage • The economy could be established.
• Increase in average infrastructure. to homes and boosted: helping to • New wildlife and
• Increase of businesses. create new jobs. plants could be
temperature.
coastal erosion. • Soil • More outdoor events drawn to the UK’.
• Have warmer, but • Damage to the contaminations could become
wetter winters. economy. on farmland. common.
• Have warmer and
drier summers. Water Shortages Extreme Heat Farming Industry

• Farmers will • Warmer • Agriculture productivity • Heating cost will fall.

However, not all the find it difficult to weather can may increase under • Construction industry
impacts to the UK will irrigate land. increase health warmer conditions. will be boosted by
be negative, there are • Water problems. • Farmers could the need to build sea
clear benefits for a restrictions, with • Infectious potentially grow new defences.
changing climate. London being diseases such foods used to warmer • New designs
worst affected. as malaria climates. produced to cope
might spread. with conditions.
 What is development? Variations in the level of development Human factors affectingdevelopment

Development is an improvement in living standards throughbetter Politics Trade

LIDCs Poorest countries in the world. GNI
use of resources. per capita is low and most citizens • Aid can help some • Countries that export
have a low standard of living. countries develop key more than they import
Economic This is progress in economic growth through
services and have a trade surplus.
levels of industrialisation and use of technology.
EDCs These countries are getting richer infrastructure faster. This can improve the
as their economy is progressing • Aid can improveprojects national economy.
Social This is an improvement in people’s standard of such as schools, • Having good trade
from the primary industry to the
living. For example, clean water and electricity. hospitals and roads. relationships.
secondary industry. Greater
exports leads to better wages. • Too much reliance on • Trading goods and
Environmental This is advances in the management and aid might stop other services is more
protection of the environment. ACs These countries are wealthy with a trade links becoming profitable than raw
high GNI per capita and standards established. materials.
Measuring development of living. These countries can
spend money on services. Education Health
There are used to compare and understand a country’s level of
development. • Education creates a • Lack of clean water and
Uneven development
skilled workforce poor healthcare means a
Economic indictorsexamples Development is globally uneven with most ACs located in Europe, NorthAmerica meaning more goods large number of people
and Oceania. Most EDCs are in Asia and South America, whilst most LIDCs are in and services are suffer from diseases.
Employmenttype The proportion of the population working produced. • People who are ill
Africa. Remember, development can also vary within countriestoo.
in primary, secondary, tertiary and • Educated people earn cannot work so there is
quaternary industries.
Topic 6
more money, meaning little contribution to the
they also pay more economy.
Gross Domestic This is the total value of goods and services

Dynamic Development
taxes. This money can • More money on
Product (GDP)per produced in a country per person, per year.
help develop the healthcare means less
capita
country in the future. spent on development.
Gross National An average of gross national income per
Physical factors affecting development Aid History
Income (GNI)per person, per year in US dollars.
capita Natural Resources Natural Hazards • Corruption in local and • Colonialism has helped
national governments. Europe develop, but
Social indicators examples • Fuel sources such as oil. • Risk of tectonic hazards. • The stability of the slowed down
• Minerals and metals for fuel. • Benefits from volcanic material government can effects development in many
Infant mortality The number of children who die before
• Availability for timber. and floodwater. the country’s ability to other countries.
reaching 1, per 1000 babies born.
• Access to safe water. • Frequent hazards undermines trade. • Countries that went
Literacyrate The percentage of population over the age redevelopment. • Ability of the country to through industrialisation
of 15 who can read and write. invest into services and a while ago, have now
Climate Location/Terrain
infrastructure. develop further.
Life expectancy The average lifespan of someone born in
• Reliability of rainfall to benefit • Landlocked countries may find
that country. Consequences of UnevenDevelopment
farming. trade difficult.
Mixed indicators • Extreme climates limit industry • Mountainous terrain makes
and affects health. farming difficult. Levels of development are different in different countries. This
uneven development has consequences for countries, especially in
Human Development A number that uses life expectancy, • Climate can attract tourists. • Attractive scenery attracts
tourists. wealth, health and education.
Index (HDI) education level and income per person.
People in more developed countries have higher
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wealth
incomes than less developed countries.
Five stages of economic development. Traditional society Preconditionsfor Take-off Drive to maturity Mass
take-off Consumptions Better healthcare means that people in more
Health developed countries live longer than those in less
Subsistence based. Manufacturing Rapid growth with Economy grows Lots of trade with developed countries.
Rostow’s model predicts how a country’s
i.e. farming, fishing starts todevelop large-scale so people get a high level of
level of economic development changes
and little trade. with better industrialisation. wealthier & have consumption. More developed countries have better standards of
over time. The model also shows how
infrastructure. higher standards Education education available than those in less developed
people's standard of livingimproves.
of living countries.
Zambia
 What is Resource Reliance? Reasons for NOT Meeting Modern Resource Demands. Environment and Water: Reservoirs and Water Transfer
Resources are things that humans require for life or to make our lives • Global warming effects cycles and seasons and Methods Environmental and Ecosystems
easier. Humans are becoming increasingly dependent on exploiting these therefore farming.
Climate Increasing storage to • Can flood a large area of land and damage
resources, and as a result they are in high demand. • Rainfall patterns are changing and are becoming
hold more water and habitats and natural landscapes.

Reservoirs
unpredictable. This is a problem for farming. •
Resource Required constructing more dams Dams can be a barrier for certain species to
to control river flow can migrate upstream.
• Not all countries have access to fossil fuels or suitable provide a reliable source • Natural flow of sediment is disrupted, which
Resources such as food, energy and water are what is needed for basic
landscape for renewables. of water. then reduces fertility of land further down.
human development.
Geology • Many minerals are finite and therefore once used will
reduce the resources available. Constructing pipes and • Large-scale engineering works can damage
FOOD WATER ENERGY

Transfer
Water
• Rock types might limit the availability to store water. canals to divert water ecosystems along the route.
surplus to areas in need • Lots of energy is required to pump water
Without enough A good supply of
People need a supply • War can disrupt transport of resources by damaging of a water supply. over long distances.
nutritious food, energy is needed for Conflict
of clean and safe roads and water pipes.
people can become a basic standard of Food Security
water for drinking,
malnourished. This living. People need
cooking and washing. • LIDCs are unable to afford technology to effectively ‘Food Security’ is when people at all times need to have physical & economic access
can make them ill . light and heat for Poverty
Water is also needed exploit the natural resources available. to food to meet their dietary needs for an active & healthy life. This is the opposite
This can prevent cooking or to stay
for food, clothes and to ‘Food Insecurity’ which is when someone is unsure when they might next eat.
people working or warm. It is also • Increase in hazard events due to climate change.
other products.
receiving education. needed for industry. • Prime agricultural regions in Asia and Africa and are Human Physical
Natural
also in hazard zones.
Demand outstripping supply Hazards • Poverty prevents people • Temperature needs to be
• Has the ability to destroy infrastructure needed to
transport resources. affording food and farmers ideal for certain crops to grow.
The demand for resources like food, water and energy is rising so quickly
buying modern equipment. • The quality of soil is important
that supply cannot always keep up. Importantly, access to these
•
resources vary dramatically in different locations Topic 8 Poor infrastructure makes
food difficult to transport
to ensure crops have the
necessary nutrients.

Resource Reliance
1. Population Growth 2. Economic Development fresh food. • Water supply needs to be
• Conflict disrupts farming and reliable to allow food to grow.
• Currently the global • As LIDCs and EDCs develop prevents supplies. • Pest, diseases and parasites
population is 7.3 billion. further, they require more • Food waste due to poor can destroy vast amounts of
• Global population has risen energy for industry. Environment and Food: Fishing and Farming transport and storage. crops that are necessary to
exponentially this century. • LIDCs and EDCs want similar • Climate Change is affecting feed large populations.
Methods Environmental and Ecosystems •
• Global population is expected lifestyles to ACs, therefore rainfall patterns making food Extreme weather events can
to reach 9 billion by 2050. they will need to consume Bigger nets and fishing • Overfishing of certain fish has caused their
production difficult. damage crops (i.e. floods).
• With more people, the more resources. boats have allowed for decline.
Fishing

demand for food, water, • Development means more greater catches. GPS and • Dredging can damage seafloor habitats. Malthus and Boserup’s Theories about Food Supply
energy, jobs and space will water is required for food sonar has also find the • Decline of one species has a knock on effect
increase. production as diets improve. fish easily. on other marine species. With the population growing very quickly, there are different ideas about whether
or not this will lead to a food crisis.
Resource Reliance Graph Tractors, computer • Field sizes have caused hedgerows to decline
Farming

programming and GPS in biodiversity. Malthus Theory Boserup Theory

Consumption – The act of using up technology is producing • Fertilisers and pesticides enter water
food more effectively courses and harm or kill organisms. • Believed that population would • Believed that however big the
resources or purchasing goods and and at a larger scale. • Heavy machinery can cause soil erosion.
produce. increase faster than food supply. population grew, people would
• This would lead to a lack of food find ways to manage.
Carry Capacity – A maximum Environment and Energy: Deforestation and Mining being available. • If food supplies became limited,
number of species that can be • Malthus believed this would cause people would find new ways to
supported. Methods Environmental and Ecosystems large scale famine, illness and war increase production.
• This would occur until population • These solutions would often
•
Deforestation

Resource consumption exceeds Logging using modern 2 billion people depend on wood for fuel,
returned to level that can be involve creating new technologies.
Earth’s ability to provide! machinery and which therefore creates high CO2 emissions
supported.
transportation has made • Forests provide for important habitats.
3. Changing Technology and Employment deforestation more • Clearing of forests leads to soil erosion.
productive & convenient. • Tree intercepts rain and prevents flooding.
• The demand for resources has driven the need for new technology to Large machines and drill • Mining waste can pollute soil and
reach or gain more resources.
Mining

technology can remove contaminate water supplies.

• More people in the secondary and tertiary industry has increased the and reach through • Habitats are destroyed in mining zones.
demand for resources required for electronics and robotics. material effectively. • Fossil fuels burnt release greenhouse gases
 Measuring Food Security Attempts to Achieve Food Security

Food security varies around the world. Some people and places are more food secure than others. This can often There are various measures to maintain or even improve our food security. These measures are often taken to be
depend on how much a country can grow and is able to afford. socially, economically, environmentally viable for the longer term.

The Global Hunger Index Daily Calorie Intake Social Economic Environmental

Ethical Consumerism
This involves buying products that have a positive social, economic and environmental impact today, without
compromising future generations.

• This is a global movement to give farmers a fairer price for their products.
Fairtrade • The profits benefit the community with schools and medical facilities.
• Involves using farming methods that protects rather than destroys environments.

• One-third of all food gets lost or wasted.

• Aim to eat locally sourced food to reduce waste through transport.
This shows how many people are suffering from hunger or illness caused This shows how many calories per person that are consumed on average Food Waste • Eating ‘ugly’ food despite it not being ‘ideal’ can prevent waste and save money.
by lack of food. The index gives a value for each country from 0 (no for each country.
hunger) to 100 (extreme hunger). Can indicate the global distribution of available food & food inequality, • Prevents wasted energy for producing food and therefore reduces CO2 emissions.

Case Study: Tanzanian Food Security Food Production

Food Availability in Tanzania Food consumption in Tanzania This involves producing as much food as possible in as small a space as possible. They often involve using
machines and chemicals to gain as much produce as they can.
The Tanzanian population is around 51 million and is Average daily calorie intake in Tanzania has increased
ranked 98/109 countries in the Global Food Security from 1696 in 1964 to 2137 by 2009. • Makes the most of the land and allows for higher yields. This can make growing food more
Index. Reasons for this increase include: Intensive productive and therefore cheaper to produce.
• Has rating of 89/116 countries on Global Hunger • Less people living in poverty (less than $1.25 per Farming • Chemical fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides can pollute the environment and harm
Index = serious day) people, animals and insects.
• GHI score and child mortality is decreasing • Implementation of large and small scale projects
• Food distribution is improving but still lower than to help with food production Organic • This involves the banned use of chemicals and ensuring animals are raised naturally.
Africa and RoW Methods • This can lead to lower yields of 20% and products being more expensive.

Success in securing local food security Technological Developments

Goat Aid Through better understanding of science and improved technology, it is now possible to change the food we grow
• Example of bottom-up aid and protect and harvest the crops more effectively.
• Run by UK based charity Farm Africa
• Imported Toggenburg goats – good milk producers • Involves changing the DNA of foods to enhance their productivity and properties.
Genetically
• Cost £200,000 • Crops can be better protected from disease and drought, but also made larger or include
modified (GM) more health benefits.
• Trained villagers how to keep them, including treat
simple diseases
• This is a method of growing plants without soil. Instead they use nutrient solution.
• Given ‘on credit’ so had to repay
Hydroponics • Less water is needed and a reduced need for pesticides to be used.
• Profits for farmers on the scheme increased 2 fold
• However, this method is very expensive so only used for high value crops.
compared to those not

Effectiveness of pasts attempt at food security Effectiveness of present attempts at food security
Small Scale ‘Bottom Up’ Approaches

1967 government decided should grow all own food. SAGOT project started in 2010. Improve farming in This involves a small scale production of food and relies on individuals and communities, rather than government
Asked Canada for help in growing wheat - $95 million ‘growth corridor’. Millions being invested by TNs, or large organisations.
in aid. charities, government. Develop modern agricultural • Bottom-up approach – 15% world’s food grown in urban areas
Success – grew 60% of own wheat – self sufficient in economy. Urban • Small community gardens providing healthy food – too expensive to buy in LIDCs/EDCs
1992 drought Early successes – Kilombero plantation – doubled rice • Can also include livestock (chickens etc.) – can carry diseases
Gardens
Failure – yield low, cheaper to import. Livelihoods of yield. 7300 rice growers – better connected – some • Chongqing, China – garden on factory roof – staff tend crops and take home for free
Barabaig tribe threatened (40,000). Couldn’t afford produced 8 times more rice.
spare parts for tractors/combine harvesters. Only a Criticisms – benefits large commercial farms. Small • This involves people growing their own food and changing their eating habits.
few jobs created. landowners not involved in decisions and lost land. Permaculture • This can create more natural ecosystems and fewer resources are required.
What is an Ecosystem? Tropical Rainforest Biome
An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with each other and Convectional rainfall
Distribution of Tropical Rainforests
with their environment.
The roots of plants take up water from the
Tropical rainforests are centred along the Equator 1
Ecosystem’s Components between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn.
ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls.
Rainforests can be found in South America, central As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates
Abiotic These are non-living, such as air, water, heat, rock. 2
Africa and South-East Asia. The Amazon is the into the atmosphere.
Biotic These are living, such as plants, insects, and animals. world’s largest rainforest and takes up the majority
of northern South America, encompassing countries Finally, the water condenses and forms clouds to
such as Brazil and Peru. 3
Flora is plant life occurring in a particular region or time. make the next day's rain.

Fauna is all animal life of any particular region or time. Rainforest nutrient cycle Climate of Tropical Rainforests

Food Chains & webs The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor allow for the rapid • Evening temperatures rarely fall below 22°C
decomposition of dead plant material. This provides plentiful • Due to the presence of clouds, temperatures rarely
Food chains are useful in explaining nutrients that are easily absorbed by plant roots. However, as these
rise above 32°C
the basic principles behind nutrients are in high demand from the many fast-growing plants,
ecosystems. They show only one they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to the surface.
• Most afternoons have heavy convectional rain
species at a particular level from If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile • At night with no clouds insulating temperature drops
where energy is transferred up to
the next via a trophic cascade. In Topic 4 Interdependence in the rainforest

Nutrient cycle
reality, most work via food webs.

Plants take in those nutrients where they are

Sustaining Ecosystems A rainforest works through interdependence. This is where the
plants and animals depend on each other for survival.

Layers of the Rainforest Rainforest soil profile - latosols

built into new organic matter. Nutrients are
taken up when animals eat plants and then
Emergents Highest layer with tree reaching 50 Leaf Litter Thin litter layer rapidly decomposes in heat.
returned to the soil when animals die and the
metres.
body is broken down by decomposers. Shallow topsoil is a mixture of decomposed
Top Soil
Canopy Most life is found here as It receives organic matter and minerals.. Normally red.
Litter This is the surface layer of
70% of the sunlight and 80% of the
vegetation, which over time Sub Soil The sub-soil is deep due to weathering of rocks
light.
breaks down to become humus. below.
Under Canopy Consists of trees that reach 20 metres
Biomass The total mass of living Underlying rock weathers quickly at high
high. Rock
organisms per unit area. temperatures to form sub-soil.
Shrub Layer & Lowest layer with small trees that
Biomes Forest Floor
Biome’s have
climate and adapted to living in the shade.
plants
A biome is a large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal groups, Biome Location Temperature Rainfall Flora Fauna
which are adapted to that particular environment. The climate and geography
of a region determines what type of biome can exist in that region. Centred along the Hot all year (25-30°C) Very high (over Tall trees forming a canopy; wide Greatest range of different animal
Topical
rainforest Equator. 200mm/year) variety of species. species. Most live in canopy layer
Coniferous
forest
Tropical Between latitudes 5°- 30° Warm all year (20-30°C) Wet + dry season Grasslands with widely spaced Large hoofed herbivores and
Deciduous grasslands north & south of Equator. (500-1500mm/year) trees. carnivores dominate.
forest

Hot desert Found along the tropics Hot by day (over 30°C) Very low (below Lack of plants and few species; Many animals are small and
Tropical of Cancer and Capricorn. Cold by night 300mm/year) adapted to drought. nocturnal: except for the camel.
rainforests

Tundra Temperate Between latitudes 40°- Warm summers + mild Variable rainfall (500- Mainly deciduous trees; a variety Animals adapt to colder and
forest 60° north of Equator. winters (5-20°C) 1500m /year) of species. warmer climates. Some migrate.

Temperate
grasslands Tundra Far Latitudes of 65° north Cold winter + cool Low rainfall (below Small plants grow close to the Low number of species. Most
and south of Equator summers (below 10°C) 500mm/ year) ground and only in summer. animals found along coast.
Tropical
grasslands
Found within 30° north – Warm water all year Wet + dry seasons. Small range of plant life which Dominated by polyps and a
The most productive biomes – which have the greatest Coral Reefs south of Equator in round with temperatures Rainfall varies greatly includes algae and sea grasses diverse range of fish species.
biomass- grow in climates that are hot and wet. Hot deserts.
tropical waters. of 18°C due to location. that shelters reef animals.
 Tropical Rainforest Biome Polar/Tundra Regions Biome
Adaptations to the rainforest Rainforest inhabitants Distribution of Polar Regions Climate Change on Polar Regions

Sloths Are camouflaged to forest environment. Tribes such as the Sanema Indians who live Arctic Antarctic Scientific reports outline the effect global warming is having on these
along the Orinoco river live sustainably , using regions. Ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate
Buttress Roots Support tall trees & absorb nutrients. Is the region north of A continent south of
shifting cultivation. leading to fears of rising sea levels. Thawing of permafrost is
latitude 60°N around latitude 60°S around
The forest provides inhabitants with… the North Pole. the South Pole. increasing methane emissions and the decline of arctic ice is creating
Drip Tips Allows heavy rain to run off leaves easily waves that are capable of causing unseen coastal erosion.
• Food through hunting and gathering.
Lianas & Vines Climbs trees to reach sunlight at canopy. • Natural medicines from forest plants.
• Homes and boats from forest wood. Arctic soil profile
Effects of Human Activity on the Rainforest Benefits of the rainforest Thaws in the summer.
Active Layer
Becomes deeper towards pole.
Logging Agriculture Raw Commonly used materials
Materials such as timber and rubber Climate Permanently frozen all year.
• Most widely reported cause of • Large scale ‘slash and burn’ of Permafrost
are found here. Layer Increases further north.
destructions to biodiversity. land for ranches and palm oil. Polar areas are very cold with temperatures
• Timber is harvested to create • Increases carbon emission. Water Controls the flow of water rarely reaching above 0 °C. Winters average Bed Rock Low temperatures weathers
commercial items such as • River saltation and soil erosion to prevent floods/droughts below -40 °C , the Antarctic being colder and rock slowly = less nutrients.
furniture and paper. increasing due to the large regions.. drier than the Arctic.
• Has lead to violent areas of exposed land Effects of Human Activity in Polar Regions
confrontation between • Increase in palm oil is making Food Important foods such as Land & Sea Features
indigenous tribes and logging the soil infertile. Bananas, pineapples and Oil & Gas exploration Whaling
companies. coffee are grown there. Arctic Antarctic
• Arctic holds a large amount of • Hunting of whales was a major
Mineral Extraction Tourism Health 25% of modern medicines Large areas are Large and thick ice untapped oil and gas. industry – this led to a rapid
are sourced from permafrost. At sea, sheets. A mountain • Oil spills eg Exxon Valdez 1989 decline in whale populations.
• Precious metals such as gold • Mass tourism is resulting in the rainforest ingredients. most of the region is range crosses the threaten ecosystems as clean • Many countries have banned
and iron ore, as well as oil, are building of hotels in extremely frozen over. continent. up operations are slow & costly. whaling, but a few still continue
found in the rainforest. vulnerable areas. Energy Large dams generate 2/3
• Areas mined can experience soil • Lead to negative relationship of Brazil’s energy needs Flora (Plants) Fauna (Animals) Fishing Tourism
and water contamination. between the government and through HEP.
• Indigenous people are indigenous tribes There are very few Relatively few species • Has made area possible to fish • Tourism eg cruises, is steadily
becoming displaced from their • Tourism has effected wildlife Climate Acts as carbon sinks by plants in polar areas of animals. polar large untapped stocks. growing in polar regions.
land due to roads being built to (apes) by exposing them to storing 15% of carbon – some lichens, bears, penguins and • The polar areas are difficult to • Travel by tourists increase
transport products. human diseases. emissions. mosses and grasses marine mammals like police due to harsh conditions. emissions further.
along the coastal whales, narwhals, • Collapse of the fish stocks there • Wildlife may become disturbed
Case Study: Sustainable Rainforest Management in Costa Rica: Samasati Nature Retreat areas, more in the seals, walrus and krill might damage ecosystems. by tourists getting up close.
Tundra. and plankton in seas.
Location & Background Threats to the Costa Rican Rainforest Case Study: Small Scale Sustainable Management: Case Study: Global Scale Sustainable Management:
Ice Hotel, northern Sweden The Arctic Council
Costa Rica is a small country in Central America. • Cattle Ranching and agricultural development by clearing
It is home to 6% of the world’s biodiversity. land through slash & burn methods. Background
Background
The country attracts 6 million tourists a year. • Gold and other metal mining meant large scale soil and
Formed in 1996 from surrounding countries and indigenous
rock removing. This meant areas were deforested and It is built each year in winter from local ice from River Torne tribes. Its focus is environmental protection but is not yet in
Ecotourism chemicals entered water systems. and caters for small numbers of guests. Everything – from international law.
• By 1990, 32,000 hectors of forest were cut down each glasses to furniture, is made of ice
Ecotourism is tourism that is directed towards the natural year – devastating the fragile ecosystem.
Basic Principles of the Arctic Council
environments & conversation. Samasati is a popular Features and Activities
ecotourism destination in the country. Rainforest Management • The Council has carried out studies on the effects of climate
• The location has good facilities such as a dining room,
change, shipping and mineral extraction.
Advantages electricity supply and transport.
• However the Arctic Council has no legal powers to stop
• Government created 28 National Parks with 24% of the • Tourists can enjoy activities such as ski tours, wildlife
countries doing anything there.
country’s land protect. viewing and meeting the local Sami.
• Local people are employed – hotel staff, guides, famers, • Other treaties such as the Paris Agreement (2015) do have
transport • Laws and enforcement meant that deforestation had
legally binding powers to limit global warming that should
• Locally sourced produce is used throughout fallen from 1.8 to almost zero by 2005. Sustainable Management help to preserve the Arctic
• Agroforestry encourages growing trees and crops
together to create better farming conditions. • Strict guidelines on how tourists should behave are Successful?
Disadvantages
• Afforestation has led to the replanting of trees to replace enforced to respect the natural environment.
original forest that have been lost. • Solar panels used to reduce carbon emissions. It is still new – threats such as USA withdrawing from Paris
• Land prices have increased.
• All waste is carefully contained and removed. Agreement could damage it. Countries are now claiming the
• It is expensive and only small scale.
Arctic sea floor as theirs but without agreement.
 What is Urbanisation? Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation in LIDCs Rapid Urbanisation: Life in Kibera, Kenya

This is an increase in the amount of people living in urban areas such as Social Consequences Background
Although there are lots of
towns or cities. In 2007, the UN announced that for the first time, more
opportunities in urban areas, the
than 50 % of the world’s population live in urban areas. • Little official housing available. Kibera is just on the outskirts of the capital city Nairobi in Kenya. Kenya
rapid growth can place many
• Infrastructure struggles to has a total population of 41 million, of which 3 million live in Nairobi, and
Settlement Hierarchies pressures that causes various
support growing population. 1 million live in the Kibera slim.
problems.
If we group and classify a number of settlements according to their size • Increase in crime rates.
Effects of Urbanisation
and shape, the result is settlement hierarchy.
Environmental Consequences Economic Consequences
Social Economic Environmental
Key Characteristics of Settlement Hierarchy.
• The number of services that a settlement provides increases with • Rubbish may not be collected. • May not be enough jobs –
• 80% live without • 50% • Large scale
settlement size. • Sewage and toxic waste increased unemployment.
electricity. unemployment pollution issues.
• Small settlements will only provide low-order services such as a post pollutes river environments. • Informal sector increases Little
• High diseases rate. • Slums are heavily
offices. • Increased congestion produces access to education and
rate and low life • Business is populated with
• Larger settlements and conurbations have a much larger sphere of more pollution. healthcare.
expectancy. limited due to overcrowding
influence than smaller ones. • Overcrowding in poor problems.
• The range of a service or product is the maximum distance people Counter-Urbanisation in ACs
housing. infrastructure. • River pollution.
are prepared to travel to purchase it. This is the movement of people from inner city area to countryside areas.
Management
Types of Cities Push Pull
• Aid agencies have added healthcare facilities to limited the spread of
Megacity An urban area which over 10 million people living there. • Overcrowding and pollution. • Green spaces & family friendly. diseases such as cholera.
• Unemployment increases. • New modern housing estates. • 2 new clean water pipes have recently been added so that the
More that two thirds • Inner city deprivation. • Improved public transport. community can access some clean water, reducing illness.
of current megacities • Traffic congestion increases • Rents cheaper on outskirts.
are located in either CO². Re-urbanisation in ACs
EDCs and LIDCs). The
amount of megacities Topic 5 This is the movement of people back into urban areas.

Urban Futures
are predicted to
increase from 28 to Push Pull
41 by 2030. • Lack of jobs in rural and suburban • Redevelopment of brownfield sites
areas. with improved housing.
• Less leisure and entertainment in • Young people are attracted to the
Cities that are centres for trade and business. They hold Suburbanisation rural areas. Universities.
World City
global influence. • Counter-urbanisation may have • People are attracted to
This is the movement of people from city centres to the outskirts. increased house prices. entertainment facilities available.
Key ‘world cities’
include London, New Push Pull
Consequences of Re-urbanisation
York, Tokyo and
Paris. Most are • Overcrowding and pollution. • Green spaces & family friendly.
Social Consequences
located within ACs • Unemployment increases. • New modern housing estates.
but are now • Deindustrialisation of centre. • Improved public transport. • Shops and services benefit from the additional residents.
gradually expanding • Traffic congestion. • Rents cheaper on outskirts. • Increase in tension between new and older residents.
into EDCs, for • House prices in redeveloped areas increase.
example Moscow. Consequences of Suburbanisation • Schools benefit from the increase of students.
• More jobs and less employment within the area.
Causes of Urbanisation Environmental Economic Social
Consequences Consequences Consequences Environmental Consequences Economic Consequences
The movement of people from rural to urban areas.
• New housing • People leave • Offices and • Redevelopment of brownfield • New shops and services will
Push Pull
damages centres and they businesses are sites improves old industrial improve local economy.
• Natural disasters • More Jobs countryside and become deserted. abandoned. and polluted areas • Jobs available may not be
• War and Conflict • Better education & healthcare habitats. • Unemployment • Economic and • Decreases pressures on accessible to original
• Mechanisation • Increased quality of life. • Increase of cars increases, which ethnic greenfield areas. residents.
• Drought • Following family members. adds air pollution. leads to poverty. segregation. • Could destroy urban wildlife. • Urban tourism may increase.
 Informal Housing Greenbelt Area

This is housing that is built on land which does not belong to those who are building it. This may be on land that This is a zone of land surrounding a city where new building is strictly controlled to try to prevent cities growing
is unsuitable due to its surroundings. too much and too fast.

Internal Growth Conurbanisation

Internal growth occurs when urban areas experience rapid rates of population growth. This comes as a result A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through
of a large amount of arrival of people in cities, who after finding a job, house and partner will have children. population growth have merged to form one continuous urban or industrially developed area.
This occurs mostly in LIDCs. For example: Coventry, Wolverhampton, Walsall, West Bromwich, Solihull .

AC: Challenges & Opportunities for Cities: Birmingham Case Study EDC: Challenges & Opportunities for Cities: Istanbul Case Study
Location and Background City’s Importance Location and Background City’s Importance

Birmingham is the • Has the fastest rate of job growth in the Istanbul is a coastal • Istanbul is important because it is in a
largest city in the country. city situated in country that spans over two continents.
Midlands and the • Largest manufacturing centre in the UK, Turkey, at the • It is also important because it is home to
2nd largest in the especially for clothing. Bosphorus strait. It is two great empires and history, the Ottoman
United Kingdom. The • Contains eight independent universities. between two and the Roman empire.
city is at the heart of • After London the most important financial continents – Europe • Istanbul was the capital of Turkey, but that
a conurbation which centre in the UK. and Asia, but the city is now Ankara.
includes cities such as • Has major transport links that connect itself is in Europe. • Istanbul was called Constantiople but it is
Walsall and effectively to the UK and the world. now known as Istanbul.
Coventry.
Migration to Istanbul Instanbul’s way of Life
Migration to Birmingham Birmingham's way of Life
The main type of migration to Istanbul is rural • The city boasts Turkish culture whilst also
The history of Birmingham spans 1400 year s of • The city benefits by the diversity and many to urban migration from other areas of Turkey – being very multicultural.
growth. It started in the 7th century as a small different cultures. national migration. People move to Istanbul to • Istanbul has benefitted greatly from tourism
anglo-saxon hamlet. • The population benefits from many seek a better quality of life. in the past 20 years with more flights to it’s
• Many commonwealth populations, such as companies and shops locating there. International migration has also changed airport. This has meant more jobs in tourism
India, the Caribbean and Pakistan moved in • Excellent transport links and lots of Istanbul – many North African’s have flocked to and more diversity in the services provided.
during the 1950s. commuters. Turkey, particularly Syrian’s in recent years due
• The city is also home to a large Irish • Good entrainment centres and night life. to conflict and war.
community from the mid 21st century.
• Polish, Ukrainian & Hungarian refugees City Challenges Self-help sch
arrived after WWII.
• Housing – Gecekondu’s – slum or shanty • Istanbul have enticed young professionals
housing has been erected in Istanbul over into the housing market to try and improve
City Challenges Bull ring Redevelopment the past 30 years due to a boom in the conditions of some neighbourhoods,
population – this has led to overcrowding such as Beyoglu and Esenler suburbs where
• There is a lack of affordable housing, The bull ring shopping centre in the heart of and reduced quality of life. there has consequently been a rise in
especially for the young generation. the city was redevelopment to offer more • Informal Sector Jobs – Istanbul has quality of life and standards of housing.
• Social inequality including deprivation and services to the population. It has been very problems with informal jobs – people do • The metro system is an example of
poverty is a problem for young people. successful. work for very little money and are not sustainable transport in the city – it has
• Some communities are being replaced by People travel far and wide to visit it. It is taking part in the whole economy. expanded over the past few years with 8
students (studentification)which then considered one of the best shopping mall’s in • Traffic congestion – Istanbul is one of the routes, is cost-effective, environmentally
require different services. the UK. worst cities in the world for traffic. friendly, and can carry more passengers
• The rapid increase in population has caused than cars.
pressures on transport and services such as
education.