Chapter 1

Introduction to Thermodynamics
and Heat Transfer

Source:
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications
Fourth Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2011
 Contents
• Thermodynamics vs Heat transfer
• Thermodynamic laws and engineering
application
• Fundamental mechanism of heat transfer:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as
a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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4
Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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Historical Background Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as tiny
balls that are in motion and thus possess
kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules.
Caloric theory: Heat is a fluidlike
substance called the caloric that is a
massless, colorless, odorless, and
tasteless substance that can be poured
from one body into another

It was only in the middle of the

nineteenth century that we had a true
physical understanding of the nature of
heat.
Careful experiments of the Englishman
James P. Joule published in 1843
convinced the skeptics that heat was not
a substance after all, and thus put the
caloric theory to rest.
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ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, radiators, heaters,
furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed primarily on the basis of heat
transfer analysis.
The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups: (1)
rating and (2) sizing problems.
The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing
system at a specified temperature difference.
The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to transfer
heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing and taking
measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical system,
and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of experimental
error. However, this approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage that it is fast
and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the assumptions,
approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.

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Modeling in Engineering

8
HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electrical,
– magnetic,
– chemical,
– nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass
basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the
internal energy of a system.

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• Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds within
the nucleus of the atom itself.

What is thermal energy?

What is the difference between thermal
energy and heat?

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 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems that

involve fluid flow, we frequently
encounter the combination of
properties u and Pv.
• The combination is defined as
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
• The term Pv represents the flow
energy of the fluid (also called
the flow work).

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 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
• Specific heat: The energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
– specific heat at constant volume cv
– specific heat at constant pressure cp
• The specific heats of a substance, in general,
depend on two independent properties such
as temperature and pressure.
• At low pressures all real gases approach ideal
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats
depend on temperature only.

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• Incompressible substance: A substance
whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or
pressure.
• The constant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature only.

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 Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms: when is constant:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area
normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
According to British scientist C. P. Snow, the
three laws of thermodynamics can be
(humorously) summarized as
1. You can’t win
2. You can’t even break even
3. You can’t get out of the game
 1.0 You can’t win (1st law)
• The first law of thermodynamics is an
extension of the law of conservation of energy
• The change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the heat added to the system minus
the work done by the system
ΔU = Q - W
Slide courtesy of NASA
 1.1 Process Terminology
• Adiabatic – no heat transferred
• Isothermal – constant temperature
• Isobaric – constant pressure
• Isochoric – constant volume
 1.1.1 Adiabatic Process
• An adiabatic process transfers no heat
– therefore Q = 0
• ΔU = Q – W
• When a system expands adiabatically, W is
positive (the system does work) so ΔU is
negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically, W is
negative (work is done on the system) so ΔU is
positive.
 1.1.2 Isothermal Process
• An isothermal process is a constant
temperature process. Any heat flow into or
out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
• Therefore, Q = W
– Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as
work (W)
 1.1.3 Isobaric Process
• An isobaric process is a constant pressure
process. ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-zero,
but calculating the work done by an ideal gas
is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
• Water boiling in a saucepan is an example of
an isobar process
 1.1.4 Isochoric Process
• An isochoric process is a constant volume
process. When the volume of a system doesn’t
change, it will do no work on its surroundings.
W=0
ΔU = Q
• Heating gas in a closed container is an
isochoric process
 1.2 Heat Capacity
• The amount of heat required to raise a certain
mass of a material by a certain temperature is
called heat capacity
Q = mcxΔT
• The constant cx is called the specific heat of
substance x, (SI units of J/kg·K)
 1.2.1 Heat Capacity of Ideal Gas
• CV = heat capacity at constant volume
CV = 3/2 R
• CP = heat capacity at constant pressure
CP = 5/2 R
• For constant volume
Q = nCVΔT = ΔU

• The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol·K

 2.0 You can’t break even (2nd Law)
• Think about what it means to not “break
even”. Every effort you put forth, no matter
how efficient you are, will have a tiny bit of
waste.
• The 2nd Law can also be stated that heat flows
spontaneously from a hot object to a cold
object (spontaneously means without the assistance of external work)
Slide courtesy of NASA
 2.1 Concerning the 2nd Law
• The second law of thermodynamics introduces
the notion of entropy (S), a measure of system
disorder (messiness)
• U is the quantity of a system’s energy, S is the
quality of a system’s energy.
• Another C.P. Snow expression:
– not knowing the 2nd law of thermodynamics is the cultural equivalent
to never having read Shakespeare
 2.2 Implications of the 2nd Law
• Time marches on
– If you watch a movie, how do you know that you
are seeing events in the order they occurred?
– If I drop a raw egg on the floor, it becomes
extremely “disordered” (greater Entropy) – playing
the movie in reverse would show pieces coming
together to form a whole egg (decreasing Entropy)
– highly unlikely!
 2.3 Direction of a Process
• The 2nd Law helps determine the preferred
direction of a process
• A reversible process is one which can change
state and then return to the original state
• This is an idealized condition – all real
processes are irreversible
 2.4 Heat Engine
• A device which transforms heat into work is
called a heat engine
• This happens in a cyclic process
• Heat engines require a hot reservoir to supply
energy (QH) and a cold reservoir to take in the
excess energy (QC)
– QH is defined as positive, QC is negative
 2.4.1 Cycles
• It is beyond the scope of this presentation, but
here would be a good place to elaborate on:
– Otto Cycle
– Diesel Cycle
– Carnot Cycle
• Avoid all irreversible processes while adhering to the
2nd Law (isothermal and adiabatic only)
 2.4.2 The Carnot Cycle

Image from Keta - Wikipedia

 2.4.2.1 Carnot explained
• Curve A (1 → 2): Isothermal expansion at TH
– Work done by the gas
• Curve B (2 → 3): Adiabatic expansion
– Work done by the gas
• Curve C (3 → 4): Isothermal compression at TC
– Work done on the gas
• Curve D (4 → 1): Adiabatic compression
– Work done on the gas
 2.4.2.2 Area under PV curve
• The area under the PV curve represents the
quantity of work done in a cycle
• When the curve goes right to left, the work is
negative
• The area enclosed by the four curves
represents the net work done by the engine in
one cycle
 2.5 Engine Efficiency
• The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is
e = 1 + QC/QH
• The “engine” statement of the 2nd Law:
– it is impossible for any system to have an
efficiency of 100% (e = 1) [Kelvin’s statement]
• Another statement of the 2nd Law:
– It is impossible for any process to have as its sole
result the transfer of heat from a cooler object to
a warmer object [Clausius’s statement]
 2.6 Practical Uses
• Automobile engines, refrigerators, and air
conditioners all work on the principles laid out
by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
• Ever wonder why you can’t cool your kitchen
in the hot summer by leaving the refrigerator
door open?
– Feel the air coming off the back - you heat the air
outside to cool the air inside
– See, you can’t break even!
 3.0 You can’t get out (3rd Law)
• No system can reach absolute zero
• This is one reason we use the Kelvin
temperature scale. Not only is the internal
energy proportional to temperature, but you
never have to worry about dividing by zero in
an equation!
• There is no formula associated with the 3rd
Law of Thermodynamics
 3.1 Implications of 3rd Law
• MIT researchers achieved 450 picokelvin in
2003 (less than ½ of one billionth!)
• Molecules near these temperatures have been
called the fifth state of matter: Bose-Einstein
Condensates
– Awesome things like super-fluidity and super-
conductivity happen at these temperatures
– Exciting frontier of research
 4.0 The Zeroth Law
• The First and Second Laws were well
entrenched when an additional Law was
recognized (couldn’t renumber the 1st and 2nd Laws)
• If objects A and B are each in thermal
equilibrium with object C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
• Allows us to define temperature relative to an
established standard
Slide courtesy of NASA
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
• A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer
as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers is the heat transfer.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when
the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction
– convection
– radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference.
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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness ∆x
and area A.

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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of heat
conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing x.
The negative sign in the equation ensures that heat
transfer in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents The rate of heat conduction
the area normal to the through a solid is directly
direction of heat proportional to its thermal
transfer. conductivity. 43
Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: The
rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of
the material per unit area
per unit temperature
difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a measure
of the ability of the
material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates that
the material is a good heat A simple experimental setup to
conductor, and a low value determine the thermal
indicates that the material conductivity of a material.
is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.

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The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various materials
at room
temperature.

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 The thermal conductivities of gases such as
air vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and
insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different phases
of a substance.
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The variation of the
thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit
mass
ρcp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per unit
volume
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast
heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal conductivity

or a low heat capacity will obviously have a
large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that
heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a
small amount of heat is conducted further.

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CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion,
and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by
the adjacent fluid is by pure
convection.
conduction.

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Forced convection: If the
fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external
means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the The cooling of a boiled egg by
variation of temperature in forced and natural convection.
the fluid.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the
process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the
liquid droplets during condensation.
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 Newton’s law of cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T∞ the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter whose
value depends on all the
variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
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RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers
no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the
earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the
form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for
solids.
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 Stefan–Boltzmann law

σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity ε : A measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for which
ε = 1 of the surface. 0≤ ε ≤ 1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a specified temperature.
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Absorptivity α: The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface. 0≤ α ≤ 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it (α = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on an

opaque surface of absorptivity .
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Net radiation heat transfer: The When a surface is completely enclosed by a much
difference between the rates of larger (or black) surface at temperature Tsurr
radiation emitted by the surface separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
and the radiation absorbed. intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these
The determination of the net rate two surfaces is given by
of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to each
other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation

Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but
negligible relative to Radiation heat transfer between a surface
forced convection. and the surfaces surrounding it. 55
When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER
MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but
by conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in
a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid
is either by conduction or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation. Although there are three mechanisms of
heat transfer, a medium may involve only
Most gases between two solid surfaces do two of them simultaneously.
not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation. 57
Chapter Ends