Process-to-Process Delivery

 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery - the delivery of a packet, part of a message, from one
process to another. Two processes communicate in a
client/server relationship.
 Client/Server Paradigm
 A process on local host is called a client.
 The service is provided by a process running on a remote
host, called server.
 At transport layer , we need a transport layer address,
called a port number, to choose among multiple processes
running on the destination host.
 The destination port is needed for delivery, the source port
number is needed for reply.
 In the Internet model, the port numbers are 16 bit integers
between 0 and 65,535.
 Client/Server Paradigm
 The client program defines itself with a port number,
chosen randomly by the transport layer software running
on the client host. This is the ephemeral port number.
 The port number of server process cannot be chosen
randomly. The Internet has decided to use universal port
numbers for servers; these are called well-known port
numbers.
 Client/Server Paradigm
 Day time client uses an ephemeral (temporary) port number
52000 to identify itself.
 Day time server must use the well-known (permanent) port
number 13.
 Client/Server Paradigm
 IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) Ranges:
 Well-known ports: 0 to 1023. Assigned and controlled by
IANA
 Registered ports: 1024 – 49,151. Not assigned and
controlled by IANA. They can only be registered with
IANA to prevent duplication.
 Dynamic ports: 49,152 – 65,535. Neither controlled nor
registered. They can be used by any process. These are
ephemeral ports.
Client/Server Paradigm
IP addresses versus port numbers
 Socket address
 The combination of an IP address and a port number is
called a socket address.
Encapsulation and decapsulation
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 The transport layer at the client site accepts three messages
from the three processes and creates three packets. It acts as a
multiplexer. The packets 1 and 3 use the same logical channel
to reach the transport layer of the first server.
 When they arrive at the server, the transport layer does the job
of a demultiplexer and distributes the messages to two different
processes. The transport layer at the second server receives
packet 2 and delivers it to the corresponding process.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Flow Control
 Pushing or Pulling:
 Pushing: If the sender delivers items whenever they are
produced ⎯ without a prior request from the consumer ⎯ the
delivery is referred to as pushing. When the producer pushes
the items, the consumer may be overwhelmed and there is a
need for flow control, in the opposite direction, to prevent
discarding of the items.
 Pushing: If the producer delivers the items after the consumer
has requested them, the delivery is referred to as pulling.
Flow Control
 Error Control
 Reliability can be achieved to add error control services to the
transport layer. Error control at the transport layer is
responsible for
1. Detecting and discarding corrupted packets.
2. Keeping track of lost and discarded packets and resending
them.
3. Recognizing duplicate packets and discarding them.
4. Buffering out-of-order packets until the missing packets
arrive.
 Error Control
Sequence Numbers:
A field to the transport-layer packet holds the sequence
number of the packet.
1. When a packet is corrupted or lost, the receiving transport
layer can somehow inform the sending transport layer to
resend that packet using the sequence number.
2. The receiving transport layer can also detect duplicate
packets if two received packets have the same sequence
number.
3. The out-of-order packets can be recognized by observing
gaps in the sequence numbers.
 For error control, the sequence numbers are modulo 2m,
where m is the size of the sequence number field in bits.
 If m is 4, the only sequence numbers are 0 through 15,
inclusive
 Error Control
Acknowledgment:

 The receiver side can send an acknowledgment (ACK) for each

of a collection of packets that have arrived safe and sound.

 Combination of Flow and Error Control:

 These two requirements can be combined if we use two
numbered buffers, one at the sender, one at the receiver –
Sliding Window Protocol.
 Congestion Control
 Congestion in a packet switched network may occur if the load
on the network — the number of packets sent to the network —
is greater than the capacity of the network — the number of
packets a network can handle.
 Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques
that control the congestion and keep the load below the
capacity.
 Congestion in a network or internetwork occurs because
routers and switches have queues.
 If a router cannot process the packets at the same rate at which
they arrive, the queues become overloaded and congestion
occurs.
 Congestion at the transport layer is the result of congestion at
the network layer, which manifests itself at the transport layer.
 Connectionless Service
 Connectionless Service:
 The packets are sent from one party to another with no need for
connection establishment or connection release.
 Packets are not numbered.
 They may be delayed or lost or may arrive out of sequence.
 No acknowledgement.
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connection-Oriented Service:
 A connection is first established between the sender and the
receiver.
 Data are transferred. Then connection is released.
FSM
Position of UDP, TCP, and SCTP in
TCP/IP suite