Module-1 Vehicle Mechanics:

Roadway Fundamentals

A vehicle moves on a level road and also up and down the slope of a roadway. We can simplify our
description of the roadway by considering a straight roadway. Furthermore, we will define a
tangential coordinate system that moves along with the vehicle, with respect to a fixed two-
dimensional system.

The roadway description will be utilized to calculate the distance traversed by a vehicle along the
roadway. The fixed coordinate system is attached to the earth such that the force of gravity is
̅ and in the xFyF plane. Let us consider a straight roadway, i.e., the
perpendicular to the unit vector İFvv
steering wheel is locked straight along the XF direction. The roadway is then in the xFyF plane of the
fixed coordinate system (Figure 2.1)

The two-dimensional roadway can be described as yF=f(xF). The roadway position vector
between two points a and b along the horizontal direction is

The distance-norm of the tangent vector

The roadway percent grade is the vertical rise per 100 horizontal distance of roadway, with both
distances expressed in the same units. The angle β of the roadway associated with the slope or
grade is the angle between the tangent vector and the horizontal axis XF (Figure 2.2). If ∆y is the
vertical rise in meters, then

The tangent of the slope angle is

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The percent grade, or β, is greater than zero when the vehicle is on an upward slope and is less than
zero when the vehicle is going downhill. The roadway percent grade can be described as a function
of the roadway, as

Laws of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion can be expressed in equation form as follows:

Where

is the net force, m is the effective mass, and ā is the acceleration. The law is applied to the vehicle by
considering a number of objects located at several points of contact of the vehicle with the outside
world on which the individual forces act.

Examples of such points of contact are the front and rear wheels touching the roadway surface and
vehicle, the frontal area that meets the force from air resistance, etc. We will simplify the problem
by merging all of these points of contact into one location at the center of gravity (cg) of the EV and
HEV, which is justified, because the extent of the object is immaterial. For all of the force
calculations to follow, we will consider the vehicle to be a particle mass located at the cg of the
vehicle. The cg can be considered to be within the vehicle, as shown in Figure 2.3.

Particle motion is described by particle velocity and acceleration characteristics. For the position
vector for the particle mass on which several forces are working, as shown in Figure 2.4, the
velocity v and acceleration a are

The power input to the particle for the ith force is

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where θ is the angle between Fi and the resultant velocity v. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed
axis, the equivalent terms relating motion and power are torque, angular velocity, and angular
acceleration. Let there be i independent torques acting on a rigid body, causing it to rotate about an
axis of rotation, as shown in Figure 2.5. If J (unit: kg-m2) is the polar moment of inertia of the rigid
body, then the rotational form of Newton’s second law of motion is

Vehicle Kinetics

The tangential direction of forward motion of a vehicle changes with the slope of the roadway. To
simplify the equations, a tangential coordinate system is defined below, so that the forces acting on
the vehicle can be defined through a onedirectional equation. Let ūT(xF) be the unit tangent vector in
the fixed coordinate system pointing in the direction of increasing XF. Therefore

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The tangential coordinate system shown in Figure 2.6 has the same origin as the fixed coordinate
system. The z-direction unit vector is the same as that in the fixed coordinate system, but the x- and
y-direction vectors constantly change with the slope of the roadway. Newton’s second law of motion
can now be applied to the cg of EV in the tangential coordinate system as

where m is the effective vehicle mass. The components of the coordinate system are:

Component tangent to the road:

Component normal to the road:

And, because motion is assumed to be confined to the xTyT plane

The vehicle tangential velocity is vxT. The gravitational force in the normal direction is balanced by
the road reaction force and, hence, there will be no motion in the yT normal direction. In other
words, the tire always remains in contact with the road.

The propulsion unit of the vehicle exerts a tractive force, FTR, to propel the vehicle forward at a
desired velocity. The tractive force must overcome the opposing forces, which are summed together
and labeled as the road load force, FRL. The road load force consists of the gravitational force, rolling
resistance of the tires, and the aerodynamic drag force. The road load force is as follows:

where xT is the tangential direction along the roadway. The forces acting on the vehicle are shown in
Figure 2.7.

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The rolling resistance is produced by the hysteresis of the tire at the contact surface with the
roadway. In a stationary tire, the normal force to the road balances the distributed weight borne by
the wheel at the point of contact along the vertical line beneath the axle. When the tire rolls, the
centroid of the vertical forces on the wheel moves forward from beneath the axle toward the
direction of motion of the vehicle, as shown in Figure 2.8. The weight on the wheel and the road
normal force are misaligned due to the hysteresis of the tire. They form a couple that exerts a
retarding torque on the wheel. The rolling resistance force, Froll, is the force due to the couple, which
opposes the motion of the wheel

Dynamics of Vehicle Motion

Tractive force is the force between the vehicle’s tires and the road (and parallel to the road) supplied
by the electric motor in an EV and by the combination of electric motor and IC engine in an HEV to
overcome the road load. The dynamic equation of motion in the tangential direction is given by

where km is the rotational inertia coefficient to compensate for the apparent increase in the vehicle’s
mass due to the onboard rotating mass. The typical values of km are between 1.08 and 1.1, and it is
dimensionless. The acceleration of the vehicle is dvXT/dt.

Dynamic equations can be represented in the state space format for simulation of an EV or HEV
system. The motion described by Equation 2.5 is the fundamental equation required for dynamic
simulation of the vehicle system. One of the state variables of the vehicle dynamical system is vxT.

The second equation needed for modeling and simulation is the velocity equation, where either s or
xF can be used as the state variable. The slope of the roadway β will be an input to the simulation
model, which may be given in terms of the tangential roadway distance as β=β(s) or in terms of the
horizontal distance as β=β(xF). If β is given in terms of s, then the second state variable equation is

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If β is given in terms of xF, then the second state variable equation is

The input-output relational diagram for simulating vehicle kinetics is shown in Figure 2.9

Propulsion Power

The torque at the wheels of the vehicle can be obtained from the power relation:

where TTR is the tractive torque in N-m, and ωwh is the angular velocity of the wheel in rad/s. FTR is in
N, and vxT is in m/s. Assuming no slip between the tires and the road, the angular velocity and the
vehicle speed are related by

where rwh is the radius of the wheel in meters. The losses between the propulsion unit and wheels in
the transmission and the differential have to be appropriately accounted for when specifying the
power requirement of the propulsion unit.

An advantage of an electrically driven propulsion system is the elimination of multiple gears to

match the vehicle speed and the engine speed. The wide speed range operation of electric motors
enabled by power electronics control makes it possible to use a single gear-ratio transmission for
instantaneous matching of the available motor torque Tmotor with the desired tractive torque TTR. The
gear ratio and the size depend on the maximum motor speed, the maximum vehicle speed, the
wheel radius, and the available traction between the tires and the road. A higher motor speed
relative to the vehicle speed means a higher gear-ratio, larger size, and higher cost. However, higher
motor speed is also desired in order to increase the power density of the motor. Therefore, a
compromise is necessary between the maximum motor speed and the gear-ratio to optimize the
cost. Planetary gears are typically used for EVs, with the gear-ratio rarely exceeding ten.

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Force-Velocity Characteristics

For an efficient design of the propulsion unit, the designer must know the force required to
accelerate the vehicle to a cruising speed within a certain time and then to propel the vehicle
forward at the rated steady state cruising speed and at the maximum speed on a specified slope.
Useful design information is contained in the vehicle speed versus time and the steady state tractive
force versus constant velocity characteristics, illustrated in Figures 2.10 and 2.11.

we will always assume the velocity to be in the tangential direction and denote it by v instead of vxT
for simplicity. The steady state constant velocity will be denoted by the uppercase letter V. Tractive
force versus steady state velocity characteristics can be obtained from the equation of motion

When the steady state velocity is reached, dv/dt=0; and, hence, ΣF=0. Therefore, we have

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The first equation reveals that the slope of FTR versus V is always positive, meaning that the force
requirement increases as the vehicle speed increases, which is primarily due to the aerodynamic
drag force opposing vehicle motion. Also, discontinuity of the curves at zero velocity is due to the
rolling resistance force.

Maximum Gradability

The maximum grade that a vehicle will be able to overcome with the maximum force available from
the propulsion unit is an important design criterion as well as performance measure. The vehicle is
expected to move forward very slowly when climbing a steep slope and, hence, we can make the
following assumptions for maximum gradability:

Velocity and Acceleration

The energy required from the propulsion unit depends on the desired acceleration and the road load
force that the vehicle has to overcome.

Maximum acceleration is limited by the maximum tractive power available and the roadway
condition at the time of vehicle operation. Although the road load force is unknown in a realworld
roadway, significant insight about the vehicle velocity profile and energy requirement can be
obtained through studies of assumed scenarios.

Vehicles are typically designed with a certain objective, such as maximum acceleration on a given
roadway slope in a typical weather condition. Discussed in the following are two simplified scenarios
that will set the stage for designing EVs and HEVs.

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Constant FTR,Level Road

In the first case, we will assume a level road condition, where the propulsion unit for an EV exerts a
constant tractive force. The level road condition implies that β (s) =0. We will assume that the EV is
initially at rest, which implies v(0)=0. The free body diagram at t=0 is shown in Figure 2.13.

Velocity Profile

The velocity profile for the constant FTR level road case (Figure 2.14) can be obtained by solving for v
from the dv/dt equation above, which gives

The terminal velocity can be obtained by taking the limit of the velocity profile as time approaches
infinity. The terminal velocity is

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Distance Traversed

The distance traversed by the vehicle can be obtained from the following relation:

The distance as a function of time is obtained by integrating the above equation:

The starting acceleration is often specified as 0 to vfm/s in tfs, where vf is the desired velocity at the
end of the specified time tfs. The time to reach the desired velocity is given by

and the distance traversed during the time to reach the desired velocity is given by

The desired time can also be expressed as follows:

where vf the velocity after time tf

Let tVT=time to reach 98% of the terminal velocity VT. Therefore

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Tractive Power

Energy Required

The energy requirement for a given acceleration and constant steady state velocity is necessary for
the design and selection of the energy source or batteries to cover a certain distance. The rate of
change of energy is the tractive power, given as

where eTR is the instantaneous tractive energy. The energy required or energy change during an
interval of the vehicle can be obtained from the integration of the instantaneous power equation as

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Nonconstant FTR,General Acceleration

The energy supplied by the propulsion unit is converted into various forms of energy, some of which
are stored in the vehicle system, while others are lost due to non-constructive forces. It is interesting
to note the type of energy associated with each term in Equation 2.23. Let us consider the first term
on the right side of Equation 2.23:

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The above term represents change in vertical displacement multiplied by mg, which is the change in
potential energy. The third and fourth terms on the right side of Equation 2.23 represent the energy
required to overcome nonconstructive forces that include rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag
force. The energy represented in these terms is essentially the loss term. Therefore,

Propulsion System Design.

The steady state maximum velocity, maximum gradability, and velocity equations can be used in the
design stage to specify the power requirement of a particular vehicle. The common design
requirements related to vehicle power expected to be specified by a customer are the initial
acceleration, rated velocity on a given slope, maximum % grade, and maximum steady state velocity

The complete design is a complex issue involving numerous variables, constraints, considerations,
and judgment.

Let us consider the tractive power requirement for initial acceleration, which plays a significant role
in determining the rated power of the propulsion unit. The initial acceleration is specified as 0 to vf in
tf s. The design problem is to solve for FTR, starting with a set of variables including vehicle mass,
rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag coefficient, percent grade, wheel radius, etc., some of which are
known, while others have to be assumed. The acceleration of the vehicle in terms of these variables
is given by

The tractive force output of the electric motor for an EV or the combination of electric motor and IC
engine for an HEV will be a function of vehicle velocity. Furthermore, the road load characteristics
are a function of velocity, resulting in a transcendental equation to be solved to determine the
desired tractive power from the propulsion unit. Other design requirements also play a significant
role in determining tractive power.

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Module-2 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

Electric vehicles (EVs) use an electric motor for traction, and chemical batteries, fuel cells, ultra
capacitors, and/or flywheels for their corresponding energy sources. The electric vehicle has many
advantages over the conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), such as an absence of
emissions, high efficiency, independence from petroleum, and quiet and smooth operation.

Configuration of Electric Vehicles,

A modern electric drive train is conceptually illustrated in Figure 4.2.1 The drive train consists of
three major subsystems: electric motor propulsion, energy source, and auxiliary. The electric
propulsion subsystem is comprised of a vehicle controller, power electronic converter, electric
motor, mechanical transmission, and driving wheels.

The energy source subsystem involves the energy source, the energy management unit, and the
energy refueling unit. The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering unit, the hotel climate
control unit, and the auxiliary supply unit.

Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller provides
proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to regulate the power flow
between the electric motor and energy source.

The backward power flow is due to the regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerated energy
can be restored to the energy source, provided the energy source is receptive. Most EV batteries as
well as ultra capacitors and flywheels readily possess the ability to accept regenerated energy. The
energy management unit cooperates with the vehicle controller to control the regenerative braking
and its energy recovery.

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It also works with the energy refueling unit to control the refueling unit, and to monitor the usability
of the energy source. The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power at different voltage
levels for all the EV auxiliaries, especially the hotel climate control and power steering units.

Different EV Configurations

There are a variety of possible EV configurations due to the variations in electric propulsion
characteristics and energy sources, as shown in Figure 4.3

(a) Figure 4.3(a) shows the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric propulsion
replaces the IC engine of a conventional vehicle drive train. It consists of an electric motor, a clutch,
a gearbox, and a differential. The clutch and gearbox may be replaced by automatic transmission.

The clutch is used to connect or disconnect the power of the electric motor from the driven wheels.
The gearbox provides a set of gear ratios to modify the speed-power (torque) profile to match the
load requirement.

The differential is a mechanical device (usually a set of planetary gears), which enables the wheels of
both sides to be driven at different speeds when the vehicle runs along a curved path.

(b) With an electric motor that has constant power in a long speed range a fixed gearing can replace
the multispeed gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch. This configuration not only reduces the
size and weight of the mechanical transmission, but also simplifies the drive train control because
gear shifting is not needed.

(c) Similar to the drive train in (b), the electric motor, the fixed gearing, and the differential can be
further integrated into a single assembly while both axles point at both driving wheels. The whole
drive train is further simplified and compacted.

(d) In Figure 4.3(d), the mechanical differential is replaced by using two traction motors. Each of
them drives one side wheel and operates at a different speed when the vehicle is running along a
curved path.

(e) In order to further simplify the drive train, the traction motor can be placed inside a wheel. This
arrangement is the so-called inwheel drive. A thin planetary gear set may be used to reduce the
motor speed and enhance the motor torque.

The thin planetary gear set offers the advantage of a high-speed reduction ratio as well as an inline
arrangement of the input and output shaft.

(f) By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing between the electric motor and the driving wheel,
the out-rotor of a low-speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive can be directly connected to the
driving wheel.

The speed control of the electric motor is equivalent to the control of the wheel speed and hence
the vehicle speed. However, this arrangement requires the electric motor to have a higher torque to
start and accelerate the vehicle.

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Performance of Electric Vehicles

A vehicle’s driving performance is usually evaluated by its acceleration time, maximum speed, and
gradeability. In EV drive train design, proper motor power rating and transmission parameters are
the primary considerations to meet the performance specification. The design of all these
parameters depends mostly on the speed–power (torque) characteristics of the traction motor.

 Traction motor characteristics,

Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in Figure 4.4. At
the low-speed region (less than the base speed as marked in Figure 4.4), the motor has a
constant torque. In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a
constant power. This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x, defined as the
ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed.

In low-speed operations, voltage supply to the motor increases with the increase of the
speed through the electronic converter while the flux is kept constant. At the point of base
speed, the voltage of the motor reaches the source voltage.

After the base speed, the motor voltage is kept constant and the flux is weakened, dropping
hyperbolically with increasing speed. Hence, its torque also drops hyperbolically with
increasing speed.

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 Figure 4.5 shows the torque–speed profiles of a 60 kW motor with different speed ratios x
(x=2, 4, and 6). It is clear that with a long constant power region, the maximum torque of the
motor can be significantly increased, and hence vehicle acceleration and gradeability
performance can be improved and the transmission can be simplified.

 Tractive effort and Transmission requirement,

The tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and the vehicle speed
are expressed as

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 where Tm and Nm are the motor torque output and speed in rpm, respectively, ig is the gear
ratio of transmission, i0 is the gear ratio of final drive, ηt is the efficiency of the whole
driveline from the motor to the driven wheels, and rd is the radius of the drive wheels.

The use of a multigear or single-gear transmission depends mostly on the motor speed–
torque characteristics. That is, at a given rated motor power, if the motor has a long
constant power region, a single-gear transmission would be sufficient for a high tractive
effort at low speeds. Otherwise, a multigear (more than two gears) transmission has to be
used.

Figure 4.6 shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction
motor of x=2 and a three-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c,
the second gear covers d–e–f, and the third gear covers g–f–h.

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 Figure 4.7 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=6 and a two-gear
transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c and the second gear d–e–f.

Figure 4.8 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=6 and a single-gear
transmission. These three designs have the same tractive effort vs. vehicle speed profiles.
Therefore, the vehicles will have the same acceleration and gradeability performance.

 Vehicle performance,
Basic vehicle performance includes maximum cruising speed, gradeability, and acceleration.
The maximum speed of a vehicle can be easily found by the intersection point of the tractive
effort curve with the resistance curve (rolling resistance plus aerodynamic drag), in the
tractive effort vs. vehicle speed diagram shown in Figures 4.6–4.8.

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 It should be noted that such an intersection point does not exist in some designs, which
usually use a larger traction motor or a large gear ratio. In this case, the maximum vehicle
speed is determined by the maximum speed of the traction motor as

where Nm max is the allowed maximum rpm of the traction motor and ig min is the minimum
gear ratio of the transmission (highest gear). Gradeability is determined by the net tractive
effort of the vehicle, Ft-net (F t-net-Ft –Fr-Fw), as shown in Figures 4.6–4.8. At mid- and high
speeds, the gradeability is smaller than the gradeability at low speeds

 Tractive effort in normal driving

Actual tractive effort (power) and vehicle speed vary widely with operating conditions, such
as acceleration or deceleration, uphill or downhill motion, etc. These variations are
associated with the traffic environment as well as the type of vehicles.

City and highway traffic conditions vary greatly, as do the different missions of the vehicles,
such as a universal passenger car and vehicles with regular operation routes and schedules.
It is difficult to describe the tractive effort and vehicle speed variations in all actual traffic
environments accurately and quantitatively.

However, some representative drive cycles (driving schedules) have been developed to
emulate typical traffic environments. These drive cycles are represented by the vehicle
speeds vs. the operating time while driving on a flat road.

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 (Speed profile and tractive effort in different representative drive cycles; operating points
are marked by ‘+’, (a) FTP 75 urban, (b) FTP 75 highway, (c) US06, (d) J227a schedule B, (e)
J227a schedule C, and (f) J227a schedule D)

Some typical drive cycles are illustrated in Figure 4.12, which include (a) FTP75 urban cycle,
(b) FTP75 highway cycle, (c) US06 cycle, which is a high-speed and high-acceleration drive
cycle, (d) J227a schedule B, (e) J227a schedule C, and (f) J227a schedule D. The J227a series
is recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers in the U.S.A.6 and is applied in the
evaluation of EVs and batteries

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 In a specific drive cycle, the tractive effort of a vehicle can be expressed as

 Energy consumption
In transportation, the unit of energy is usually kilowatt-hour (kWh) rather than joule or
kilojoule (J or kJ). The energy consumption per unit distance in kWh/km is generally used to
evaluate the vehicle energy consumption. However, for ICE vehicles the commonly used unit
is a physical unit of fuel volume per unit distance, such as liters per 100 km (l/100 km). In the
U.S., the distance per unit volume of fuel is usually used; this is expressed as miles per gallon
(mpg).
On the other hand, for battery-powered EVs, the original energy consumption unit in kWh,
measured at the battery terminals, is more suitable. The battery energy capacity is usually
measured in kWh and the driving range per battery charge can be easily calculated. Similar
to ICE vehicles, l/100 km (for liquid fuels) or kg/100 km (for gas fuels, such as hydrogen) or
mpg, or miles per kilogram is a more suitable unit of measurement for vehicles that use
gaseous fuels.

Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the battery terminals. For
propelling, the battery power output is equal to resistance power and any power losses in
the transmission and the motor drive, including power losses in electronics. The power
losses in transmission and motor drive are represented by their efficiencies ηt and ηm,
respectively.

Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains,

Basically, any vehicle power train is required to (1) develop sufficient power to meet the demands of
vehicle performance, (2) carry sufficient energy onboard to support vehicle driving in the given
range, (3) demonstrate high efficiency, and (4) emit few environmental pollutants.

Broadly, a vehicle may have more than one energy source and energy converter (power source),
such as a gasoline (or diesel) heat engine system, hydrogen–fuel cell–electric motor system,
chemical battery–electric motor system, etc. A vehicle that has two or more energy sources and
energy converters is called a hybrid vehicle.

A hybrid vehicle with an electrical power train (energy source energy converters) is called an HEV. A
hybrid vehicle drive train usually consists of no more than two power trains. More than two power
train configurations will complicate the system.

Figure 5.1 shows the concept of a hybrid drive train and the possible different power flow routes.

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Hybrid drive trains supply the required power by an adapted power train. There are many available
patterns of combining the power flows to meet load requirements as described below:

1. Power train 1 alone delivers power to the load

2. Power train 2 alone delivers power to the load

3. Both power train 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time

4. Power train 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)

5. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1

6. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1 and load at the same time

7. Power train 1 delivers power to load and to power train 2 at the same time

8. Power train 1 delivers power to power train 2, and power train 2 delivers power to load

9. Power train 1 delivers power to load, and load delivers power to power train 2

In the case of hybridization with a liquid fuel-IC engine (power train 1) and a battery-electric
machine (power train 2), pattern (1) is the engine-alone propelling mode. This may be used when
the batteries are almost completely depleted and the engine has no remaining power to charge the
batteries, or when the batteries have been fully charged and the engine is able to supply sufficient
power to meet the power demands of the vehicle.

Pattern (2) is the pure electric propelling mode, in which the engine is shut off. This pattern may be
used in situations where the engine cannot operate effectively, such as very low speed, or in areas
where emissions are strictly prohibited.

Pattern (3) is the hybrid traction mode and may be used when a large amount of power is needed,
such as during sharp acceleration or steep hill climbing.

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Pattern (4) is the regenerative braking mode, by which the kinetic or potential energy of the vehicle
is recovered through the electric motor functioning as a generator. The recovered energy is stored in
the batteries and reused later on.

Pattern (5) is the mode in which the engine charges the batteries while the vehicle is at a standstill,
coasting, or descending a slight grade, in which no power goes into or comes from the load.

Pattern (6) is the mode in which both regenerative braking and the IC engine charge the batteries
simultaneously.

Pattern (7) is the mode in which the engine propels the vehicle and charges the batteries
simultaneously.

Pattern (8) is the mode in which the engine charges the batteries, and the batteries supply power to
the load.

Pattern (9) is the mode in which the power flows into the batteries from the heat engine through the
vehicle mass. The typical configuration of this mode is two power trains separately mounted on the
front and the rear axle of the vehicle.

The varied operation modes in a hybrid vehicle create more flexibility over a single power train
vehicle. With proper configuration and control, applying the specific mode for each special operating
condition can optimize overall performance, efficiency, and emissions.

The architecture of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains,

The architecture of a hybrid vehicle is loosely defined as the connection between the components
that define the energy flow routes and control ports. Traditionally, HEVs were classified into two
basic types: series and parallel.

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It is interesting to note that, in 2000, some newly introduced HEVs could not be classified into these
kinds.5 Therefore, HEVs are now classified into four kinds: series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series–
parallel hybrid, and complex hybrid.

In Figure 5.3, a fuel tank-IC engine and a battery-electric motor are taken, respectively, as examples
of the primary power source (steady power source) and secondary power source (dynamic power
source). Of course, the IC engine can be replaced by other types of power sources, such as fuel cells.
Similarly, the batteries can be replaced by ultracapacitors or by flywheels and their combinations.

Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

A series hybrid drive train is a drive train where two power sources feed a single powerplant (electric
motor) that propels the vehicle. The most commonly found series hybrid drive train is the series
hybrid electric drive train shown in Figure 5.4.

The unidirectional energy source is a fuel tank and the unidirectional energy converter is an engine
coupled to an electric generator. The output of the electric generator is connected to an electric
power bus through an electronic converter (rectifier). The bidirectional energy source is an
electrochemical battery pack, connected to the bus by means of a power electronics converter
(DC/DC converter).

The electric power bus is also connected to the controller of the electric traction motor. The traction
motor can be controlled either as a motor or a generator, and in forward or reverse motion. This
drive train may need a battery charger to charge the batteries by a wall plug-in from the power
network.

Series hybrid electric drive trains potentially have the following operation modes:

1. Pure electric mode: The engine is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the batteries.

2. Pure engine mode: The vehicle traction power only comes from the engine-generator, while the
batteries neither supply nor draw any power from the drive train. The electric machines serve as an
electric transmission from the engine to the driven wheels.

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3. Hybrid mode: The traction power is drawn from both the engine generator and the batteries.

4. Engine traction and battery charging mode: The engine-generator supplies power to charge the
batteries and to propel the vehicle.

5. Regenerative braking mode: The engine-generator is turned off and the traction motor is
operated as a generator. The power generated is used to charge the batteries.

6. Battery charging mode: The traction motor receives no power and the engine-generator charges
the batteries.

7. Hybrid battery charging mode: Both the engine-generator and the traction motor operate as
generators to charge the batteries.

Series hybrid drive trains offer several advantages:

1. The engine is fully mechanical when decoupled from the driven wheels. Therefore, it can be
operated at any point on its speed–torque characteristic map, and can potentially be operated solely
within its maximum efficiency region as shown in Figure 5.4. The efficiency and emissions of the
engine can be further improved by optimal design and control in this narrow region. A narrow region
allows greater improvements than an optimization across the entire range. Furthermore, the
mechanical decoupling of the engine from the driven wheels allows the use of a high-speed engine.
This makes it difficult to power the wheels directly through a mechanical link, such as gas turbines or
powerplants, with slow dynamics like the Stirling engine.

2. Because electric motors have near-ideal torque–speed characteristics, they do not need multigear
transmissions.Therefore, their construction is greatly simplified and the cost is reduced.

Furthermore, instead of using one motor and a differential gear, two motors may be used, each
powering a single wheel. This provides speed decoupling between the two wheels like a differential
but also acts as a limited slip differential for traction control purposes.

The ultimate refinement would use four motors, thus making the vehicle an all-wheel-drive without
the expense and complexity of differentials and drive shafts running through the frame.

3. Simple control strategies may be used as a result of the mechanical decoupling provided by the
electrical transmission.

However, series hybrid electric drive trains have some disadvantages:

1. The energy from the engine is converted twice (mechanical to electrical in the generator and
electrical to mechanical in the traction motor). The inefficiencies of the generator and traction
motor add up and the losses may be significant.

2. The generator adds additional weight and cost.

3. The traction motor must be sized to meet maximum requirements since it is the only powerplant
propelling the vehicle.

Parallel hybrid electric drive trains

(NOTE- If question is asked like explain parallel hybrid train give one example from all three
classification)

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A parallel hybrid drive train is a drive train in which the engine supplies its power mechanically to the
wheels like in a conventional ICE-powered vehicle. It is assisted by an electric motor that is
mechanically coupled to the transmission. The powers of the engine and electric motor are coupled
together by mechanical coupling, as shown in Figure 5.5.

The mechanical combination of the engine and electric motor power leaves room for several
different configurations, detailed hereafter

(i) Torque-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains The mechanical coupling in Figure 5.5 may
be a torque or speed coupling. The torque coupling adds the torques of the engine and the electric
motor together or splits the engine torque into two parts: propelling and battery charging. Figure 5.6
conceptually shows a mechanical torque coupling, which has two inputs. One is from the engine and
one is from the electric motor. The mechanical torque coupling outputs to the mechanical
transmission.

If loss is ignored, the output torque and speed can be described by

where k1 and k2 are the constants determined by the parameters of torque coupling There are a
variety of configurations in torque coupling hybrid drive trains. They are classified into two-shaft and
one-shaft designs. In each category, the transmission can be placed in different positions and
designed with different gears, resulting in different tractive characteristics. An optimum design will

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depend mostly on the tractive requirements, engine size and engine characteristics, motor size and
motor characteristics, etc.

Figure 5.8 shows a two-shaft configuration design, in which two transmissions are used: one is
placed between the engine and the torque coupling and other is placed between the motor and
torque coupling. Both transmissions may be single or multigear

Another configuration of the two-shaft parallel hybrid drive train is shown in Figure 5.10, in which
the transmission is located between the torque coupling and drive shaft. This configuration would be
suitable in the case when a relatively small engine and electric motor are used, and where a
multigear transmission is needed to enhance the tractive effort at low speeds.

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As shown in fig a transmission may be either placed behind an electric motor that is connected to
the engine through a clutch or between the engine and the electric motor. The former configuration
is referred to as “pretransmission” (the motor is ahead of the transmission, Figure 5.11) and the
latter is referred to as “posttransmission” (the motor is behind the transmission, Figure 5.12).

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In the pretransmission configuration, both the engine torque and motor torque are modified by the
transmission. The engine and motor must have the same speed range. This configuration is usually
used in the case of a small motor, referred to as a mild hybrid drive train, in which the electric motor
functions as an engine starter, electrical generator, engine power assistant, and regenerative
braking.

However, in the posttransmission configuration as shown in Figure 5.12, the transmission can only
modify the engine torque while the motor torque is directly delivered to the driven wheels. This
configuration may be used in the drive train where a large electric motor with a long constant power

Another torque coupling parallel hybrid drive train is the separated axle architecture, in which one
axle is powered by the engine and another is powered by the electric motor (Figure 5.13). The
tractive efforts from the two power trains are added through the vehicle chassis and the road. The
operating principle is similar to the two-shaft configuration shown in Figure 5.8.

(ii) Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

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The powers from two powerplants may be coupled together by coupling their speeds,The
characteristics of a speed coupling can be described by

where k1 and k2 are constants associated with the actual design

Figure 5.15 shows two typical speed-coupling devices: one is a planetary gear unit and the other is
an electric motor with a floating stator, called a transmotor in this book. A planetary gear unit is a
three-port unit consisting of the sun gear, the ring gear, and the yoke labeled 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.

The speed and torque relationship between the three ports indicates that the unit is a speed-
coupling device, in which the speed, the sun gear, and the ring gear are added together and output
through the yoke. The constants k1 and k2 depend only on the radius of each gear or the number of
teeth of each gear.

Another interesting device used in speed coupling is an electric motor (called a transmotor), in which
the stator, generally fixed to a stationary frame, is released as a power-input port. The other two
ports are the rotor and the airgap through which electric energy is converted into mechanical energy

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Just like the torque-coupling device, the speed-coupling units can be used to constitute various
hybrid drive trains. Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.17 show two examples of hybrid drive trains with speed
coupling of the planetary gear unit and an electric transmotor. In Figure 5.16, the engine supplies its
power to the sun gear through a clutch and transmission.

The transmission is used to modify the speed–torque characteristics of the engine so as to match
the traction requirements. The electric motor supplies its power to the ring gear through a pair of
gears. Locks 1 and 2 are used to lock the sun gear and ring gear to the standstill frame of the vehicle
in order to satisfy the different operation mode requirements.

The following operation modes can be satisfied:

1. Hybrid traction: When locks 1 and 2 are released the sun gear and ring gear can rotate and both
the engine and electric machine supply positive speed and torque (positive power) to the driven
wheels.

2. Engine-alone traction: When lock 2 locks the ring gear to the vehicle frame and lock 1 is released
only the engine supplies power to the driven wheels.

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3. Motor-alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear to the vehicle frame (engine is shut off or
clutch is disengaged) and lock 2 is released only the electric motor supplies its power to the driven
wheels.

4. Regenerative braking: Lock 1 is set in locking state, the engine is shut off or clutch is disengaged,
and the electric machine is controlled in regenerating operation (negative torque). The kinetic or
potential energy of the vehicle can be absorbed by the electric system.

5. Battery charging from the engine: When the controller sets a negative speed for the electric
machine, the electric machine absorbs energy from the engine.

The drive train, consisting of the transmotor as shown in Figure 5.17, has a structure similar to that
in Figure 5.16. Locks 1 and 2 are used to lock the stator to the vehicle frame and the stator to the
rotor, respectively. This drive train can fulfill all the operation modes mentioned above.

(iii) Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

By combining torque and speed coupling together, one may constitute a hybrid drive train in which
torque and speed coupling states can be alternatively chosen.

Figure 5.18 shows such an example. When the torque coupling operation mode is chosen as the
current mode, lock 2 locks the ring gear of the planetary unit to the vehicle frame, while clutches 1
and 3 are engaged and clutch 2 is disengaged. The powers of the engine and the electric motor are
added together by adding their torques together (refer to equation [5.1]), and then delivered to the
driven wheels. In this case, the engine torque and the electric motor are decoupled, but their speeds
have a fixed relationship

When the speed-coupling mode is chosen as the current operating mode, clutch 1 is engaged,
whereas clutches 2 and 3 are disengaged, and locks 1 and 2 release the sun gear and the ring gear.
The speed of the yoke, connected to the drive wheels, is the combination of engine speed and motor
speed. But the engine torque, the electric motor torque, and the torque on the driven wheels are
kept in a fixed relationship.

The planetary gear unit traction motor in Figure 5.18 can be replaced by a transmotor to constitute a
similar drive train as shown in Figure 5.19.12 When clutch 1 is engaged to couple the engine shaft to

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the rotor shaft of the transmotor, clutch 2 is disengaged to release the engine shaft from the rotor of
the transmotor and the lock is activated to set the stator of the transmotor to the vehicle frame. The
drive train then works in the torque-coupling mode. On the other hand, when clutch 1 is disengaged
and clutch 2 is engaged and the lock is released, the drive train works in the speed-coupling mode

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Module-3 Energy storage for EV and HEV:

Energy storage requirements,

There are a number of requirements for energy storage applied in an automotive application, such
as

Specific energy - which Is the energy per unit mass of the energy source. The specific energies are
shown without taking containment into consideration. The specific energy of hydrogen and natural
gas would be significantly lower than that of gasoline when containment is considered.

Specific power- Similar to specific energy, specific power is the power available per unit mass from
the source

Operating life- The operating life of a battery is the number of deep discharge cycles obtainable in
its lifetime or the number of service years expected in a certain application.

Energy Efficiency - The energy or power losses during battery discharging and charging appear in the
form of voltage loss. Thus, the efficiency of the battery during discharging and charging can be
defined at any operating point as the ratio of the cell operating voltage to the thermodynamic
voltage, that is:

Cost - . And above all, the cost of batteries must be reasonable for EVs and HEVs to be commercially
viable.

It also includes Maintenance requirement, management, environmental adaptation and friendliness,

and safety. For allocation on an EV, specific energy is the first consideration since it limits the vehicle
range.

On the other hand, for HEV applications, specific energy becomes less important and specific power
is the first consideration, because all the energy is from the energy source (engine or fuel cell) and
sufficient power is needed to ensure vehicle performance, particularly during acceleration, hill
climbing, and regenerative braking. Of course, other requirements should be fully considered in
vehicle drive train development

Additional technical issues include methods and designs to balance the battery segments or packs
electrically and thermally, accurate techniques to determine a battery’s state of charge, and
recycling facilities of battery component

Battery BASICS (Components of battery cell)

The energy stored in a battery is the difference in free energy between chemical components in the
charged and discharged states. This available chemical energy in a cell is converted into electrical
energy only on demand, using the basic components of a unit cell, which are the positive and
negative electrodes, the separators, and the electrolytes. The electrochemically active ingredient of
the positive or negative electrode is called the active material. Chemical oxidation and reduction
processes take place at the two electrodes, thereby bonding and releasing electrons, respectively.

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The electrodes must be electronically conducting and are located at different sites, separated by a
separator, as shown in Figure 3.1.

The components of the battery cell are described as follows:

1. Positive electrode: The positive electrode is an oxide or sulfide or some other compound that is
capable of being reduced during cell discharge. This electrode consumes electrons from the external
circuit during cell discharge. Examples of positive electrodes are lead oxide (PbO2) and nickel
oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). The electrode materials are in the solid state.

2. Negative electrode: The negative electrode is a metal or an alloy that is capable of being oxidized
during cell discharge. This electrode generates electrons in the external circuit during cell discharge.
Examples of negative electodes are lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). Negative electrode materials are
also in the solid state within the battery cell.

3. Electrolyte: The electrolyte is the medium that permits ionic conduction between positive and
negative electrodes of a cell. The electrolyte must have high and selective conductivity for the ions
that take part in electrode reactions, but it must be a nonconductor for electrons in order to avoid
self-discharge of batteries.

The electrolyte may be liquid, gel, or solid material. Also, the electrolyte can be acidic or alkaline,
depending on the type of battery. Traditional batteries such as lead-acid and nickel-cadmium use
liquid electrolytes. In lead-acid batteries, the electrolyte is the aqueous solution of sulfuric acid
[H2SO4(aq)]. Advanced batteries currently under development for EVs, such as sealed lead-acid,
nickelmetal-hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion batteries use an electrolyte that is gel, paste, or resin.
Lithium-polymer batteries use a solid electrolyte.

4. Separator: The separator is the electrically insulating layer of material that physically separates
electrodes of opposite polarity. Separators must be permeable to the ions of the electrolyte and may
also have the function of storing or immobilizing the electrolyte. Present day separators are made
from synthetic polymers

There are two basic types of batteries: primary batteries and secondary batteries. Batteries that
cannot be recharged and are designed for a single discharge are known as primary batteries.

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Examples of these are the lithium batteries used in watches, calculators, cameras, etc., and the
manganese dioxide batteries used to power toys, radios, torches, etc.

Batteries that can be recharged by flowing current in the direction opposite to that during discharge
are known as secondary batteries. The chemical reaction process during cell charge operation when
electrical energy is converted into chemical energy is the reverse of that during discharge. The
batteries needed and used for EVs and HEVs are all secondary batteries, because they are recharged
during regeneration cycles of vehicle operation or during the battery recharging cycle in the stopped
condition using a charger.

Battery Pack

The batteries are made of unit cells containing the chemical energy that is convertible to electrical
energy. One or more of these electrolytic cells are connected in series to form one battery. The
grouped cells are enclosed in a casing to form a battery module. A battery pack is a collection of
these individual battery modules connected in a series and parallel combination to deliver the
desired voltage and energy to the power electronic drive system

Types of Batteries

The major types of rechargeable batteries considered for EV and HEV applications are:

• Lead-acid (Pb-acid)

• Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)

• Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)

• Lithium-ion (Li-ion)

• Lithium-polymer (Li-poly)

• Sodium-sulfur (NaS)

• Zinc-air (Zn-Air)

LEAD-ACID BATTERY
Lead-acid batteries have been the most popular choice of batteries for EVs. Leadacid batteries can
be designed to be high powered and are inexpensive, safe, and reliable. A recycling infrastructure is
in place for them. However, low specific energy, poor cold temperature performance, and short
calendar and cycle life are among the obstacles to their use in EVs and HEVs.

The lead-acid battery has a history that dates to the middle of the 19th century, and it is currently a
mature technology. The first lead-acid battery was produced as early as in 1859. In the early 1980s,
over 100,000,000 lead-acid batteries were produced per year. The long existence of the lead-acid
battery is due to the following

•Relatively low cost

• Easy availability of raw materials (lead, sulfur)

• Ease of manufacture

• Favorable electromechanical characteristics

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The battery cell operation consists of a cell discharge operation, when the energy is supplied from
the battery to the electric motor to develop propulsion power, and a cell charge operation, when
energy is supplied from an external source to store energy in the battery.

CELL CHARGE OPERATION

The cell charge operation (Figure 3.3) is the reverse of the cell discharge operation. During cell
charging, lead sulfate is converted back to the reactant states of lead and lead oxide. The electrons
are consumed from the external source at the negative electrode, while the positive electrode
releases the electrons. The current flows into the positive electrode from the external source,
thereby delivering electrical energy into the cell, where it gets converted into chemical energy. The
chemical reaction at the positive electrode during cell charging is:

CELL DISCHARGE OPERATION

In the cell discharge operation (Figure 3.2), electrons are consumed at the positive electrode, the
supply of which comes from the negative electrode. The current flow is, therefore, out of the
positive electrode into the motor-load, with the battery acting as the source.

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A highly porous structure is used for the positive electrode to increase the PbO2 (s)/electrolyte
contact area, which is about 50 to 150 m2 per Ah of battery capacity. This results in higher current
densities, as PbO2 is converted to PbSO4 (s). As discharge proceeds, the internal resistance of the cell
rises due to PbSO4 formation and decreases the electrolyte conductivity as H2SO4 is consumed.
PbSO4(s) deposited on either electrode in a dense, fine-grain form can lead to sulfatation. The
discharge reaction is largely inhibited by the buildup of PbSO4, which reduces cell capacity
significantly from the theoretical capacity.

The electrons are released at the negative electrode during discharge operation. The production of
PbSO4(s) can degrade battery performance by making the negative electrode more passive.

Construction

Construction of a typical battery consists of positive and negative electrode groups (elements)
interleaved to form a cell. The through partition connection in the battery is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
The positive plate is made of stiff paste of the active material on a lattice-type grid, which is shown
in Figure 3.5.

The grid, made of a suitably selected lead alloy, is the framework of a portable battery to hold the
active material. The positive plates can be configured in flat pasted or tubular fashion. The negative
plates are always manufactured as pasted types

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NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) batteries are examples of alkaline batteries
with which electrical energy is derived from the chemical reaction of a metal with oxygen in an
alkaline electrolyte medium. The specific energy of alkaline batteries is lowered due to the addition
of weight of the carrier metal. The NiCd battery employs a nickel oxide positive electrode and a
metallic cadmium negative electrode. The net reaction occurring in the potassium hydroxide (KOH)
electrolyte is:

The practical cell voltage is 1.2 to 1.3 V, and the atomic mass of cadmium is 112. The specific energy
of NiCd batteries is 30 to 50 Wh/kg, which is similar to that of lead-acid batteries.

The advantages of NiCd batteries are superior low-temperature performance compared to lead-acid
batteries, flat discharge voltage, long life, and excellent reliability. The maintenance requirements of
the batteries are also low.

The biggest drawbacks of NiCd batteries are the high cost and the toxicity contained in cadmium.
Environmental concerns may be overcome in the long run through efficient recycling, but the
insufficient power delivered by the NiCd batteries is another important reason for not considering
these batteries for EV and HEV applications. The drawbacks of the NiCd batteries led to the rapid
development of NiMH batteries, which are deemed more suitable for EV and HEV applications

NICKEL-METAL-HYDRIDE (NiMH) BATTERY

The nickel-metal-hydride battery is a successor to the nickel-hydrogen battery and is already in use
in production HEVs. In NiMH batteries, the positive electrode is a nickel oxide similar to that used in
a NiCd battery, while the negative electrode is a metal hydride where hydrogen is stored.

The concept of NiMH batteries is based on the fact that fine particles of certain metallic alloys, when
exposed to hydrogen at certain pressures and temperatures, absorb large quantities of the gas to
form the metal-hydride compounds.

Furthermore, the metal hydrides are able to absorb and release hydrogen many times without
deterioration. The two electrode chemical reactions in a NiMH battery are:

M stands for metallic alloy, which takes up hydrogen at ambient temperature to form the metal
hydride MHX. The negative electrode consists of a compressed mass of fine metal particles. The
proprietary alloy formulations used in NiMH are known as AB5 and AB2 alloys. In the AB5 alloy, A is
the mixture of rare earth elements, and B is partially substituted nickel.

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In the AB2 alloy, A is titanium or zirconium, and B is again partially substituted nickel. The AB2 alloy
has a higher capacity for hydrogen storage and is less costly. The operating voltage of NiMH is
almost the same as that of NiCd, with flat discharge characteristics.

The capacity of the NiMH is significantly higher than that of NiCd, with specific energy ranging from
60 to 80 Wh/kg. The specific power of NiMH batteries can be as high as 250 W/kg

LI-ION BATTERY

Lithium metal has high electrochemical reduction potential (3.045 V) and the lowest atomic mass
(6.94), which shows promise for a battery of 3 V cell potential when combined with a suitable
positive electrode. The interest in secondary lithium cells soared soon after the advent of lithium
primary cells in the 1970s, but the major difficulty was the highly reactive nature of the lithium metal
with moisture, restricting the use of liquid electrolytes

Discovery in the late 1970s by researchers at Oxford University that lithium can be intercalated
(absorbed) into the crystal lattice of cobalt or nickel to form LiCoO2 or LiNiO2 paved the way toward
the development of Li-ion batteries. The use of metallic-lithium is bypassed in Li-ion batteries by
using lithium intercalated (absorbed) carbons (LixC) in the form of graphite or coke as the negative
electrode, along with the lithium metallic oxides as the positive electrode.The graphite is capable of
hosting lithium up to a composition of LiC6.

The cell discharge operation in a lithium ion cell using LiCoO2 is illustrated in Figure 3.6. During cell
discharge, lithium ions (Li+) are released from the negative electrode that travels through an organic
electrolyte toward the positive electrode.

In the positive electrode, the lithium ions are quickly incorporated into the lithium compound
material. The process is completely reversible. The chemical reactions at the electrodes are as
follows:

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During cell charge operation, lithium ions move in the opposite direction from the positive electrode
to the negative electrode. The nominal cell voltage for a Li-ion battery is 3.6 V, which is equivalent to
three NiMH or NiCd battery cells.

Lithium-ion batteries have high specific energy, high specific power, high energy efficiency, good
high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. The components of Li-ion batteries are also
recyclable. These characteristics make Li-ion batteries highly suitable for EV and HEV and other
applications of rechargeable batteries.

LI-POLYMER BATTERY

Lithium-polymer evolved out of the development of solid state electrolytes, i.e., solids capable of
conducting ions but that are electron insulators. The solid state electrolytes resulted from research
in the 1970s on ionic conduction in polymers.

These batteries are considered solid state batteries, because their electrolytes are solids. The most
common polymer electrolyte is polyethylene oxide compounded with an appropriate electrolyte
salt. The most promising positive electrode material for Li-poly batteries is vanadium oxide V6O13.
This oxide interlaces up to eight lithium atoms per oxide molecule with the following positive
electrode reaction:

Li-poly batteries have the potential for the highest specific energy and power. The solid polymers,
replacing the more flammable liquid electrolytes in other type of batteries, can conduct ions at
temperatures above 60°C. The use of solid polymers also has a great safety advantage in case of EV
and HEV accidents.

The thin Li-poly cell gives the added advantage of forming a battery of any size or shape to suit the
available space within the EV or HEV chassis. The main disadvantage of the Li-poly battery is the
need to operate the battery cell in the temperature range of 80 to 120°C.

Li-poly batteries with high specific energy, initially developed for EV applications, also have the
potential to provide high specific power for HEV applications. The other key characteristics of the Li-
poly are good cycle and calendar life

ZINC-AIR BATTERY

Zinc-air batteries have a gaseous positive electrode of oxygen and a sacrificial negative electrode of
metallic zinc. The practical zinc-air battery is only mechanically rechargeable by replacing the
discharged product, zinc hydroxide, with fresh zinc electrodes. The discharged electrode and the
potassium hydroxide electrolyte are sent to a recycling facility. In a way, the zinc-air battery is
analogous to a fuel cell, with the fuel being the zinc metal.

A module of zinc air batteries tested in German Mercedes Benz postal vans had a specific energy of
200 Wh/kg, but only a modest specific power of 100 W/kg at 80% depth-of discharge.

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With present-day technology, the range of zinc-air batteries can be between 300 to 600 km between
recharges.

These batteries include iron-air and aluminum-air batteries, in which iron and aluminum are,
respectively, used as the mechanically recyclable negative electrode. The practical metal-air
batteries have two attractive features: the positive electrode can be optimized for discharge
characteristics, because the battery is recharged outside of the battery; and the recharging time is
rapid, with a suitable infrastructure

SODIUM-SULFUR BATTERY

Sodium, similar to lithium, has a high electrochemical reduction potential (2.71 V) and low atomic
mass (23.0), making it an attractive negative electrode element for batteries. Moreover, sodium is
abundant in nature and available at a low cost.

Sulfur, which is a possible choice for the positive electrode, is also a readily available and low-cost
material. The use of aqueous electrolytes is not possible due to the highly reactive nature of sodium,
and because the natures of solid polymers like those used for lithium batteries are not known. The
solution of electrolyte came from the discovery of beta-alumina by scientists at Ford Motor
Company in 1966.

Beta-alumina is a sodium aluminum oxide with a complex crystal structure. Despite several
attractive features of NaS batteries, there are several practical limitations. The cell operating
temperature in NaS batteries is around 300°C, which requires adequate insulation as well as a
thermal control unit. This requirement forces a certain minimum size of the battery, limiting the
development of the battery for only EVs, a market that is not yet established.

Another disadvantage of NaS batteries is the absence of an overcharge mechanism. At the top-of-
charge, one or more cells can develop a high resistance, which pulls down the entire voltage of the
series-connected battery cells

Practical limitations and manufacturing difficulties of NaS batteries have led to the discontinuation
of its development programs, especially when the simpler concept of sodium-metal-chloride
batteries was developed

SODIUM-METAL-CHLORIDE BATTERY

The sodium-metal-chloride battery is a derivative of the sodium-sulfur battery with intrinsic

provisions of overcharge and overdischarge. The construction is similar to that of the NaS battery,
but the positive sulfur electrode is replaced by nickel chloride (NiCl2) or a mixture of nickel chloride
and ferrous chloride (FeCl2). The negative electrode and the electrolyte are the same as in a NaS
battery. The schematic diagram of a NaNiCl2 cell is shown in Figure 3.7

The basic cell reactions for the nickel chloride and ferrous chloride positive electrodes are as follows:

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On charging after assembly, the positive electrode compartment is formed of the respective metal,
and the negative electrode compartment is formed of sodium. This procedure has two significant
advantages: pure sodium is manufactured in situ through diffusion in beta-alumina, and the raw
materials for the battery (common salt and metal powder) are inexpensive

Sodium chloride batteries are commonly known as ZEBRA batteries, which originally resulted from a
research collaboration between scientists from the United Kingdom and South Africa in the early
1980s. ZEBRA batteries have been shown to be safe under all conditions of use. They have high
potential for being used as batteries for EVs and HEVs. There are several test programs utilizing the
ZEBRA batteries.

BATTERY PARAMETERS

Storage Capacity:
It determines for number of hours for which the battery can be discharged at a constant current to a
defined cutoff voltage. It is represented by the Coulomb SI unit (Amperes per second) but since this
unit is usually very small, the Ampere-hour (Ah) unit is used instead (1 Ah represents 3600 C).

The value of this capacity depends on the ambient temperature, the age of the battery, and the
discharge rate. The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity, although it affects each battery
technology differently. Additional to the Ampere-hour unit, the storage capacity can also be defined
in Watt-hours (Wh=V x Ah), where 1 Wh represents 3600 J.

Energy Density:
The energy density is the amount of energy that can be stored, per cubic meter of battery volume,
expressed in Watt-hour per cubic meter (Wh/m3 ). This is a very important parameter to select a
specific battery technology for transportation applications, where space availability is critical.

Specific Power:
This parameter is defined as the power capacity per kilogram of battery, in W/kg . Some battery
technologies offer high energy density but low specific power, which means that even though they
can store a large amount of energy, they can only supply a small amount of power instantly.

In transportation terms, this would mean that a vehicle could run for a long distance, at low speed.
On the contrary, batteries with high specific power usually have low energy density, because high
discharge currents usually reduce the available energy rapidly (e.g., high acceleration)

Cell Voltage:
The cell voltage is determined by the equilibrium thermodynamic reactions that take place inside the
cell, however, this value is often difficult to measure and therefore, the open circuit voltage (OCV)
measured between the anode and cathode terminals is used instead.

For some battery technologies (e.g., lead-acid), the OCV can be used as a basic estimate of the state
of charge (SoC). Another measure often used is the closed circuit voltage (CCV), which depends on
the load current, state of charge, and cell’s usage history. Finally, battery manufacturers provide the
nominal voltage value, from the cell’s characterization and therefore, cannot be experimentally
verified

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Charge and Discharge Current:
During the discharging process in a battery, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through
the load, to provide with the required current and the circuit is completed in the electrolyte. During
the charging process, an external source supplies with the charging current and the oxidation takes
place at the positive electrode while the reduction takes place at the negative electrode.

For practical purposes, the term C-rate is used to express the charge or discharge current relative to
the rated capacity. For example, a discharge rate of 1 C means that the battery will be fully
discharged in 1 h.

State of Charge:
The state of charge (SoC) defines the amount of stored energy relative to the total energy storage
capacity of the battery. Depending on the battery technology, different methods are used to
estimate this value.

Depth of Discharge:
Often referred to as DoD(in %), this parameter expresses the battery capacity that has been
discharged relative to the maximum capacity. Each battery technology supports different maximum
recommended levels of DoD to minimize its impact on the overall cycle life.

Cycle Life:
The cycle life determines the number of charge/discharge cycles that the battery can experience
before it reaches a predetermined energy capacity or other performance criteria. The current rate at
which the battery is charged/discharged as well as environmental conditions (e.g., temperature and
humidity) and the DoD can affect this number, since it is originally calculated by the manufacturer
based on specific charge and discharge conditions.

Self-discharge:
This parameter defines the reduction in energy capacity of the battery under no-load conditions
(e.g., open circuit), as a result of internal short-circuits and chemical reactions.

This parameter can be affected by environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity, as
well as the DoD and the battery’s charge/discharge history. Additionally, this parameter is
particularly important for long-term shelf storage of batteries.

Round-Trip Efficiency:
Due to internal losses and material degradation, not all the energy supplied to the battery during
charging can be recovered during discharge.

The amount of energy that can be taken from the battery during the discharging process over the
energy supplied determines the round-trip efficiency. This efficiency is sensitive to the charging and
discharging currents. At higher currents, thermal losses increase and therefore the efficiency is
reduced

Fuel Cell basic principle and operation

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A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity by means of a chemical reaction,
much like a battery. The major difference between batteries and fuel cells is that the latter can
produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied, while batteries produce electricity from stored
chemical energy and, hence, require frequent recharging.

The basic structure of a fuel cell (Figure 4.1) consists of an anode and a cathode, similar to a battery.
The fuel supplied to the cell is hydrogen and oxygen. The concept of fuel cell is the opposite of
electrolysis of water, where hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form electricity and water. The
hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two hydrogen atoms per molecule chemically
bonded together in the form H2.

This molecule includes two separate nuclei, each containing one proton, while sharing two electrons.
The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to produce electricity. The exact nature of
accomplishing the task depends on the fuel cell type, although what remains the same for all fuel
cells is that this reaction takes place at the anode.

The hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the chemical reaction, releasing
hydrogen ions and electrons. A catalyst speeds the reaction, and an electrolyte allows the two
hydrogen ions, which essentially are two single protons, to move to the cathode through the
electrolyte placed between the two electrodes.

The flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit is what produces
electricity. For the overall cell reaction to complete, oxygen or air must be passed over the cathode.
The cathode reaction takes place in two stages. First, the bond between the two oxygen atoms in
the molecule breaks and then each ionized oxygen atom grabs two electrons coming from the anode
through the external circuit to become negatively charged.

The negatively charged oxygen atoms are balanced by the positively charged hydrogen atoms at the
cathode, and the combination produces H2O commonly known as water. The chemical reaction
taking place in a fuel cell is as follows:

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Types of Fuel Cells

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs)

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies to be developed and were
originally used by NASA in the space programme to produce both electricity and water aboard
spacecraft. AFCs continued to be used on NASA space shuttles through the programme, alongside a
limited number of commercial applications.

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AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide in water and are generally fuelled with
pure hydrogen. The first AFCs operated at between 100 degree Celsius and 250 degree Celsius but
typical operating temperatures are now around 70 degree Celsius.

As a result of the low operating temperature, it is not necessary to employ a platinum catalyst in the
system and instead, a variety of non-precious metals can be used as catalysts to speed up the
reactions occurring at the anode and cathode. Nickel is the most commonly used catalyst in AFC
units

PEMFC and its operation,

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses a water based acidic polymer membrane as
its electrolyte, with platinum-based electrodes. PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures
(below 100 degree Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements.

Due to the relatively low temperatures and the use of precious metal-based electrodes, these cells
must operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are currently the leading technology for light duty
vehicles and materials handling vehicles, and to a less extent for stationary and other applications

Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on the surface
of a platinum based catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the cell
while the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell.

On the cathode side, another precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons with
oxygen to produce water, which is expelled as the only waste product; oxygen can be provided in a
purified form, or extracted at the electrode directly from the air.

A variant of the PEMFC which operates at elevated temperatures is known as the high temperature
PEMFC (HT PEMFC), By changing the electrolyte from being water based to a mineral acid based
system, HT PEMFCs can operate up to 200 degrees Celsius. This overcomes some of the current
limitations with regard to fuel purity with HT PEMFCs able to process reformate containing small
quantities of Carbon Monoxide (CO).

The balance of plant can also be simplified through elimination of the humidifier. HT PEMFCs are not
superior to low temperature PEMFCs; both technologies find niches where their benefits are
preferable.

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Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is a relatively recent addition to the suite of fuel cell technologies;
it was invented and developed in the 1990s by researchers at several institutions in the united states
including NASA and Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

It is similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a polymer membrane as an electrolyte. However, the
platinum- ruthenium catalyst on the DMFC anode is able to draw the hydrogen from liquid
methanol, eliminating the need for a fuel reformer. Therefore pure methanol can be used as fuel
hence the name.

Methanol offers several advantages as a fuel. It is inexpensive but has a relatively high energy
density and can be easily transported and stored. It can be supplied to the fuel cell unit from a liquid
reservoir which can be topped up, or in catridges which can be quicly changed out when spent

DMFCs operate in temperature range from 60 degree Celsius to 130 degree celsiius and tend to be
used in applications with modest power requirements, such as mobile electronic devices or chargers
and portable power packs.

One particular application for DMFCs which is seeing commercial traction in various countries is the
use of DMFC power units for materials handling vehicles. By switching to fuel cells, the warehouse
can refuel their trucks in a manner of minutes, compared to the hours it would take to charge a
battery.

The fuel cells also eliminate the need for a battery charging infrastructure within the warehouse
thereby making more floor space available for other uses.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) use a molten carbonate salt suspended in a porous ceramic
matrix as the electrolyte. Salts commonly used include lithium carbonate, potassium carbonate and
sodium carbonate.

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They operate at higher temperature around 650 degree C and there are several advantages
associated with thus. Firstly the high operating temperature dramatically improves reaction kinetics
and thus it is not necessary to boost these with a noble metal catalyst. The higher temperature also
makes the cell less prone to carbon monoxide poisoning than lower temperature systems.

As a result MCFC systems can operate on a variety of different fuels, including coal – derived fuel
gas, methane or natural gas, eliminating the need for external reformers.

Disadvantages associated with MCFC units arise from using a liquid electrolyte rather than a solid
and the requirement to inject carbon di oxide at the cathode as carbonate ions are consume n
reactions occurring at the cathode

MCFCs are used in large stationary power generation. Most fuel cell power plants of megawatt
capacity use MCFCs as do large combined heat and power (CHP) and combined cooling and power
(CCP) Plants.

These fuel cells can work at upto 60 percent efficiency for fuel to electricity conversion and overall
efficiencies can be over 80 percent in CHP or CCP applications where the process heat is also utilised.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) consist of an anode and a cathode made of a finely dispersed
platinum catalyst on carbon and a silicon carbide structure that holds the phosphoric acid
electrolyte.

They are quiet resistant to poisoning by carbon monoxide but tend to have lower efficiency than
other fuel cell types in producing electricity. However these cells operate at moderately high
temperatures of around 180 degree Celsius and overall efficiency can be over 80% if this process
heat is harnessed for cogeneration.

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This type of fuel cell is used in stationary power generators with output in the 100kW to 400kW
range to power many commercial premises around the world, and they also find applications in large
vehicles such as buses. Most fuel cell units sold before 2001 used PAFC technology

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

Solid oxide fuel cells work at very high temperatures, the highest of all the fuel cell types at around
800ºC to 1,000°C. They can have efficiencies of over 60% when converting fuel to electricity; if the
heat they produced is also harnessed; their overall efficiency in converting fuel to energy can be over
80%.

SOFCs use a solid ceramic electrolyte, such as zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide, instead
of a liquid or membrane. Their high operating temperature means that fuels can be reformed within
the fuel cell itself, eliminating the need for external reforming and allowing the units to be used with
a variety of hydrocarbon fuels. They are also relatively resistant to small quantities of sulfur in the
fuel, compared to other types of fuel cell, and can hence be used with coal gas.

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A further advantage of the high operating temperature is that the reaction kinetics are improved,
removing the need for a metal catalyst. There are however some disadvantages to the high
temperature: these cells take longer to start up and reach operating temperature, they must be
constructed of robust, heat-resistant materials, and they must be shielded to prevent heat loss.

There are three different SOFC geometries of SOFC: planar, coplanar and micro-tubular. In the planar
design, components are assembled in flat stacks where the air and hydrogen traditionally flow
through the unit via channels built into the anode and cathode. In the tubular design, air is supplied
to the inside of an extended solid oxide tube (which is sealed at one end) while fuel flows around the
outside of the tube. The tube itself forms the cathode and the cell components are constructed in
layers around the tube.

SOFCs are used extensively in large and small stationary power generation.

Super-capacitors.
Capacitors are devices that store energy by the separation of equal positive and negative
electrostatic charges. The basic structure of a capacitor consists of two conductors, known as plates,
separated by a dielectric, which is an insulator. The power densities of conventional capacitors are
extremely high (~1012 W/m3), but the energy density is very low (~50 Wh/m3). These conventional
capacitors are commonly known as “electrolytic capacitors.”

Supercapacitors and ultracapacitors are derivatives of conventional capacitors, where energy density
has been increased at the expense of power density to make the devices function more like a
battery.

Power density and energy density of supercapacitors and ultracapacitors are of the order of
106W/m3 and 104 Wh/m3, respectively. Energy density is much lower compared to those of
batteries (~5 to 25×104 Wh/m3), but the discharge times are much faster (110 s compared to ~5×103
s of batteries), and the cycle life is much more (~105 compared to 100 to 1000 of batteries).

Supercapacitors contain an electrolyte that enables the storage of electrostatic charge in the form of
ions, in addition to conventional energy storage in electrostatic charges, like in an electrolytic
capacitor. The internal functions in a supercapacitor do not involve electrochemical reaction. The
electrodes in supercapacitors are made of porous carbon with high internal surface area to help
absorb the ions and provide a much higher charge density than is possible in a conventional
capacitor. The ions move much more slowly than electrons, enabling a much longer time constant
for charging and discharging compared to electrolytic capacitors.

Ultra capacitors are versions of electrolytic capacitors that use electrochemical systems to store
energy in a polarized liquid layer at the interface between an ionically conducting electrolyte and an
electrically conducting electrode. Energy storage capacity is increased by increasing the surface area
of the interface, similar to that in a supercapacitor. Electrochemical (also known as Faradaic)
reactions in ultracapacitors are confined to the surface layers and, hence, are fully reversible with a
long cycle life

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Module-4 Electric Propulsion:

Electric Propulsion (EV Consideration)

Electric propulsion systems are at the heart of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs). They consist of electric motors, power converters, and electronic controllers. The electric
motor converts the electric energy into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle, or, vice versa, to
enable regenerative braking and/or to generate electricity for the purpose of charging the onboard
energy storage.

The power converter is used to supply the electric motor with proper voltage and current. The
electronic controller commands the power converter by providing control signals to it, and then
controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and speed, according to the
command from the drive.

The electronic controller can be further divided into three functional units — sensor, interface
circuitry, and processor. The sensor is used to translate measurable quantities such as current,
voltage, temperature, speed, torque, and flux into electric signals through the interface circuitry.

These signals are conditioned to the appropriate level before being fed into the processor. The
processor output signals are usually amplified via the interface circuitry to drive power
semiconductor devices of the power converter. The functional block diagram of an electric
propulsion system is illustrated in Figure 6.1.

The choice of electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs mainly depends on a number of factors,
including driver expectation, vehicle constraints, and energy source. Driver expectation is defined by
a driving profile, which includes the acceleration, maximum speed, climbing capability, braking, and
range. Vehicle constraints, including volume and weight, depend on vehicle type, vehicle weight, and
payload.

The energy source relates to batteries, fuel cells, ultra capacitors, flywheels, and various hybrid
sources. Thus, the process of identifying the preferred feature and package options for electric

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propulsion has to be carried out at the system level. The interaction of subsystems and the likely
impacts of system trade-offs must be examined.

Classification of electric motor drives for EV and HEV applications

Differing from the industrial applications of motors, the motors used in EVs and HEVs usually require
frequent starts and stops, high rates of acceleration/deceleration, high torque and low-speed hill
climbing, low torque and high-speed cruising, and a very wide speed range of operation. The motor
drives for EVs and HEVs can be classified into two main groups, namely the commutator motors and
commutator less motors as illustrated in Figure 6.2.

Commutator motors mainly are the traditional DC motors, which include series excited, shunt
excited, compound excited, separately excited, and permanent magnet (PM) excited motors. DC
motors need commutators and brushes to feed current into the armature, thus making them less
reliable and unsuitable for maintenance-free operation and high speed.

In addition, winding excited DC motors have low specific power density. Nevertheless, because of
their mature technology and simple control, DC motor drives have been prominent in electric
propulsion systems.

Induction motors are widely accepted as a commutator less motor type for EV and HEV propulsion.
This is because of their low cost, high reliability, and maintenance-free operation. However,
conventional control of induction motors such as variable-voltage variable-frequency (VVVF) cannot
provide the desired performance.

However, these EV and HEV motors using FOC still suffer from low efficiency at low light loads and
limited constant-power operating range. By replacing the field winding of conventional synchronous
motors with PMs, PM synchronous motors can eliminate conventional brushes, slip rings, and field
copper losses.

Actually, these PM synchronous motors are also called PM brushless AC motors, or sinusoidal-fed
PM brushless motors, because of their sinusoidal AC current and brushless configuration. Since
these motors are essentially synchronous motors, they can run from a sinusoidal or pulsed
waveform modulation supply (PWM supply) without electronic commutation.

When PMs are mounted on the rotor surface, they behave as nonsalient synchronous motors
because the permeability of PMs is similar to that of air. By burying those PMs inside the magnetic
circuit of the rotor, the saliency causes an additional reluctance torque, which leads to facilitating a
wider speed range at constant power operation.

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On the other hand, by abandoning the field winding or PMs while purposely making use of the rotor
saliency, synchronous reluctance motors are generated. These motors are generally simple and
inexpensive, but with relatively low output power.

By virtually inverting the stator and rotor of PM DC motors (commutator), PM brushless DC motors
are generated. It should be noted that the term “DC” may be misleading, since it does not refer to a
DC current motor. Actually, these motors are fed by rectangular AC current, and are hence also
known as rectangular-fed PM brushless motors. The most obvious advantage of these motors is the
removal of brushes.

Recently, sensorless control technologies have been developed in the Power Electronics and Motor
Drive Laboratory at Texas A&M University. Switched reluctance (SR) motors have been recognized
to have considerable potential for EV and HEV applications.
SR motors have the definite advantages of simple construction, low manufacturing cost, and
outstanding torque–speed characteristics for EV and HEV applications. Although they possess
simplicity in construction, this does not imply any simplicity of their design and control.

DC motor drives and speed control

The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature, connected to the
supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed in between north
pole and south pole of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.

As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due to the
electromagnetic effect of the magnet on armature conductors. Now to go into the details of the
operating principle of DC motor it is important that we have a clear understanding of Fleming’s left-
hand rule to determine the direction of the force acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.

According to Fleming’s left-hand rule when an electric current passes through a coil in a magnetic
field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the DC motor.

F = BIL Newtons

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If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the
current carrying conductor. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can determine the direction of rotation of the
motor.

This rule says if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of our left-hand perpendicular
to each is such a way that middle finger is in the direction of current in the conductor, and index
finger is along the direction of magnetic field, i.e., north to south pole, then thumb indicates the
direction of the created mechanical force.

Speed Control of DC Motor Drives:

The Speed Control of DC Motor Drives can be any of the following methods:

 Armature voltage control

 Field flux control

 Armature resistance control

Speed-torque curves of dc motors for these methods of speed control are shown in Figs. 5.16 to 5.18.

Armature voltage control is preferred because of high efficiency, good transient response and good
speed regulation. But it can provide Speed Control of DC Motor Drives only below base (rated) speed
because the armature voltage cannot be allowed to exceed rated value. For speed control above base
speed, field flux control is employed.

In a normally designed motor, the maximum speed can be allowed up to twice rated speed and in
specially designed machines it can be six times rated speed.

The maximum torque and power limitations of dc drives operating with armature voltage control and
full field below rated speed and flux control at rated armature voltage above rated speed are shown
in Fig. 5.19. In armature voltage control at full field, T ∞ Ia consequently, the maximum torque that
the machine can deliver has a constant value. In the field control at rated armature voltage, Pm ∞
Ia (because E ≈ V = constant). Therefore, maximum power developed by the motor has a constant
value.

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In a separately excited motor, flux is controlled by varying voltage across field winding and in a series
motor it is controlled either by varying number of turns in the field winding or connecting a diverter
resistance across the field winding.

In armature resistance control, speed is varied by wasting power in external resistors that are
connected in series with the armature. Since it is an inefficient method of Speed Control of DC Motor
Drives, it was used in intermittent load applications where the duration of low speed operation forms
only a small proportion of total running time, for example in traction. It has, however, been replaced
by armature voltage control in all these applications.

Induction motor drives

Induction Motors are the most commonly used motors in many applications. These are also called
as Asynchronous Motors, because an induction motor always runs at a speed lower than
synchronous speed. Synchronous speed means the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator.

There basically 2 types of induction motor depending upon the type of input supply - (i) Single phase
induction motor and (ii) Three phase induction motor.

Or they can be divided according to type of rotor - (i) Squirrel cage motor and (ii) Slip ring motor or
wound type

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Basic Working Principle Of An Induction Motor
In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the rotor winding. But in
an induction motor only the stator winding is fed with an AC supply.

 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating flux
revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic Field"
(RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the rotor
conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor conductors
are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is why such
motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called
as rotating transformers.)

 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux lags
behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such
that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator flux
and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in the
same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor never
succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of induction
motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.

Synchronous Speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply

P = number of poles

Slip:
Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But in practice,
rotor never succeeds in catching up. If rotor catches up the stator speed, there wont be any relative

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speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced rotor current and no torque production
to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will slow down due to lost of
torque, the torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is why the rotor rotates at speed
which is always less the synchronous speed.

The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor is called as
slip.

Permanent Magnet Motor Drives

Permanent Magnet BLDC machines can be categorized by the position of the rotor permanent
magnet, the way in which the magnets are mounted on the rotor. The magnets can either be
surface-mounted or interior-mounted.

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Figure 6.43(a) shows the surface-mounted permanent magnet rotor. Each permanent magnet is
mounted on the surface of the rotor. It is easy to build, and specially skewed poles are easily
magnetized on this surface-mounted type to minimize cogging torque. But there is a possibility that
it will fly apart during high-speed operations.

Figure 6.43(b) shows the interior-mounted permanent magnet rotor. Each permanent magnet is
mounted inside the rotor. It is not as common as the surface-mounted type but it is a good
candidate for high-speed operations

In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning armature which
contains electromagnet is inside. These electromagnets create a magnetic field in the armature
when the power is switched on and help to rotate the armature.
The brushes change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation on of the armature. The basic
working principle for the brushed DC motor and for brushless DC motor are same i.e. internal shaft
position feedback.

Brushless DC motor has only two basic parts: rotor and the stator. The rotor is the rotating part and
has rotor magnets whereas stator is the stationary part and contains stator windings. In BLDC
permanent magnets are attached in the rotor and move the electromagnets to the stator. The high
power transistors are used to activate electromagnets for the shaft turns. The controller performs
power distribution by using a solid-state circuit.

Advantages of Brushless DC motor

High efficiency: BLDC motors are the most efficient of all electric motors. This is due to the use of
permanent magnets for the excitation, which consume no power. The absence of a mechanical
commutator and brushes means low mechanical friction losses and therefore higher efficiency

Compactness: The recent introduction of high-energy density magnets (rare-earth magnets) has
allowed achieving very high flux densities in the BLDC motor. This makes it possible to achieve
accordingly high torques, which in turns allows making the motor small and light.

Ease of control: The BLDC motor can be controlled as easily as a DC motor because the control
variables are easily accessible and constant throughout the operation of the motor.

Ease of cooling: There is no current circulation in the rotor. Therefore, the rotor of a BLDC motor
does not heat up. The only heat production is on the stator, which is easier to cool than the rotor
because it is static and on the periphery of the motor.

Low maintenance, great longevity, and reliability: The absence of brushes and mechanical
commutators suppresses the need for associated regular maintenance and suppresses the risk of
failure associated with these elements. The longevity is therefore only a function of the winding
insulation, bearings, and magnet life-length.

Low noise emissions: There is no noise associated with the commutation because it is electronic and
not mechanical. The driving converter switching frequency is high enough so that the harmonics are
not audible.

Limitations of Brushless DC motor

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Cost: Rare-earth magnets are much more expensive than other magnets and result in an increased
motor cost.

Limited constant power range: A large constant power range is crucial to achieving high vehicle
efficiencies. The permanent magnet BLDC motor is incapable of achieving a maximum speed greater
than twice the base speed.

Safety: Large rare-earth permanent magnets are dangerous during the construction of the motor
because they may attract flying metallic objects toward them. In case of vehicle wreck, if the wheel
is spinning freely, the motor is still excited by its magnets and high voltage is present at the motor
terminals that can possibly endanger the passengers or rescuers.

Magnet demagnetization: Magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing mmfs and high
temperatures. The critical demagnetization force is different for each magnet material. Great care
must be exercised when cooling the motor, especially if it is built compact.

High-speed capability: The surface-mounted permanent magnet motors cannot reach high speeds
because of the limited mechanical strength of the assembly between the rotor yoke and the
permanent magnets.

Inverter failures in BLDC motor drives: Because of the permanent magnets on the rotor, BLDC
motors present major risks in case of short circuit failures of the inverter. Indeed, the rotating rotor
is always energized and constantly induces an EMF in the short-circuited windings. A very large
current circulates in those windings and an accordingly large torque tends to block the rotor. The
dangers of blocking one or several wheels of a vehicle are non-negligible.

If the rear wheels are blocked while the front wheels are spinning, the vehicle will spin
uncontrollably. If the front wheels are blocked, the driver has no directional control over the vehicle.
If only one wheel is blocked, it will induce a yaw torque that will tend to spin the vehicle, which will
be difficult to control. In addition to the dangers to the vehicle, it should be noted that the large
current resulting from an inverter short circuit poses a risk of demagnetizing and destroying the
permanent magnets.

Applications of Brushless DC motor

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) use for a wide variety of application requirements such as varying loads,
constant loads and positioning applications in the fields of industrial control, automotive, aviation,
automation systems, health care equipments etc.

 Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players

 Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles
 Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
 Washing machines, compressors and dryers
 Fans, pumps and blowers.

Switch Reluctance Motor Drive for Electric Vehicles

A switched reluctance motor produces torque by changing its magnetic reluctance as

shown in Figure 1. Its stator has salient poles and includes windings identical to a

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brushless DC motor, but the rotor is made of steel cut into salient poles without
magnets or windings. The power is supplied to its stator windings instead of the
rotor, unlike the standard brushed DC motors.

SRM works by alternating currents in the stator when the magnetic field developed
by stator and rotor changes. To prevent a condition where both rotor and stator poles
align up together and no torque is produced, switched reluctance motors have fewer
rotor poles than the stator.

Figure 1: Structure of a switched reluctance motor .

The magnetic circuit developed between rotor and stator has high reluctance when
they both are out of alignment. At this time, the stator pole pairs get energized, and
the rotor tries to get in line with the powered stator poles, which decreases the
magnetic reluctance.

This ability of rotor to reach the minimum point of reluctance produces a torque,
known as reluctance torque. Excitation of the stator poles must be accurately timed
to make sure that it happens only when the rotor is trying to be aligned with the
excited pole. For this purpose, SRM may need positive feedback from Hall effect
sensors or encoders to control the excitation of stator based on an accurate rotor
position.

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Configuration and control of Drives.

Electrical drives have become the most essential equipment now days in the electrical motors and
other rotating machines. We know that electrical drives mainly accomplishes three kinds of work,
1. Starting
2. Speed control
3. Braking
It can be said that the electrical drives enable us to control the motor in every aspect. But control of
electrical drives is also necessary because all the functions accomplished by the drives are mainly
transient operations i.e the change in terminal voltage, current, etc are huge which may damage the
motor temporarily or permanently.
That’s why the need of controlling the drives rises and there are various methods and equipment’s
to control different parameters of the drives

Closed Loop Control of Drives

In a control system, there are two types of systems, one is open loop and the other is closed loop
control system. In open loop control system the output has no effect on the input, i.e the controlling
phenomenon is independent of the output, on the other hand closed loop control system is much
more advanced and scientific, here the output is fed back to the input terminal which determines
the amount of input to the system, for example if the output is more than predetermined value the
input is reduced and vice-versa. In electrical drives feedback loops or closed loop control satisfy the
following requirements.
1. Protection
2. Enhancement of speed of response
3. To improve steady-state accuracy
In the following discussions, we will see through different closed loop configurations which are used
in electrical drives irrespective of the type of supply they are fed, i.e DC or AC.
Current Limit Control

During the starting, we know if precautionary measures are not taken there is a chance of huge
current flow through the motor circuit. To limit the current and sense the current fed to the motor,
current limit controller is installed.
The feedback loop does not effect the normal operation of the drive but if the current exceeds the
predetermined safe limit, the feedback loop activates and the current is brought down below the
safe limit. Once the current is brought down below the safe limit the feedback loop again
deactivates and in this way the control of current takes place.

Closed Loop Torque Control

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This type of torque controller is seen mainly in battery operated vehicles like cars, trains etc. the
accelerator present in the vehicles is pressed by the driver to set the reference torque T. The actual
torque T follows the T* which is controlled by the driver via accelerator.

Closed Loop Speed Control

Speed control loops are perhaps the most widely used feedback loops for drives. If we first see the
block diagram of this loop then it will be a lot easier for us to understand.

We can see from the diagram that there are two control loops, which can be said as an inner loop
and outer loop. The inner current control loop limits the converter and motor current or motor
torque below the safe limit.

Now we can understand the function of the control loop and drive by practical examples. Suppose
the reference speed Wm* increases and there is a positive error ΔWm, which indicates that the speed
is needed to be increased.

Now the inner loop increases the current keeping it under maximum allowable current. And then the
driver accelerates, when the speed reaches the desired speed then the motor torque is equal to the
load torque and there is a decrease in the reference speed Wm which indicates that there is no need
of any more acceleration but there must be deceleration, and braking is done by the speed
controller at maximum allowable current.

So, we can say that during speed controlling the function transfers from motoring to braking and
from braking to motoring continuously for the smooth operation and running of the motor.

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Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles:
Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train Design:

The concept of a series hybrid electric drive train was developed from the electric vehicle drive train,
electric vehicles, compared with conventional gasoline or diesel-fueled vehicles, have the
advantages of zero mobile pollutant emissions, multienergy sources, and high efficiency.

However, electric vehicles using present technologies have some disadvantages: a limited drive
range due to the shortage of energy storage in the on-board batteries, limited payload and volume
capacity due to heavy and bulky batteries, and a longer battery charging time. The initial objective of
developing a series hybrid electric vehicle (S-HEV) was aimed at extending the drive range by adding
an engine/alternator system to charge the batteries on-board

A typical series hybrid electric drive train configuration is shown in Figure 7.1. The vehicle is
propelled by a traction motor. The traction motor is powered by a battery pack and/or an
engine/generator unit.

The engine/generator unit either helps the batteries to power the traction motor when load power
demand is large or charges the batteries when load power demand is small. The motor controller is
to control the traction motor to produce the power required by the vehicle. Vehicle performance
(acceleration, gradeability, and maximum speed) is completely determined by the size and
characteristics of the traction motor drive.

The determination of the size of the motor drive and gears of transmission is the same as in the
electric vehicle design. However, the drive train control is essentially different from the pure electric
drive train due to the involvement of an additional engine/generator unit. We focus on the design
of the engine/alternator system, operation control strategy, and battery size design. Also, the term
“peak power source” will replace “battery pack,” because, in HEVs, the major function of batteries is
to supply peaking power. They can be replaced with other kinds of sources such as ultracapacitors
and flywheels.

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Operating patterns
In series hybrid electric drive trains, the engine/generator system is mechanically decoupled from
the driven wheels as shown in Figure 7.1

The speed and torque of the engine are independent of vehicle speed and traction torque demand,
and can be controlled at any operating point on its speed–torque plane.3,4 Generally, the engine
should be controlled in such a way that it always operates in its optimal operation region, where fuel
consumption and emissions of the engine are minimized (see Figure 7.2). Due to the mechanical
decoupling of the engine from the drive wheels, this optimal engine operation is realizable.
However, it heavily depends on the operating modes and control strategies of the drive train

The drive train has several operating modes, which can be used selectively according to the driving
condition and desire of the driver. These operating modes are:

1. Hybrid traction mode: When a large amount of power is demanded, that is, the driver depresses
the accelerator pedal deeply, both engine/generator and peaking power source (PPS) supply their
powers to the electric motor drive. In this case, the engine should be controlled to operate in its
optimal region for efficiency and emission reasons as shown in Figure 7.2. The PPS supplies the
additional power to meet the traction power demand. This operation mode can be expressed as

where Pdemand is the power demanded by the driver, Pe/g is the engine/ generator power, and Ppps is
the PPS power.

2. Peak Power Source-Alone Traction Mode: In this operating mode, the peak power source alone
supplies its power to meet the power demand, that is,

3. Engine/Generator-Alone Traction Mode: In this operating mode, the engine/generator alone

supplies its power to meet the power demand, that is,

4. PPS Charging from the Engine/Generator: When the energy in the PPS decreases to a bottom
line, the PPS must be charged. This can be done by regenerative braking or by the engine/generator.
Usually, engine/generator charging is needed, since regenerative braking charging is insufficient. In
this case, the engine power is divided into two parts: one is used to propel the vehicle and the other
is used to charge the PPS. That is

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5. Regenerative Braking Mode: When the vehicle is braking, the traction motor can be used as a
generator, converting part of the kinetic energy of the vehicle mass into electric energy to charge
the PPS.

Control strategies
A control strategy is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle controller and commands the
operating of each component. The vehicle controller receives the operation commands from the
driver and the feedback from the drive train and all the components, and then makes the decisions
to use proper operation modes.

In practice, there are a number of control strategies that can be used in a drive train for vehicles
with different mission requirements, two typical control strategies are (1) maximum state-of-charge
of peaking power source (Max. SOC-of-PPS) and (2) engine turn-on and turnoff (engine-on–off)
control strategies.

Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy

The target of this control strategy is to meet the power demand commanded by the driver and, at
the same time, maintain the SOC of the PPS at its high level. This control strategy is considered to be
the proper design for vehicles for which the performance relies heavily on the peak power source.
This includes vehicles with frequent stop–go driving patterns, and military vehicles for which carrying
out their mission is the most important.

A high SOC level will guarantee the high performance of the vehicles at any time. The Max. SOC-of-
PPS control strategy is depicted in Figure 7.3, in which points A, B, C, and D represent the power
demands that the driver commands in either traction mode or braking mode.

Point A represents the commanded traction power that is greater than the power that the
engine/generator can produce. In this case, the PPS must produce its power to make up the power
shortage of the engine/generator.

Point B represents the commanded power that is less than the power that the engine/generator
produces when operating in its optimal operation region (refer to Figure 7.2). In this case, two
operating modes may be used, depending on the SOC level of PPS. If the SOC of the PPS is below its
top line, the PPS charging mode is applied — that is, the engine/generator is operated within its
optimal operating region and part of its power goes to the traction motor to propel the vehicle and
the other part goes to the PPS. On the other hand, if the SOC of the PPS has already reached its top
line, the engine/generator traction mode alone is supplied, that is, the engine/generator is
controlled to produce power equal to the demanded power, and the PPS is set at idle.

Point C represents the commanded braking power that is greater than the braking power that the
motor can produce (maximum regenerative braking power). In this case, the hybrid braking mode is
used, in which the electric motor produces its maximum braking power and the mechanical braking
system produces the remaining braking power.

Point D represents the commanded braking power that is less than the maximum braking power that
the motor can produce. In this case, only regenerative braking is used. The control flowchart of Max.
SOC-of-PPS is illustrated in Figure 7.4.

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Thermostat Control Strategy (Engine-On–Off)

The Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy emphasizes maintaining the SOC of the PPS at a high level.
However, in some driving conditions such as long time driving with a low load on a highway at
constant speed, the PPS can be easily charged to its full level, and the engine/generator is forced to
operate with a power output smaller than its optimum. Hence, the efficiency of the drive train is
reduced.

In this case, engine-on–off or thermostat control of the engine/generator would be appropriate. This
control strategy is illustrated in Figure 7.5. The operation of the engine/generator is completely
controlled by the SOC of the PPS. When the SOC of the PPS reaches its preset top line, the
engine/generator is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the PPS.

On the other hand, when the SOC of the PPS reaches its bottom line, the engine/generator is turned
on. The PPS gets its charging from the engine/generator. In this way, the engine can always be
operated within its optimal deficiency region.

Sizing of major components

The major components in a series hybrid drive train include traction motor, engine/generator, and
PPS. The design of the power ratings of these components is the first and most important step in the
whole system design. In the design of these parameters, some design constraints must be
considered,

Power rating of traction motor

The power rating of the electric motor drive in series HEV is completely determined by vehicle
acceleration performance requirements, motor characteristics, and transmission characteristics.At
the beginning of the design, the power rating of the motor drive can be estimated, according to the
acceleration performance (time used to accelerate the vehicle from zero speed to a given speed),
using the following equation

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where Mv is the total vehicle mass in kg, tf is the expected acceleration time in sec, Vb is the vehicle
speed in m/s, corresponding to the motor-based speed (see Figure 7.6), Vf is the final speed of the
vehicle accelerating in m/s, g is gravity acceleration in 9.80 m/s2 , fr is the tire rolling resistance
coefficient, ρa is the air density in 1.202 kg/m3 , Af is the front area of the vehicle in m2 , and CD is the
aerodynamic drag coefficient.

The first term in equation (7.5) represents the power used to accelerate the vehicle mass, and the
second and third terms represent the average power for overcoming the tire rolling resistance and
aerodynamic drag.

Figure 7.6 shows the tractive effort and traction power vs. vehicle speed with a two-gear
transmission. During acceleration, starting from low gear, the tractive effort follows the trace of a–
b–d–e and Vb=Vb1. However, when a single-gear transmission is used, that is, only when a high gear
is available, the tractive effort follows the trace of c–d–e and Vb=Vb2.

Figure 7.7 shows an example of the power rating of motor vs. speed ratio, which is defined as the
ratio of maximum speed to the base speed as shown in Figure 7.6.

It should be noted that the rated motor power determined by equation (7.5) is only an estimate for
meeting the acceleration performance. In order to accurately determine the rated motor power,
verification would be necessary

The calculation of vehicle performance, such as acceleration time, acceleration distance, and
gradeability, is exactly the same as that of a pure electric vehicle

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Power rating of engine/generator
In the design of the engine/generator, two driving conditions should be considered: driving for a
long time with constant speed, such as highway driving between cities, and driving with a frequent
stop–go driving pattern, such as driving in cities.

With the former driving pattern (long time at a constant speed), the engine/generator and drive
train should not rely on the PPS to support the operation at a high speed of, for example, 130 km/h
or 80 mph. The engine/generator should be able to produce sufficient power to support this speed.

For a frequent stop–go driving pattern, the engine/generator should produce sufficient power to
maintain the energy storage of the PPS at a certain level, so that enough power can be drawn to
support vehicle acceleration. As mentioned above, the energy consumption in the PPS is closely
related to the control strategy

When the vehicle is driving in a stop-and-go pattern in urban areas, the power that the
engine/generator produces should be equal to or slightly greater than the average load power in
order to maintain balanced PPS energy storage.

The first term in equation (7.8) is the average power that is consumed to overcome the tire rolling
resistance and aerodynamic drag. The second term is the average power consumed in acceleration
and deceleration.

When the vehicle has the ability to recover all of the kinetic energy of the vehicle, the average power
consumed in acceleration and deceleration is zero. Otherwise, it will be greater than zero, as shown
in Figure 7.9. In the design of an engine/generator system, the power capability should be greater
than, or at least not less than, the power that is needed to support the vehicle driving at a constant
speed (highway driving) and at average power when driving in urban areas

Design of PPS
The PPS must be capable of delivering sufficient power to the traction motor at any time. At the
same time, the PPS must store sufficient energy to avoid failure of power delivery due to too-deep
discharging

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(i) Power Capacity of PPS To fully utilize the electric motor power capacity, the total power of the
engine/generator and PPS should be greater than, or at least equal to, the rated maximum power of
the electric motor. Thus, the power capacity of the PPS can be expressed as

where Pm,max is the maximum rated power of the motor, ηm is the efficiency of the motor, and Pe/g is
the power of the engine/generator system.

(ii) Energy Capacity of PPS In some driving conditions, a frequent accelerating/decelerating driving
pattern would result in a low SOC in the PPS, thus losing its delivery power. In order to properly
determine the energy capacity of the PPS, the energy changes in the PPS in some typical drive cycles
must be known. The energy changes in the PPS can be expressed as

where Ppps is the power of the PPS. Positive Ppps represents charging power, and negative Ppps
represents discharging power. Figure 7.11 shows an example in which the energy changes in the
peaking power vary with driving time. Figure 7.11 also shows the maximum amount of energy
changes, ∆Emax, in the whole drive cycle, if the SOC of the PPS is allowed in the operating range
between SOCtop and SOCbott. The whole energy capacity of the peaking power can be calculated using
equation (7.10). The operating range of PPS SOC depends upon the operating characteristics of the
PPS.

Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train Design:

Unlike the series hybrid drive train, the parallel hybrid drive train has features that allow both the
engine and traction motor to supply their mechanical power in parallel directly to the driven wheels.
The major advantages of parallel configuration over a series configuration are

(1) generator is not required,

(2) the traction motor is smaller, and

(3) multiconversion of the power from the engine to the driven wheels is not necessary.

Hence, the overall efficiency can be higher.However, the control of the parallel hybrid drive train is
more complex than that of a series hybrid drive train, due to the mechanical coupling between the

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engine and the driven wheels. There are several possibilities for configurations in a parallel hybrid
drive train.

But the design methodology for one particular configuration may be not applicable to other
configurations and the design result for a particular configuration may be applicable for only a given
operation environment and mission requirement.

The base load is much lower than the peaking load in normal urban and highway driving,. This
suggests that the engine power rating is lower than the electrical traction power rating. Due to the
better torque–speed characteristics of the traction motor compared to the engine, the single-gear
transmission for the traction motor might be the proper option.

Thus, will focus on the design of the drive train as shown in Figure 8.1.

The design objectives are:

1. To satisfy the performance requirements (gradeability, acceleration, and maximum cruising

speed)

2. To achieve high overall efficiency

3. To maintain the battery state-of-charge (SOC) at reasonable levels in the whole drive cycle
without charging from outside the vehicle

4. To recover the brake energy

Control strategies of parallel hybrid drive train

Maximum State-of-Charge of Peaking Power Source (Max. SOC-ofPPS) Control Strategy

When a vehicle is operating in a stop-and-go driving pattern, the PPS must deliver its power to the
drive train frequently. Consequently, the PPS tends to be discharged quickly. In this case,

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maintaining a high SOC in the PPS is necessary to ensure vehicle performance. Thus, the maximum
SOC of the PPS control strategy may be the proper option.2 The maximum control strategy can be
explained by Figure 8.3.

In this figure, the maximum power curves for hybrid traction (engine plus electric motor), engine-
alone traction, electric motor-alone traction, and regenerative braking are plotted against vehicle
speed. Power demands in different conditions are also plotted, represented by points A, B, C, and D

The operation modes of the drive train are explained below:

Motor-alone propelling mode: The vehicle speed is less than a preset value Veb, which is considered
to be the bottom line of the vehicle speed below which the engine cannot operate steadily. In this
case, the electric motor alone delivers its power to the driven wheels, while the engine is shut down
or idling. The engine power, electric traction power, and the PPS discharge power can be written as

where Pe is the engine power output, PL is the load power demand on the drive wheels, ηt,m is the
transmission efficiency from the motor to the driven wheels, Pm is the power output of the electric
motor, Ppps-d is the PPS discharge power, and ηm is the motor efficiency

Hybrid propelling mode: The load power demand, represented by point A in Figure 8.3, is greater
than what the engine can produce, both the engine and electric motor must deliver their power to
the driven wheels at the same time. This is called hybrid propelling mode.

In this case, the engine operation is set on its optimum operation line by controlling the engine
throttle to produce power Pe. The remaining power demand is supplied by the electric motor. The
motor power output and PPS discharge power are

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where ηt,e is the transmission efficiency from the engine to the drive wheels.

Engine-alone propelling mode: When the load power demand (represented by point B in Figure 8.3)
is less than the power that the engine can produce while operating on its optimum operation line,
and the PPS SOC has reached its top line, the engine-alone propelling mode is used.

In this case, the electric system is shut down, and the engine is operated to supply the power that
meets the load power demand. The power output curve of the engine with a partial load is
represented by the dashed line in Figure 8.3. The engine power, electric power, and battery power
can be expressed by

Regenerative-alone brake mode: When the vehicle experiences braking and the demanded braking
power is less than the maximum regenerative braking power that the electric system can supply (as
shown in Figure 8.3 by point D), the electric motor is controlled to function as a generator to
produce a braking power that equals the commanded braking power.

In this case, the engine is shut down or set idling. The motor power output and PPS charge power
are

Hybrid braking mode: When the demanded braking power is greater than the maximum
regenerative braking power that the electric system can supply (as shown in Figure 8.3 by point C),
the mechanical brake must be applied. In this case, the electric motor should be controlled to
produce its maximum regenerative braking power, and the mechanical brake system should handle
the remaining portion. The motor output power, battery charging power, and mechanical braking
power are

Engine Turn-On and Turn-Off (Engine-On–Off) Control

Strategy Similar to that used in a series hybrid drive train, the engine turn-on and turn-off control
strategy may be used in some operation conditions with low speed and low acceleration.

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In an engine-on–off control strategy, the operation of the engine is controlled by the SOC of PPS, as
shown in Figure 8.5.

In the engine-on period, the control is Max. SOC-of-PPS strategy. When the SOC of the PPS reaches
its top line, the engine is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the electric motor. When the
SOC of the PPS reaches its bottom line, the engine is turned on and the control again goes into Max.
SOC-of-PPS.

Design of engine power capacity

The engine should be able to supply sufficient power to support the vehicle operation at normal
constant speeds both on a flat and a mild grade road without the help of the PPS. At the same time,
the engine should be able to produce an average power that is larger than the average load power
when the vehicle operates with a stop-and-go operating pattern

Figure 8.6 shows the load powers of a 1500 kg example passenger car, along with vehicle speed, on a
flat road and a road with 5% grade. It is seen that on a flat road, a speed of 160 km/h (100 mph)
needs a power of 42 kW.

For a comprehensive analysis, the power curves of a 42 kW engine with a multigear transmission are
also plotted in Figure 8.6. From Figure 8.6, it can also be seen that on a 5% grade road, the vehicle
can reach a maximum speed of about 92 and 110 km/h with the fourth gear and third gear,
respectively. The above-designed engine power should be evaluated so that it meets the average
power requirement while driving in a stop-and-go pattern. . In a drive cycle, the average load power
of a vehicle can be calculated by

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The average power varies with the degree of regenerative braking. The two extreme cases are the
full and zero regenerative braking cases. Full regenerative braking recovers all the energy consumed
in braking and the average power is calculated by (8.16). However, when the vehicle has no
regenerative braking, the average power is larger than that with full regenerative braking, which can
be calculated from (8.16) in such a way that when the instantaneous power is less than zero, it is
given a zero.

Design of electric motor drive capacity

In HEV, the major function of the electric motor is to supply peak power to the drive train. In the
motor power design, acceleration performance and peak load power in typical drive cycles are the
major concerns.

It is difficult to directly design the motor power from the acceleration performance specified. It is
necessary to make a good estimate based on specified acceleration requirements, and then make a
final design through accurate simulation.

As an initial estimate, one can make the assumption that the steady-state load (rolling resistance
and aerodynamic drag) is handled by the engine and the dynamic load (inertial load in acceleration)
is handled by the motor. With this assumption, acceleration is directly related to the torque output
of an electric motor by

where Tm is the motor torque and δm is the mass factor associated with the electric motor (refer to
Chapter 2). Using the output characteristics of the electric motor shown in Figure 8.5, and a specified
acceleration time, ta, from zero speed to final high speed, Vf,, the motor power rating is expressed as

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For a 1500 kg passenger car with a maximum speed of 160 km/h, a base speed of 50 km/h, a final
accelera on speed of 100 km/h, accelera on me ta 10 sec, and δm 1.04, the power ra ng of the
electric motor is 74 kW (Figure 8.9).

Transmission design
Since the electric motor supplies the peak power and has high torque at low speed, single-gear
transmission between the electric motor and the driven wheels can produce sufficient torque for hill
climbing and acceleration (refer to Figure 8.11). However, a multigear transmission between the
engine and driven wheels can indeed enhance the vehicle performance.

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The use of multigear transmission, as shown in Figure 8.6, can effectively increase the remaining
power of the engine. Consequently, the vehicle performance (acceleration and gradeability) can be
improved. On the other hand, the energy storage can be charged with the large power of the engine.

The vehicle fuel economy can also be improved, since the use of proper gears of the multigear
transmission allows the engine to operate closer to its optimal speed region. Furthermore, the large
remaining power of the engine can quickly charge the energy storage from low SOC to high SOC

However, multigear transmission is much more complex, heavier, and larger than single-gear
transmission. Moreover, it also needs a complicated gear shifting control. Thus, in the design of
parallel HEV, some trade-offs must be made.

Energy storage design

The energy storage design mainly includes the design for the power and energy capacity. The power
capacity design is somewhat straightforward. The terminal power of the energy storage must be
greater than the input electric power of the electric motor, that is,

where Pm and ηm are the motor power rating and efficiency

The energy capacity design of the energy storage is closely associated with the energy consumption
in various driving patterns — mainly the full load acceleration and in typical drive cycles.

During the acceleration period, the energies drawn from energy storage and the engine can be
calculated along with the calculation of the acceleration time and distance by

where Es and Eeng are the energy drawn from the energy storage and the engine, respectively, and Pm
and Pe are the powers drawn from the motor and engine, respectively. Figure 8.13 shows the

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energies drawn from the energy storage and the engine in the period of acceleration along the
vehicle speed for the example passenger car.

At an end speed of 120 km/h, about 0.3 kWh energy is drawn from the energy storage. The energy
capacity of the energy storage must also meet the requirement while driving in a stop-and-go
pattern in typical drive cycles. The energy changes of the energy storage can be obtained by

where Psc and Psd are the charging and discharging power of the energy storage. With a given control
strategy, the charging and discharging power of the energy storage can be obtained by drive train
simulation.

Figure 8.14 shows the simulation results of the example passenger car in an FTP 75 urban drive cycle
with maximum SOC control strategy. It can be seen that the maximum energy change in the energy
storage is about 0.11 kWh, which is less than that in full load acceleration (0.3 kWh).

Thus, the energy consumption in fuel load acceleration determines the energy capacity of the energy
storage. Actually, not all the energy stored in the energy storage can be fully used to deliver
sufficient power to the drive train.

In the case of batteries used as the energy storage, low SOC will limit their power output, and will at
the same time lead to a low efficiency, due to an increase of internal resistance. In the case of
ultracapacitors used as the energy storage, low SOC will result in low terminal voltage that will affect
the performance of the traction motor.

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