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Module 4

Principle of programming with c

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Module 4

Principle of programming with c

Uploaded by

Impana
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module 4

Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications

Mention of Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals:


The free electron model is highly successful in explaining many physical properties of metals such as their high electrical
and thermal conductivities, their high luster etc. However, it failed to explain some of the other properties.
1. Classical free electron theory failed to explain the dependency of electrical conductivity on temperature. Electrical
conductivity is strongly dependent on temperature. In metals, electrical conductivity decreases with increasing
temperature.
Experimentally, electrical conductivity σ is inversely proportional to the temperature T.
σ ∝ 1/T …..1
1/2mv^2 = 3/2 kBT
Vth= sqrt(3kT/m)
i.e Vth ∝ sqrt(T)
i.e Torque ∝ 1/Vth (or) 1/(sqrt T)
But σ =ne^2torque/m (from CFET)
σ ∝ torque (or) σ ∝ 1/sqrtT ….2
From equations (1) & (2), the experimental value is not agreeing with the theory.
2. Monovalent metals (copper, silver etc) have been found to have higher electrical conductivity than divalent
(cadmium, zinc etc) and trivalent (aluminum, indium etc) metals. If the conductivity is proportional to electron
concentration, then monovalent metals should have lesser electrical conductivity compared to the divalent and trivalent
metals.
(from CFET) σ =ne^2torque/m
σ ∝n
Al(13)=1s2,2s22p6,3s23p1 – 3 free electrons
Cu(29)=1s2,2s2,2p6,3s23p63d10,4s1 – 1 free e
As per CFET σ Al > σ Cu which is wrong
3. The model cannot explain the classification of materials into conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Assumption of Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals:


Sommerfeld proposed this theory in 1928 retaining the concept of free electrons moving in a uniform potential
within the metal as in the classical theory, but treated the electrons as obeying the laws of quantum mechanics.
Based on the de Broglie wave concept, he assumed that a moving electron behaves as if it were a system of waves.
(called matter waves-waves associated with a moving particle). According to quantum mechanics, the energy of an
electron in a metal is quantized. He realised the role played by Pauli exclusion principle in restricting
the energy values of electron. The theory proposed known as Quantum Free Electron Theory.
The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are,
1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantised.
2. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels occur as per Pauli exclusion principle. However,
the following assumptions of classical electron theory continue to be applicable in quantum free electron theory
also.
3. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
4. Both the attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.

Density of States:
We know that the permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid material will be in terms of bands. The number of
energy levels in each band will be extremely large and they are not evenly distributed in the band. The distribution
of energy levels in the band is realised by what is called density of states which is defined as follows:
The density of states g(E) can be defined as “ The density of states is given by the number of available electron
states per unit volume per unit energy range at a certain energy level, E. Number of energy states in the range E
and E+dE is obtained by evaluating the product of g(E) and dE. It can be shown on the basis of quantum
mechanical calculations that,
g(E)= [(8√2πm^3/2)/h^3] √EdE

Fermi Energy and Fermi Level:


❖ In a metal having N atoms, there are N allowed energy levels in each band.
❖ In the energy band the energy levels are separated by energy differences.
❖ According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, each energy level can accommodate a maximum of two electrons, one
with spin up and the other with spin down.
❖ The filling up of energy levels occurs from the lowest level.
❖ The next pair of electrons occupies the next energy level and so on till all the electrons in the metal are
accommodated.
❖ In this way when all the electrons are accommodated in the permitted energy levels, all the energy levels in all
the bands below the valence band will be completely filled.
❖ The valence band for a metal however will be partially filled, i.e., below a particular filled energy level all the
energy levels are completely filled and the one’s above will be completely vacant.
❖ This is the picture when there is no external energy supply for the electrons.
❖ The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature (0K) is called the Fermi energy and the
energy level is called Fermi level. It is denoted by 'EF
❖ Thus at T=0K all the energy levels lying above the Fermi’s level are empty, and those lying below are completely
filled.

Fermi factor:
When the temperature is not at absolute zero, the material will be receiving thermal energy from surroundings. At
ordinary temperature, the amount of energy will be quite small”, because of which the electrons occupying energy
levels below the Fermi level cannot absorb the thermal energy. It is because, there is no availability of unoccupied
higher energy levels into which the electron can come into, due to the increase in energy by the absorption of
thermal energy. However, there are unoccupied higher energy levels which are above the occupied energy levels at
small energy differences. They are located near Fermi level. Those are the energy levels into which, the electrons in
the energy levels near Fermi level, are capable of being excited. During thermal excitation (i.e., T >0), the electrons
which absorb the thermal energy move into higher energy levels which were unoccupied at zero degree absolute
(i.e., T= 0). Though such excitations seem to be random, the occupation of various energy level obey a statistical
distribution called Fermi-Dirac distribution, once the system is in thermal equilibrium (i.e., at a steady temperature
state). The statistical distribution is the probability occupation of electron to a particular energy level. It is given by
f(E) = 1/[1 + exp [(E – EF)/kBT]]
f (E) is called the Fermi factor and is defined as follows.
Fermi factor is the distribution function which gives the probability of occupation of a given energy state for
material in thermal equilibrium in terms of the Fermi energy, Boltzmann constant and the temperature.

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy:


The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature, and the effect on occupancy of energy level
is shown in Figure below.
Let us consider the different cases of distribution
(i) Probability of occupation for E<Ef at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<Ef

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