ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics

Superconductivity
The phenomenon by which the resistivity of some metals suddenly falls to zero
below certain temperature is called transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc)
R
is called superconductivity.
0.2
The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered by Kannerlingh Onnes
in 1911. Eg: For mercury (Tc = 4.2K) ; for aluminium(Tc = 1.175K) 0.1

Properties of superconductors 4.2K

(i) Effect of temperature: Transition temperature (Tc) T(K)

Transition temperature (Tc) is that temperature, below which the resistivity of

superconductor falls to zero and above which it acts as a normal conductor.
(ii) Effect of magnetic field: Critical field ( Hc)
The minimum strength of magnetic field required to destroy the superconducting nature of a metal at
transition temperature is called critical field Hc.
The metal acts as a superconductor, when temperature is less than transition temperature and field is
less than critical field. When H < Hc and T < Tc , metals acts as a superconductor
• Variation of critical field Hc and temperature is shown below. Hc
T2
Hc = H0 [1 − T 2 ] where Hc - critical field at TK; H0
c

H0 - critical field at 0K; Tc - transition temperature

(iii) Effect of current density: critical current- Silsbee effect
Tc T
• The minimum current that can be passed through a superconducting material without destroying the
superconducting property is called critical current Ic . 𝐈𝐜 = 2rHc
where Hc is critical magnetic field and r is radius of superconducting rod (wire)
• The minimum current that can be passed through a superconductor per unit area of cross section,
Ic 2rHc 2Hc
without destroying the superconducting property is called critical current density Jc . Jc = = =
A r2 r

(iv) Isotope effect:

 Discovered by Maxwell and Reynold in 1950.
 Variation of transition temperature with isotopic mass is called isotope effect.
𝟏
 Transition temperature and isotopic mass are inversely proportional. 𝐓𝐜 
𝐌
1
where M is isotopic mass and  = 2 ( a constant)

Tc  M 1⁄2 = a constant
𝐓𝐜 √𝐌 = a constant

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics

Meissner Effect
It was discovered by Meissner and Ochenfeld in 1933.
 When a superconductor is cooled below the critical temperature (Tc ) in an external magnetic field (H < Hc ), then
the magnetic field lines are expelled out of the superconductor, so the field inside the superconductor is zero. This
phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

B0 B=0

T > Tc and H > Hc

T < Tc and H < Hc
Normal conductor
Super conductor
Flux density , B = 0 (M + H) where 0 is permeabiltity of free space; M – magnetization
From Meissner effect, B = 0
Then 0 (M + H) = 0 or M = −H
𝐌
Magnetic susceptibility  = =−1
𝐇

For diamagnets, magnetic susceptibility  = − 1

Thus super conductor is a perfect diamagnet.
Types of superconductor
Depending upon on the magnetic properties, superconductors are divided into two types.
Type I superconductors: (Soft superconductor)
 Variation of magnetic field and magnetization for type I superconductor is shown below.
M

SC NC
Hc H
 When field H increases, magnetization M also increases linearly up to Hc .

 At critical field Hc , M suddenly decreases to zero and material changed to normal conductor.
 Transition from superconducting state to normal state is a sudden process.

 Hc is very small. i.e., Hc  0.1T to 0.2T.

So a small magnetic field is only required to destroy the superconducting nature of the material.
 Eg: Lead, Tin, Aluminium, Mercury.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Type II superconductors: (Hard superconductor)
 Variation of magnetic field and magnetization for type II superconductor is shown below.
M

SC (type II)

Vortex state NC
(mixed)
O Hc 1 Hc 2 H
 When external field H increases, magnetization M also increases linearly up to Hc1 (lower critical field).

 Beyond Hc1 magnetic field lines slowly penetrate through the specimen, so magnetization M gradually decreases
and is equal to zero at Hc 2 (upper critical field).

 So from O to Hc 2 , the material acts as a superconductor.

 The value of Hc 2 is high . i.e., Hc 2  10T to 20T.
So high magnetic field is required to destroy superconducting nature. So type II superconductor is
called hard superconductor.
 Beyond Hc 2 , the material changes to normal conductor.

 The state in between Hc1 and Hc 2 is called vortex state (mixed state).
 Eg: Niobium, Niobium - tin, Niobium – titanium, Germanium
Uses
 Type II superconductors are used in power generators.

 Because type II superconductors can carry very high current densities, they have great technological
importance.
 The high magnetic fields produced by type II superconductors are used in particle accelerators, plasma
production, fusion reaction etc.
 This strong magnetic field is used for magnetic levitation.
BCS theory
In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schriffer developed a new theory to explain superconductivity called BCS
theory. It is based on the formation of Cooper pair of electrons.
During the flow of current in a superconductor, when an electron approaches a positive ion of the metal
lattice, there is a coulomb attraction between the electron and the lattice ion. This produces a distortion in
the lattice. This interaction is called the electron-phonon interaction.
Now a second electron which approaches the distorted positive ion also experiences Coulomb attractive
force. Thus there is an interaction of two electrons via the lattice. Because of this interaction, an apparent
force of attraction develops between the electrons and they tend to move in pairs.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
At normal temperature, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does not take place.
Below the transition temperature Tc , the apparent force of attraction reaches a maximum value for any two
electrons of equal and opposite spin. This force of attraction exceeds the Coulomb force of repulsion
between two electrons and the electrons moves as pairs.
These pairs of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta
in a phonon field are called Cooper pair.
The two electrons in a Cooper pair are exchanging phonons through lattice ions and shown in figure.
Here, an electron e̅1 , with a wave vector k1, emits a phonon and change its state to (k1 − q). A second
electron e̅2 with a wave vector k2 absorbs that a phonon and change its state to (k2 + q).

k1 − q k2 + q

q
e1 e2

k1 k2

Characteristics of cooper Pairs

 Two electrons in a Cooper pair have opposite momenta and opposite spin.
 The mass of a Cooper pair is 2m where m is the effective mass of the electron. The charge on Cooper
pair is -2e.
 As the spin of Cooper pair is zero, the Cooper pair behaves like a Boson, and it does not obey Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
 At a temperature less than Tc, almost all free electrons are paired as Cooper pair. Above Tc , this pairing
is broken.
 The binding energy of Cooper pair is of the order of 10−3 - 10−4eV. It is slightly less than twice the
energy of free electron.
Coherence length ()
The maximum length up to which the states of paired electrons are correlated to produce superconductivity is
hvf
called coherence length. 0 = where vf is fermi velocity and 2 is energy gap.
4

Josephson Effect
Josephson suggested that a super current consisting of Cooper pairs can be made to flow across an
insulating gap between two superconductors provided the gap is small enough. Such a junction is called
Josephson junction. This tunneling of Cooper pairs across the Josphson junction is called Jospehson effect.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
DC Josephson Effect:
This effect was discovered by Josephson in 1962.
Consider two superconductors separated by a thin layer of (1 - 10nm thickness) insulating material.
According to Josephson effect, Cooper pairs could tunnel from one superconductor to the other with no
resistance, giving rise to dc current without any voltage across the junction. This is called DC Josephson
effect.
Superconductor-insulator-superconductor junction is called Josephson junction.
Current across the junction is 𝐬 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟎
where max - maximum current at zero voltage. superconductor superconductor

insulator
AC Josephson Effect:
When a dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, high frequency electromagnetic radiations
are produced from the insulating gap and the current produced through the junction is alternating current.
This is called AC Josephson effect.
2eV
Frequency of emitted radiation  = where 2e - charge of a Cooper pair and V is the applied dc
h
2×2eV 4eVt
voltage. Josephson current, s = max sin(0 + ) . Here  = t = t=
h h
𝟒𝐞𝐕𝐭
Hence 𝐬 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟎 + ) 𝐭 . This is ac current.
𝐡

Applications of Superconductors
(i) Superconductors are used to produce a very strong and powerful magnetic field in the order of 20T. This
high magnetic field is used in particle accelerators, cyclotrons, controlled nuclear fusion etc.
(ii) Medical application:
 They are used in MRI.
 Superconducting magnetic field is used to remove tumour cell from the healthy cells.
 Group of squids are used for the diagnosis of epilepsy.
(iii) Electronic and small devices:
 Squid
 Frictionless bearing, magnetically controlled superconducting switches, superconductor fuses, breakers,
superconducting transformers.
(iv) Computers:
 High capacity and high speed computer chips can be developed with superconductors.
 Used to perform logic and store functions in computers.
(v) Low loss transmission lines can be made with superconductors.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)
 Squid is a very sensitive instrument used for measuring small changes in magnetic flux.
 It is working on the principle of Josephson effect.
 It consists of superconducting ring with two Josephson junctions in parallel. They are capable of
measuring
magnetic fluctuations of the order of 10-18 T.
 Super current is branched and passing through the insulating junction X and Y .
X
Cooper pairs are tunneling through the junction. The super current emerging
x
from the junction are coherent and they interfere. The net super current
 
changes periodically with the changes in magnetic flux. Even a small
y
change in magnetic flux can be detected accurately.
Y
Applications of SQUID
 SQUIDs are used as very sensitive magnetometer to measure a minute change in magnetic field in the
order
of 10−21T.
 used to detect the presence of ships, submarines, by detecting a small disturbances in the earth magnetic
field.
 It is used to measure the weak magnetic pulse generated by heart, brain in their pathological analysis.
 Principle of SQUID is applied in MRI for the investigation and diagnosis of various diseases.
 Used to explore the oil deposits and other mineral deposits in different parts of the world.
High Temperature Superconductors: HTC superconductor
 Substance having Tc around or below 24K are low Tc superconductors.
 Substance having Tc above 24K are high Tc superconductors.
 All known high temperature superconductors are type II.
Eg: Yittrium barium Copper oxide (Y-Ba-Cu-O) – Tc = 93K
Mercury thallium barium calcium copper oxide (Hg-Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O) – Tc > 138K
Applications:
 used to produce powerful magnets
 used to detect infrared radiations
 used for diagnosis with the help of MRI.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Photonics
Photonics is that branch of Science which deals with the production, control and detection of
photons. In Photonics, photons have more or less the same roles as electrons in Electronics. Photonic
devices have a number of advantages over electronic devices because of the very high speed of light. So the
information transmitted photonically can travel very long distances within a very short time.
Solid State Lighting (SSL): It is a type of lighting that uses mainly LEDs. This type of lighting has higher
efficiency, reliability and environmentally friendly technology compared to the conventional incandescent
lighting.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 LED is a heavily doped pn junction diode of suitable materials that emit light when it is forward biased.

I red
+ - green
P + - N
symbol + -
depletion region

forward biasing
V
Block diagram of LED V- I characteristics
Working
 During forward bias, free electrons from conduction band of n region, and holes from valence band of p
region moves towards depletion region and recombine together.
 During recombination, electromagnetic radiation is emitted with energy equal to band gap energy.
hc
Eg = h = where  is frequency; c is the velocity of light and  is the wavelength.


 The band gap energy determines the colour or wavelength of the emitted light.
Applications
 used as indicator light.
 used in remote sensor.
 used for fancy light and decoration.
 used in optical communication.
Advantages
 low power consumption.
 has lower life.
 smaller size.
Disadvantages
 Output is low.
 Intensity of light is small.
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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
 Incoherent light is produced.
Photodetectors
A photodetector has a pn junction which converts light into electrical current. These devices are widely
used in optical communication systems.
It is operated in photovoltaic mode or photoconductive mode.
In photovoltaic mode, photovoltaic effect is used. i.e., Photovoltaic effect is the production of an emf across
the junction of two semiconductors when light is incident at that junction. They are suitable for fibre optic
communication systems.
In photoconductive mode, when light is incident on a semiconducting material, electron – hole pairs are
formed and as a result photocurrent is produced. They are used in devices like remote control devices etc.
Junction Photodiode

.
symbol
- +
 This is a semiconductor device which converts P N
--- -++
light into current - -
- - depletion region
 It is operated in the reverse bias RL
Working: Block diagram

 In reverse bias condition, a small current is produced due to

the flow of minority carriers from P and N sides. This current is called dark current.
 If light is incident at the junction (depletion region), large number of free electrons and holes are created.
 Due to the flow of these free electrons and holes, a current is created called photocurrent.
 Magnitude of current depends on the intensity of light incident on it.
 Uses: Used in CD players, smoke detectors, remote control devices.
 I
II12

Dark current

V
VI characteristics
P-I-N Photodiode (P-type – intrinsic – N-type)
 In PIN photodiode, a thick intrinsic semiconducting layer
P I N
is inserted between heavily doped P and N region. This is
to improve the sensitivity of the photodiode.
RL
 When light is incident on the diode, electrons are excited from the

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
valence band to the conduction band producing a large number of electron – hole pairs.
 Because of its large width, the intrinsic layer absorbs very large number of incoming photons compared
to the P and N regions.
 This increases the photocurrent and improves the efficiency, speed and sensitivity compared to that in
photodiode.
Solar cell (Photovoltaic cell)
sunlight
 Solar cells are PN junction diode, it absorbs radiant energy or
Antireflection
sunlight and converts it into electrical energy. coating

 It works on the principle of photovoltaic cell. N layer

 Solar cell consists of a heavily doped p-n junction.
P layer
 It has a large surface area to receive large amount of sunlight.
 Top N-layer is very thin, to allow solar radiations to reach
the p-n junction. metal contact

 Connections are made from bottom P-layer and top N-layer using metal contacts. An antireflection
coating
is provided on the top layer to prevent loss of light by reflection.
Working
 Solar cell is a p-n junction diode under zero bias. At zero bias, free electrons flow from n-region to
p- region. These free electrons will recombine with holes in the p-region and become bound electrons.
 When solar radiation are incident at pn junction, more electron-hole pairs are formed producing an
electric
current in the external circuit. Thus solar energy is converted into electrical energy.
 Total output voltage can be increased by connecting a number of solar cells in series. A solar panel is an
array of a number of solar cells connected together.
VI characteristics of a solar cell
 At open circuit voltage VOC (external resistance RL is
very high), current is zero. ISC
 At short circuit current ISC, current is maximum and
terminal voltage will be zero.
 As RL increases, the current remains constant up to a
certain load. Only beyond that load, current decreases.
Hence solar cell is called a constant current source.
VOC
.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Fibre Optics
 Optical fibre is a thin long cylindrical fibre made of glass or plastic used for transmission of light.
 It consists of three parts.
cladding
(i) a core is the innermost cylindrical region. Refractive index of the
core n1is made higher. It is made of germanium doped silica glass. n1 n2 no
Light wave can propagate through the core. core
sheath
The size of the core is about 10 - 50m.
(ii) Cladding: A core is surrounded by another cylindrical shell
called cladding. Its refractive index is made smaller compared to the
core. It is made of purely silica glass. Purpose of cladding is to keep the light waves within the
core itself by total internal reflection. The size of cladding is about 125m.
(iii) Sheath: Outermost cylindrical layer is called sheath. It is an opaque layer used to provide
protection to the fibre. It is made of plastic material. Its size is about 150m.
 Working principle of propagation of light through optic fibre – Total internal reflection
When a ray of light travel from a denser medium of refractive index n1 to a rarer medium of
refractive index n2 , and if the angle of incidence  is greater than the critical angle c , the ray is totally
reflected back. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. By multiple total internal reflection,
the light is transmitted through the fibre.
Types of optic fibre
Step - index fibre
 This type of optical fibre consists of core and cladding of constant refractive index.
i.e., n1 and n2 are constant and n1 > n2.
 Shape of index profile (graph with refractive index in x-axis and distance from the axis of fibre in
y-axis) is like a step. Hence it got the name step-index fibre.
 Light entering through one face of fibre undergoes repeated total internal reflections at core-
cladding.
Radial distance

n1 cladding
 core
n2 
no o no n2 n1 n 
n1
n2
no

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Graded index fibre
 This type of optical fibre consists of core with varying refractive index and cladding of constant
refractive index and n1 > n2.
 n1 is maximum at axis of the core and decreases radially outwards.
 Light entering through one face of fibre is travelling in a parabolic path by undergoing a number of
gradual total internal reflection.
Radial distance

n1

n2 o n
no no n2 n1 core

cladding n2
no

Acceptance Angle (): It is the angle made by the incident light at one end of the core with its axis.
Numerical Aperture of an optical fibre
 It is the measure of its light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.
 It is the sine of the maximum value of acceptance angle.

 Numerical aperture NA = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎 = √𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

Consider a step index fibre made of core with refractive index n1 and a cladding of refractive index
n2. Here n1 > n2.
 Let a light ray is incident at an acceptance angle .
 It is refracted along BC at .
cladding
 After refraction, the ray is incident at the core-cladding

 core
interface at an angle  which is greater than 
n1
the critical angle c. A n2
no
Hence it undergoes total internal
sin 
Refractive index of core w.r.t air is 0 n1 = (by Snell’s law)
sin 
sin  n1
= = 0 n1 ( refractive index of core w.r.t air)
sin  n0

n0 sin  = n1 sin  → (1)


From figure,  = 2 - 

So eqn (1) becomes, n0 sin  = n1 sin (2 − )

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics

n0 sin  = n1 cos  → (2) sin (2 − ) = cos 

For critical rays,  = 𝑚 ;  = 𝑚 ; = 𝑐

 n0 sin 𝑚 = n1 cos 𝑐 → (3)
n1
Refractive of core w.r.t cladding is 2 n1 . or 2
n1 = n2

2 1
n1 = sin 𝑐
n2
sin 𝑐 = n1

n22
We know that, cos 𝑐 = √1 − sin2 𝑐 = √1 −
n21

n21 − n22
i.e., cos 𝑐 = √ n21

√n21 − n22
or cos 𝑐 = → (4)
n1

√n21 − n22
Substituting, (4) in (3), n0 sin 𝑚 = n1 = √n12 − n22
n1

√𝐧𝟐𝟏 − 𝐧𝟐𝟐
Or NA = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎 =
𝐧𝟎

The refractive index of air is unity, n0 = 1, then NA = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎 = √𝐧𝟐𝟏 − 𝐧𝟐𝟐

Relative refractive index of a fibre or fractional refractive index ()

It is the ratio of the difference between refractive indices of the core and cladding of a fibre to the
𝐧𝟏 −𝐧𝟐
refractive index of the core.  = 𝐧𝟏

Relation between NA and relative refractive index of a fibre ()

NA = sin  = √n12 − n22 = √(n1 − n2 )(n1 + n2 )
n1 −n2
= ; n1 − n2 = n1
n1

Since n1  n2 , n1 + n2 = 2n1
Then NA = √n12 − n22 = √(n1 − n2 )(n1 + n2 ) = √2n1 n1

NA = 𝐧𝟏 √𝟐

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Fibre optic Communication System
It consists of three sections (i) transmitter (ii) receiver (iii) information channel (fibre optic cable)

1 2 3 OFC 4 5 6

Receiver
Transmitter
Block diagram of an optical communication system
(i) Transmitter: It converts electrical signal into optical signal.
It consists of
Unit 1: It is the subscriber’s telephone where sound wave is converted to electrical energy.
Unit 2: It is an encoder. This converts continuous electric signal into coded digital pulse by means of
an analogue to digital converter.
Unit 3: It is an optical transmitter. It consists of miniature semiconductor laser or LED. Light source
from this source turns on and off according to the digital pulses received from the encoder.
i.e., Light beam is modulated by the digital pulses. This modulated light is transmitted through an
optical fibre to the receiver section.
(ii) Optical fibre cable: Transmits information containing light by multiple total internal reflection.
(iii) Receiver: It consists of
Unit 4: It is a photodetector which demodulates the optical signal and send the digital signal to unit 5.
Unit 5: It is a decoder which converts digital pulses into analog signal with the help of a digital to
analog converter and send the signal to unit 6.
Unit 6: It is a subscriber’s telephone where the sound is reproduced from the analog signal.
Advantages of fibre optic communication
(i) High band width: Large amount of information can be transmitted through a single fibre.
(ii) Small size and weight.
(iii) Low transmission loss.
(iv) High security – taping is not possible.
(v) Long cost and long lasting.
Applications of optical fibre
Industrial uses:
 Optical fibres are used as sensors to measure or monitor displacement, pressure, temperature, flow rate,
chemical composition etc.
 Used in security alarm system, industrial automation etc.
 Used to know the level of atmospheric pollution.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Technological uses:
 Used in cable TV, CCTV, LAN, WAN etc.
 Internet connections made through optical fibres.
 Used for transmission of digital data generated by computers.
Medical uses:
 Optical fibres used in endoscope.
 Used to test the tissues and blood vessels which are far below the skin.
 They are used to measure and monitor blood flow, oxygen saturation level etc.
 Used for bloodless surgery.
 Used in angioplasty.
Optical fibre Sensors:
 It is a device used to measure displacement, force, pressure, temperature etc by detecting the variation of
light through fibre with respect to external parameters.
 There are different types of sensors.
Intensity Modulated Sensor
 Here a change in physical parameter produces a change in intensity of light through the optic fibre.
 By measuring this change in intensity of light, the change in physical parameter can be found out.
 Eg: Force or pressure sensor.
Reflecting diaphragm
A typical pressure sensor is as shown in figure.
LED
The light from the LED gets reflected from the
diaphragm and it is detected by the photdector.
Changes in external pressure causes the diaphragm photodetector
Sensor probe
to bend leading to changes in numerical aperture of the fibre.
This produces the modulation in the intensity of light transmitted by the fibre. Pressure changes upto
6MPa can be measured accurately.
These types of fibre optic sensors are useful for monitoring pressure changes in arteries, bladder urethra
etc. They are also useful for pressure monitoring of gaseous reactants and products in chemical
industries.

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ICET Module V Superconductivity And Photonics
Phase Modulated Sensor
 Here a change in physical parameter produces a change in phase of light through the optic fibre which
can be detected and calculated for measuring the physical quantity.
 Eg: Temperature sensor. measurand
Sensing arm
Light from a highly monochromatic laser source coupler
coupler
is split equally by a coupler and sent through Laser output

the sensing fibre arm and reference fibre arm.

Reference arm
The output light from the two fibres are recombined
at the second coupler. The sensing arm is in direct contact with
the measurand while the reference arm is protected from external parameters. The measurand acts on the
sensing arm and causes a change in its length, its refractive index or both. This produces a change in
phase of light wave passing through the sensing arm. The light wave through the reference arm is not
affected by the measurand. So there appears a phase difference between the two light waves reaching the
second coupler. The intensity of light waves emerging as the output depends on this phase difference.
The changes in phase can be detected accurately by interferometer.

15