(1) For precise signal sensing analog sensors are the best choice.

Consider a sensor S that provides analog signal in the range of 5 micro volts to 50 micro volts from a
transducer. Ignore the thermal drift impact on the system or HPBW loss at the transducer.
Using this sensor please create and present the instrumentation ( need not be with exact part number)
to capture the parameter to read, digitally display and store for analysis using suitable micro-controller
/ micro-processor with the help of the sensor S. The presentation is expected to include the interconnect
schematic of major electronic components involved, relevant calculations and functional block diagram
representation of the system. The operational power supply for the system is 5V DC available from a
stabilized DC power supply source with respect to system chassis ground. The digital display should be
chosen to display three digit decimal system whole numbers ( no fraction need to be displayed after
decimal point).

Solution
To capture the parameter to read, digitally display, and store for analysis using the sensor S, you'll need
a few key components. Here's a basic setup:
1. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): To convert the analog signal from the sensor into a digital
signal that the microcontroller can understand. A typical choice could be a 12-bit ADC which will
provide enough resolution for our requirement.
2. Microcontroller (MCU): To process the digital signal, control the operations, and interface with
other components. A simple yet powerful choice could be an Arduino Uno, which comes with built-in
ADCs, but if the signal requires high precision, an external ADC as mentioned above would be used.
3. Digital Display: To display the signal readings. A 7-segment LED display could be used to display
three-digit decimal system whole numbers.
4. Data Storage: To store the readings for analysis. The MCU can be connected to a microSD card slot,
for example, for data logging.
Here's a simple block diagram representation of the system:
[Sensor S] → [ADC] → [MCU] → [Digital Display] → [Data Storage]
And the major electronic components involved would be interconnected as follows:
1. The analog signal from Sensor S is fed into the ADC.
2. The ADC is connected to the MCU through SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or I2C (Inter-Integrated
Circuit) depending on the chosen ADC.
3. The MCU is connected to the Digital Display via GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pins.
4. The MCU is also connected to the Data Storage (microSD card slot) through SPI.
Relevant calculations would involve determining the resolution of the ADC and scaling the analog
signal to the display range. The resolution of the ADC can be calculated using the formula:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ−𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑤
Resolution = , where n is the number of bits in the ADC.
2𝑛 −1
(2) What is maximum power transfer theorem ? Please present at least one practical example of
application of Maximum power transfer theorem ( the application example from the domain of IoT
would be a better scorer !)

Solution
The maximum power transfer theorem states that to obtain maximum external power from a source
with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of the load must equal the resistance of the source. This
theorem is applicable in both electrical DC circuits and in AC circuits (for AC, the resistance is replaced
with impedance).
A practical example of the application of the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in the domain of IoT
(Internet of Things) is in the design of wireless power transfer systems, especially those used in wireless
charging.
Consider a wireless charging system for an IoT device, such as a smartwatch. The system consists of
two parts - a transmitter which is the charging pad, and a receiver in the smartwatch. The transmitter
creates a magnetic field, and the receiver in the smartwatch uses this magnetic field to create electricity
and charge the battery.
In this system, for maximum power transfer, the impedance of the transmitter (or the source) and the
receiver (or the load) need to be matched. If the impedances are not matched, the power transfer will
not be efficient, and the smartwatch will not charge optimally. This is where the maximum power
transfer theorem comes into play - to ensure maximum power is transferred from the charging pad to
the smartwatch, designers aim to match the impedance of the receiver to that of the transmitter.
This application of the theorem is critical in IoT devices because it enables efficient power transfer,
which is essential for the prolonged, uninterrupted operation of the devices.

(3) What is a freewheeling diode (or a body diode) ? What is the role of a body diode in an N-Channel
MOSFET ?

Solution
A freewheeling diode, also known as a flyback diode or snubber diode, is a protection device used in a
circuit with an inductive load to eliminate flyback, which is the sudden voltage spike seen across an
inductive load when its supply current is suddenly reduced or removed.
In the case of a MOSFET, the body diode is an inherent part of the device structure, formed by the P-
type body and the N-type drain. It's not added intentionally but is a result of how a MOSFET is built.
The role of the body diode in an N-Channel MOSFET is to allow current to flow from the source to the
drain when the MOSFET is off and a reverse voltage is applied (i.e., when the voltage at the drain is
less than the voltage at the source).
In switching applications where the N-Channel MOSFET is used to control an inductive load, the body
diode plays a crucial role during the off periods of the PWM signal. When the MOSFET switches off,
the current through the inductive load wants to keep flowing. The body diode provides a path for this
current, preventing a potentially damaging voltage spike across the drain and source of the MOSFET.
The body diode conducts in the reverse direction until the inductive energy is dissipated, effectively
acting as a freewheeling diode. However, it's important to note that the body diode is not optimized for
performance and may not be sufficient for conditions where high speed, high current, or high efficiency
is required. In such cases, an external Schottky diode is often added in parallel with the MOSFET.

(4) What would happen if an external Schottky freewheeling diodes is used in parallel with the
MOSFETs in a switching circuit ?

Solution
Using an external Schottky freewheeling diode in parallel with the MOSFET can enhance the
performance of a switching circuit in several ways:
1. Faster Recovery Time: Schottky diodes have a much faster recovery time than the inherent body
diodes of MOSFETs. This means they can switch from the conducting to the non-conducting state more
quickly, which can be crucial in high-frequency switching applications.
2. Lower Forward Voltage Drop: Schottky diodes have a lower forward voltage drop compared to
standard diodes, resulting in less power loss when the diode is conducting. This can increase the
efficiency of the circuit.
3. Improved Protection: The Schottky diode provides a path for the current when the MOSFET is
switched off, reducing the risk of voltage spikes that could damage the MOSFET or other components
in the circuit.
4. Better Thermal Performance: Using an external diode can also distribute the heat generated during
freewheeling across two components (the MOSFET and the diode), rather than concentrating it in the
MOSFET alone.
However, it's worth noting that adding an external Schottky diode also increases the complexity and
cost of the circuit. It also introduces additional junction capacitance, which could affect the switching
performance. Therefore, it's important to consider the specific requirements and constraints of your
application when deciding whether to use an external diode.

(5) What is the significance of “Reverse recovery time” of a semiconductor switching device ?

Solution

The "Reverse Recovery Time" is a key parameter of a semiconductor switching device, specifically
diodes. It refers to the amount of time required for a diode, which has been conducting in the forward
direction, to completely stop conducting when a reverse bias is applied.
In simple terms, when a diode switches from the conducting state (forward-biased) to the non-
conducting state (reverse-biased), it doesn't happen instantaneously. There's a brief period during which
the diode continues to conduct in the reverse direction. This is known as the "reverse recovery time"
and is usually measured in nanoseconds (ns) or microseconds (µs).
The significance of the reverse recovery time is especially important in high-speed switching circuits:
1. Switching Speed: The reverse recovery time directly impacts the switching speed of the overall
circuit. The faster the reverse recovery time, the faster the circuit can switch between states, making it
suitable for high-speed applications.
2. Efficiency: During the reverse recovery time, the diode will be conducting in the reverse direction,
which can lead to power loss. Lower reverse recovery times mean less power loss, leading to higher
efficiency.
3. Noise and Interference: The current spike during the reverse recovery period can produce noise and
electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fast reverse recovery reduces these effects.
4. Device Stress and Reliability: The reverse recovery current can stress the components in the circuit
(including the diode itself), potentially affecting the reliability and lifespan of the device.
Therefore, for applications such as power conversion, motor drives, or any high-frequency switching
circuits, choosing a diode with a low reverse recovery time is beneficial for the performance and
efficiency of the overall system.

(6) Which four setup are required to be functional to turn on a micro-controller / microprocessor in an
embedded system product ? Hint: These four checks constitute the evaluation criteria for verification a
functional micro-controller/ microprocessor in an embedded electronics product.

Solution
To ensure a microcontroller or microprocessor in an embedded system product is functional, there are
four key setups or checks that need to be verified:
1. Power Supply: The microcontroller must have a stable and correct voltage supply. This typically
includes the main power supply as well as any necessary regulation for different parts of the
microcontroller (core, I/O, etc.). Check the power supply lines, voltage levels, and power-on reset
circuit to ensure they are working correctly.
2. Clock Source: Microcontrollers require a stable clock source for their operation. This could be an
internal or external oscillator. The clock signal should be checked for correct frequency and stability.
3. Reset Circuit: The reset circuit is important for initializing the microcontroller to a known state. This
could be a power-on reset, a manual reset, or a watchdog timer reset. It's crucial to ensure that the reset
circuit is functioning correctly to prevent unpredictable behavior.
4. Bootloader and Firmware: The bootloader is the first code that runs when a microcontroller starts
up and is responsible for loading the main firmware/application code. Verify that the bootloader is
correctly loading the firmware, and the firmware is starting up as expected. Ensure the memory
(ROM/RAM) where the firmware resides is functioning correctly.
Once these four checks have been performed and passed, the microcontroller can be considered
functional and ready to execute the tasks of the embedded system.

By
Anup Jaiswal
Computer Engineering
Batch : 2024