Electric fields in matter

Polarization
• A neutral atom placed in the external electric field will not
experience a net force.
• Even though the atom is neutral, the fact is the positive charge is
concentrated in the nucleus and the negative in the electron cloud
around the nucleus.
• As such the nucleus will experience a force in the direction of the
external electric field and of magnitude 𝑞𝐸.
• The negatively charged electron cloud will also experience the same
force but in the direction opposite the external electric field force.
Atom in an external electric field
• Electron cloud with a constant volume charge density 𝜌 and radius 𝑎.

• −𝑞 is the total charge of the electron cloud.

• The corresponding charge density is

−𝑞 4
𝜌= and 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎3
𝑉 3
3𝑞
so that 𝜌=−
4𝜋𝑎3
• Electric field inside the uniform cloud is
1 𝑞𝑟
𝐸(𝑟) = − ,
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3
𝑟 is the distance from the center of the cloud.
• Suppose the nucleus moves a distance 𝑑 relative to the center of the
electron cloud.
• The electric force on the nucleus by the electron cloud is
1 𝑞2 𝑑
𝐹𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 = 𝑞𝐸 𝑑 = − .
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3
• At equilibrium
𝐹Ԧ𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0
or
1 𝑞2 𝑑
− + 𝑞𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3
• The equilibrium distance
3 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑= 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
𝑞
• The induced dipole moment is

𝑝Ԧ = 𝑞 𝑑Ԧ = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 .

• The induced dipole moment is proportional to the external electric

field.
• The direction of the induced dipole moment is the same as that of the
external field.

• The proportionality constant is called the atomic polarizability 𝛼:

𝑝Ԧ
𝛼= = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3 .
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡
Example:
According to quantum mechanics, the electron cloud for a hydrogen
𝑞
atom in its ground state has a charge density: 𝜌 𝑟 = 3 𝑒 −2𝑟/𝑎 . 𝑞 is
𝜋𝑎
the charge of the electron and 𝑎 is the Bohr radius. Find the atomic
polarizability of such an atom.

Solution
Due to the external field the nucleus will be displaced a distance 𝒅 with
respect to the electron cloud.
The force exerted by electron cloud on the nucleus is
𝐹Ԧ𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 (𝑑) = 𝑞𝐸𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 (𝑑).
Using Gauss’s law the electric field generated by electron cloud is
𝑑
1 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 1 𝜌
𝐸𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 𝑑 = 2
= 2
න 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝑑 𝜖0 4𝜋𝑑 𝜖0
0

1 𝑑 𝑞 −2𝑟/𝑎 2
= 2 ‫׬‬0 3 𝑒 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑎

1 𝑞 𝑑 −2𝑟/𝑎 2
= 4𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑎3

1 𝑛 −𝑎𝑥 𝑛! 𝑖
−𝑎 σ𝑛 𝑎
Now apply: ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎𝑛+1
1− 𝑒 𝑖=0 𝑖!
 2
1 𝑞 −2𝑑/𝑎
𝑑 𝑑
𝐸𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 𝑑 = 2
1 − 𝑒 1+2 +2 2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑 𝑎 𝑎

The displacement of the nucleus is very small in comparison to the size

of the electron cloud (i.e. 𝑑 ≪ 𝑎).
Expanding 𝑒 −2𝑑/𝑎 in terms of 𝑑/𝑎 gives:

1 𝑞 𝑑 𝑑 2 4 𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑑2
= 1− 1−2 +2 − + … 1+2 +2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑 2 𝑎 𝑎 3 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2

1 𝑞 4 𝑑 3 1 𝑞𝑑 1 𝑝
≅ = = .
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑2 3 𝑎 3𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3 3𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3
• The dipole moment of the dipole can be written in terms of the
external electric field to be:
𝑝Ԧ = 3𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡

The electric polarizability of the atom is

𝑝Ԧ
𝛼= = 3𝜋𝜖0 𝑎3 .
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡

• Apart from polarising atoms, the external electric field can also align
the molecules of a given system.
• Water is an example of molecule with a permanent dipole moment.
Field of a polarised object
• Consider a piece of a polarised material with a dipole moment per
unit volume 𝑃.
• The electrostatic potential generated by this material is
1 Ƹ
∆𝑟∙𝑃 1 1
𝑉 𝑟Ԧ = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜏 = ‫׬‬ 𝑃∙𝛻 𝑑𝜏,
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 (∆𝑟)2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑟
where ∆𝑟 = 𝑟 − 𝑟′.
1 1 1
• Applying the vector relation 𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 = 𝛻∙𝑃 + 𝑃∙𝛻
∆𝑟 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
• The electric potential can be written as
1 1 1 1
• 𝑉 𝑟Ԧ = ‫׬‬ 𝛻∙ 𝑃 𝑑𝜏 − ‫׬‬ 𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑟
 1 1 1 1
• 𝑉 𝑟Ԧ = ‫׬‬ 𝑃 ∙ 𝑑𝑎Ԧ − ‫׬‬ 𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓 ∆𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑟
1 1 1 1
= ‫׬‬ 𝜎 𝑑𝑎 + ‫׬‬ 𝜌 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓 ∆𝑟 𝑏 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑟 𝑏
where
𝜎𝑏 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑛ො … bound surface charge
and
𝜌𝑏 = − 𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 … bound volume charge
Example
A sphere of radius R carries polarization 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑟,Ԧ k is the constant and 𝑟Ԧ
is the vector from the center.
(a) Calculate the bound charges 𝜎𝑏 and 𝜌𝑏 .
(b) Find the field inside and outside the sphere.

Solution:
(a) 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑛ො = 𝑘𝑟Ԧ ∙ 𝑟Ƹ = 𝑘𝑅𝑟Ƹ ∙ 𝑟Ƹ = 𝑘𝑅
1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕
𝜌𝑏 = − 𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 = − 𝑟 𝑟Ƹ ∙ 𝑘𝑟𝑟Ƹ = − 𝑟 2 𝑘𝑟 = −3𝑘
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟
(b) Firstly, the region outside the sphere
(i) Electric field in this region due to surface charge:
1 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜎𝑏 𝑘𝑅3
𝐸𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓 (𝑟) = = 𝑟.Ƹ
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 𝜖0 𝑟 2
(ii) Electric field in this region due to volume charge:
4
1 𝜋𝑅3 𝜌𝑏 𝑘𝑅3
3
𝐸𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝑟Ƹ = − 𝜖 𝑟 2 𝑟.Ƹ
0
(iii) So the total electric field outside the loop is zero.
Secondly, the region inside the sphere
(i) Electric field in this region due to surface charge is zero.
(ii) Electric field due to volume charge is
4
1 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑏 𝑘𝑟
3
𝐸𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝑟Ƹ = − 𝜖 𝑟.Ƹ
0
• Bound charges discussed here are real charges, bound to individual dipoles
of materials.
• For example consider the three dipoles shown below:

• If they are aligned, the center charges cancel out.

• Then the system looks like a single dipole moment with dipole
moment 3𝑑𝑞.
The electric displacement
• The electric field generated by a polarized material is equal to the
electric field produced by the bound charges.
• Gauss’s law can be used in these systems to calculate the electric field
provided free and bound charges are considered.
• So within a dielectric the total charge density is given by
𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 + 𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 .
• Gauss’s law for this type of the system is
𝜌 𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 +𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 1
𝛻∙𝐸 = = = −𝛻 ∙ 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 ,
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀0
• where 𝑃 is the polarisation of the material.
• This equation can also be written as
𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃 .
• The expression in brackets is called the electric displacement 𝐷 and
defined by
𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃.
• Gauss’s law can also be written in terms of 𝐷 as
𝛻 ∙ 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
and
‫𝑎𝑑 ∙ 𝐷 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑠ׯ‬Ԧ = 𝑄𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 .
• These two versions of Gauss’s law are most important as they refer to
free charges of which can be controlled.
• Even though the electric displacement appear to have similar
properties to the electric field 𝐸, there are some notable differences.
• For example the curl of 𝐷 is

𝛻 × 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝛻 × 𝐸 + 𝛻 × 𝑃 = 𝛻 × 𝑃

• which is generally not equal to zero.

• As the curl of 𝐷 is not zero there is no potential which generates 𝐷.
Example:
Suppose the field inside a large piece dielectric is 𝐸0 , so that the electric
displacement is equal to 𝐷0 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 + 𝑃.
(a) Small spherical cavity is hollowed out of the material. Find the field
at the center of the cavity in terms of 𝐸0 and 𝑃. Also find the
displacement at center of the cavity in terms of 𝐷0 and 𝑃.
(b) Do the same for the needle-shaped cavity running parallel to 𝑃.
(c) Do the same for a thin wafer-shaped cavity perpendicular to 𝑃.
(a) A large piece of dielectric material has polarization 𝑃 and the small
sphere has polarization −𝑃 superimposed on the large piece.
• The electric field inside the sphere with polarization −𝑃 is
1 1
𝐸𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = − −𝑃 = 𝑃
3𝜀0 3𝜀0
• The field at center of the cavity is
1
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝐸0 + 𝑃
3𝜀0
• The corresponding electric displacement is
𝐷𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝜀0 𝐸0 + 𝜀0 𝐸𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
1
= 𝜀0 𝐸0 + 𝑃
3
2
= 𝐷0 − 𝑃
3
(b) Now consider a large piece of dielectric material with polarization 𝑃 and
small long needle shaped piece with -𝑃 superimposed on it.
• The electric field of a polarised needle of length 𝑠 is equal to that of two
point charges (+𝑞 and – 𝑞) a distance 𝑠 apart.
• The charge density on the end caps of the needle is 𝑃.
⟹ 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑏 𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴
• The electric field generated by the needle at the center is
1 +𝑃𝐴 1 −𝑃𝐴
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑙𝑒 = 𝑘෠ − 𝑘෠
4𝜋𝜖0 1 𝑠 2 4𝜋𝜖0 1 𝑠 2
2 𝑃𝐴 ෠
4 4
= 𝑘.
𝜋𝜖0 𝑠 2
• In the needle limit 𝐴 ⟶ 0, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑙𝑒 ⟶ 0.
• At the center of the needle cavity
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸0 .
The electric displacement is
𝐷𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 = 𝐷0 − 𝑃.
(c) Lastly consider a large piece of dielectric material with polarization
𝑃 and a thin wafer-shaped piece with -𝑃 superimposed on it.
• The electric field generated by the thin wafer will be the same as that
of parallel plates with charges densities -𝜎 on top and +𝜎on bottom.
• For a thin wafer shaped cavity the field between the plates will be the
same as that of the parallel-plate capacitor with infinitely large plates.
𝜎 1
So 𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘 = 𝑃෠
𝜀0 𝜀0
The net electric field at center of the cavity is
1
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸0 + 𝑃
𝜀0
The electric displacement at center of the cavity is
𝐷𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀0 𝐸0 + 𝑃 = 𝐷
Linear Dielectrics
• Most dielectric materials get polarized when place in an external
electric field.
• In most cases the polarization is proportional to the electric field.
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
𝐸 is the total electric field, the constant 𝜒𝑒 is the electric susceptibility.
• Materials whereby induced polarization is proportional to the electric
field are called linear dielectrics.
• The electric displacement in linear dielectrics is also proportional to
the electric field:
𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃 = 𝜀0 1 + 𝜒𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜀𝐸,
here 𝜀 is called the permittivity of the material and is
𝜀 = 𝜀0 1 + 𝜒𝑒 .
• The constant 1 + 𝜒𝑒 is called the dielectric constant 𝐾 of the
material.
• Now consider a volume 𝑉 filled with a material of dielectric constant
𝐾.
• The polarization of this material becomes:
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
Therefore
𝛻 × 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝛻 × 𝐸 = 0,
as a result
𝛻 × 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝛻 × 𝐸 + 𝛻 × 𝑃 = 0.
So the electric displacement satisfy the following two conditions:
𝛻×𝐷 =0 and 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
• The electric field due to free charges in the absence of the dielectric
constant satisfies the two equations:
𝜌𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝛻. 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝜖0
and 𝛻 × 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 0.
Comparing the two sets of equations on 𝐷 and 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 produces:
𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 .
The electric displacement 𝐷 can also be expressed in terms of the electric
field:
𝐷 = 𝜀0 1 + 𝜒𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜀𝐸.
The last two equations show that:
𝜀𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 .
𝜀0 1
Or 𝐸= 𝐸
𝜀 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
= 𝐸
𝐾 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
.
The presence of the dielectric material reduces the electric field by a factor
of 𝐾!