Educational Research and Statistics

Name: Samina Manzoor

Student ID: 18PLE10358
Course Code: 6461

Assignment No 1
 1. Explain the concept of research in education. What are the
benefits that research offers to the sector of education?
Answer

According to J.W. Best (1992) research is an “intellectual activity which brings

to light new knowledge or corrects previous error-and misconceptions and
adds in an orderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge.”
Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialized tools, instruments, and procedures to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts
with a problem than would be possible facts, analyses these critically, and
reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work
instead of mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire
to know rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to
know not only 'what' but 'how much', and measurement is therefore, a central
feature of it. Research is central to contemporary society. The complexity and
uncertainty that characterise daily life in the twenty-first century demands
that citizens are able to judge evidence, make critical judgements and present
ideas clearly and unambiguously in discussions. The ability to carry out
research is thus a key characteristic of any citizen. It is absolutely essential for
effective professional engagement. So learning research skills at university is
vital (Brew, 2015).
How can student benefit?

We assume that discipline-based research is valuable to our students - but

how? There is much evidence that questions a close relationship between
research and teaching in undergraduate curricula. There is certainly potential,
but it needs careful planning and to be progressively built into the curriculum.
If we do this there are many potential benefits, depending on the activities
that students are engaged in. Some examples of potential benefits include:

• Improves student outcomes.

• Improves student engagement.
• Helps students see their studies as current, stimulating and exciting.
• Enables students to answer the questions that they want to ask.
• Makes students feel included within an academic community.
• Inducts students into research communities.
• Promotes students' independence and confidence.
• Provides students with experience of collegiate working.
• Develops students' transferable skills of finding, creating, synthesising
and presenting information.
 • Provides experience of problem solving
• Develops students' skills of critical analysis and ability to make
judgements and come to conclusions.
• Enables students to develop their reflexivity as they think about what
they are learning and how.
• Helps students to recognise rapid changes in knowledge.
• Introduces students to appropriate or dominant research
methodologies in their subject.
Models the ways in which new knowledge is generated in their subject
Promotes students' intellectual development through, for example, enabling
exploration of epistemological issues as students not only learn how
knowledge is created but the nature of knowledge in their discipline (e.g.
whether knowledge is certain, or tentative and interpretive)
How can staff benefit?

As well as the benefits for students there are also benefits for academic staff
of engaging our students in research and enquiry in our curricula:

• It is a way of bridging the divide between teaching and research within

universities.
• It can help us with our research as students can collect or analyse data
• The process of teaching about research with which we are engaged
can help us to refine our thinking or conceptual ideas and to evaluate
our methodologies.
• We gain new perspectives on our research from our students or the
process of teaching our students.
• Teaching about research and enquiry can generate ideas and issues that
are followed up in our research.
2. Comparatively discuss descriptive and experimental research
methods. Provide examples from your own context for both
methods.
Definition
Descriptive research is a method that describes a study or a topic. It defines
the characteristics of the variable under research and answers the questions
related to it.

Whereas experimental research is a scientific approach to testing a theory or

a hypothesis using experimental groups and control variables.

Usage
Descriptive research will help you gather data on a subject or understand a
population or group.

Experimental research will help you establish a cause-effect relationship

between two or more variables.

Aim
Descriptive research aims towards studying the demographics related to a
subject group. Experimental research aims to test hypotheses and theories,
which include cause-effect variables.

Approach
Descriptive research is sociological and psychological in nature.

Experimental research uses a more scientific experimental approach to test

the problems.

Both of them differ in terms of external interventions. Descriptive research

doesn’t face any, while experimental research has control variables.

Method to gather data

In descriptive research, the study can be done by collecting qualitative and
quantitative data types.

But when it comes to experimental research, the data has to be quantitative in

nature.
 Descriptive Vs. Experimental Research: Comparison Chart

Point of Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Difference
Process Uses observation to measure attributes Manipulates variables to reach
& behavior. conclusions.
Design Simple. Complicate.
Offers insights on What? Why?
Method Identify the characteristics Focus is on hypothesis
Conduct Easy Hard

Conclusion:
Despite falling under the types of quantitative research, descriptive research &
experimental research differ significantly. This concludes all points of
difference between the two research types.
 3. Critically discuss different sources for literature of review.
How can computer help in review of literature?

Following are a few acceptable sources for literature reviews, listed in order from what
will be considered most acceptable to less acceptable sources for your literature
review assignments:

1) Peer reviewed journal articles.

2) Edited academic books.
3) Articles in professional journals.
4) Statistical data from government websites.
5) Website material from professional associations.

The following sections will explain and provide examples of these various
sources.
Peer reviewed journal articles (papers)

A peer reviewed journal article is a paper that has been submitted to a scholarly
journal, accepted, and published. Peer review journal papers go through a
rigorous, blind review process of peer review. What this means is that two to three
experts in the area of research featured in the paper have reviewed and accepted
the paper for publication. The names of the author(s) who are seeking to publish
the research have been removed (blind review), so as to minimize any bias towards
the authors of the research (albeit, sometimes a savvy reviewer can discern who
has done the research based upon previous publications, etc.). This blind review
process can be long (often 12 to 18 months) and may involve many back and forth
edits on the behalf of the researchers, as they work to address the edits and
concerns of the peers who reviewed their paper. Often, reviewers will reject the
paper for a variety of reasons, such as unclear or questionable methods, lack of
contribution to the field, etc. Because peer reviewed journal articles have gone
through a rigorous process of review, they are considered to be the premier source
for research. Peer reviewed journal articles should serve as the foundation for your
literature review.

Edited academic books:

An edited academic book is a collection of scholarly scientific papers written by

different authors. The works are original papers, not published elsewhere (“Edited
volume,” 2018). The papers within the text also go through a process of review;
however, the review is often not a blind review because the authors have been
invited to contribute to the book. Consequently, edited academic books are fine to
use for your literature review, but you also want to ensure that your literature
review contains mostly peer reviewed journal papers.
Articles in professional journals

Articles from professional journals should be used with caution for your literature
review. This is because articles in trade journals are not usually peer reviewed, even
though they may appear to be. A good way to find out is to read the “About Us” section
of the professional journal, which should state whether or not the papers are peer
reviewed. You can also find out by Googling the name of the journal and adding “peer
reviewed” to the search.

Statistical data from governmental websites:

Governmental websites can be excellent sources for statistical data, e.g, Statistics
Canada collects and publishes data related to the economy, society, and the
environment

Website material from professional associations:

Material from other websites can also serve as a source for statistics that you may
need for your literature review. Since you want to justify the value of the research that
interests you, you might make use of a professional association’s website to learn how
many members they have, for example. You might want to demonstrate, as part of the
introduction to your literature review, why more research on the topic of PTSD in
police officers is important. You could use peer reviewed journal articles to determine
the prevalence of PTSD in police officers in Canada in the last ten years, and then use
the Ontario Police Officers´ Association website to determine the approximate
number of police officers employed in the Province of Ontario over the last ten years.
This might help you estimate how many police officers could be suffering with PTSD in
Ontario. That number could potentially help to justify a research grant down the road.
But again, this type of website- based material should be used with caution and
sparingly.

Role of computers in research

Computers in Research The computers are indispensable throughout the research

process. The role of computer becomes more important when the research is on a
large sample. Data can be stored in computers for immediate use or can be stored in
auxiliary memories like floppy discs, compact discs, universal serial buses (pen drives)
or memory cards, so that the same can be retrieved later. The computers assist the
researcher throughout different phases of research process.

Role of Computers in the phases of research process There are five major phases of
the research process where computer plays different vital roles. They are:

1) Role of Computer in Conceptual phase

2) Role of Computer in Design and planning phase

3) Role of Computer in Empirical phase

4) Role of Computer in Analytic phase and

5) Role of Computer in Dissemination phase

1) Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase

The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of

literature, theoretical framework and formulation of hypothesis. Role of Computers in
Literature Review: Computers help for searching the literatures (for review of
literature) and bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the world
wide webs. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to be retrieved
whenever needed. This has the advantage over searching the literature in the form of
books, journals and other newsletters at the libraries which consume considerable
amount of time and effort.

2) Role of Computers in Design and planning phase

Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research variables,
sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study. Role of Computers for Sample
Size Calculation: Several software’s are available to calculate the sample size required
for a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software. The standard deviation of the
data from the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.

3) Role of Computers in Empirical phase

Empirical phases consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis

Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word
files or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections
or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time-
consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data
editing, data management including follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for
greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease
during the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and inputting
data is the most labour-intensive and time consuming aspect of the work. Typically,
the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or record form suitable for its
acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction with the
statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel
spread sheet. These spread sheets can be directly opened with statistical software’s
for analysis.
4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis

This phase consists of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results.
Data Analysis: Much software is now available to perform the ‘mathematical part ‘of
the research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods. Software’s
like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sy sat are some of the widely used. They can be
like calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and
calculating the power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry
out the most intricate statistical analyses. Computers are useful not only for statistical
analyses, but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are
collected.

5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination

This phase is the publication of the research study.
Research publishing: The research article is typed in word format and converted to
portable data format (PDF)and stored and/or published in the World Wide Web
 4. As a researcher, what important considerations will you
consider while selecting a research problem?
A research problem is a specific issue or gap in existing knowledge that you aim to address
in your research. You may choose to look for practical problems aimed at contributing to
change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a few considerations to keep in mind
which will help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you remain
motivated. These considerations are:

• Interest – Interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a

research problem. A research endeavour is usually time consuming and involves
hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. If you select a topic which does
not greatly interest you, it could become extremely difficult to sustain the
required motivation and put in enough time and energy to complete it.

• Magnitude – You should have sufficient knowledge about the research process
to be able to visualise the work involved in completing the proposed study.
Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear. It is
extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and
with the resources at your disposal. Even if you are undertaking a descriptive
study, you need to consider its magnitude carefully.

• Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in

quantitative studies), make sure you are clear about its indicators and their
measurement. For example, if you plan to measure the effectiveness of a health
promotion programme, you must be clear as to what determines effectiveness
and how it will be measured. Do not use concepts in your research problem that
you are not sure how to measure. This does not mean you cannot develop a
measurement procedure as the study progresses. While most of the
developmental work will be done during your study, it is imperative that you are
reasonably clear about the measurement of these concepts at this stage.

• Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the
task you are proposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study and
may receive help from your research supervisor and others, but remember that
you need to do most of the work yourself.
• Relevance – Select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure
that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or
is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.

• Availability of data – If your topic entails collection of information from

secondary sources (office records, client records, census or other already-
published reports, etc.) make sure that this data is available and in the format
you want before finalising your topic.

• Ethical issues – Another important consideration in formulating a research

problem is the ethical issues involved. In the course of conducting a research
study, the study population may be adversely affected by some of the questions
(directly or indirectly); deprived of an intervention; expected to share sensitive
and private information; or expected to be simply experimental ‘guinea pigs’.
How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can
be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem-formulation stage.
5. Explain the significance and scope of historical research. How
this research types are different from other types of research?

Historical Research
Historical research is a process of collecting and interpreting data about past
events or ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas.
It studies possible reasons behind certain events to explain their influence on
the events that followed. Historical research may not just help to figure out
connections between past and present events, it can also provide the
researchers with information regarding possible future events. In his book
“Historical Research: A Guide” (2002), W.H.McDowell defines historical research
as:

“Historical research represents a systematic enquiry into the past and an

attempt to separate true from fictionalized accounts of historical events, based
upon the examination of a wide range of relevant source material. This is an
important task because history is the source of many of our ideas, beliefs and
customs. A better understanding of the past places us in a more advantageous
position to appreciate change in the present and to try and learn from past
mistakes.”

Historical research mainly relies on first-hand information sources such as

historical records, books, photographs, letters, evidence that belongs to the
time the research focuses on. To put it simply, those sources are written by
someone who was a participant or direct witness of the event. Secondary
source materials - books and articles are written sometime after the events can
also contribute to research to some extent. However, one should keep in mind
that secondary sources of information can be more biased because they
usually contain data that the authors wrote using multiple sources. It is worth
mentioning that primary sources can also be biased, and because the research
is looking for the answers in the past, there is no guarantee for information
accuracy.

Researchers should start historical research without any impossible

assumptions; they should not look for something that is not there. It is, in fact,
a basic rule for all kinds of research, but it should be followed in particular in
historical research. Steps in the historical research process are typically the
same as other forms of research that start with identifying the issue, followed
by defining data collection methods, data collection, and analysis and
conclusion.

Advantages and limitations of historical research

Even though historical research has a number of limitations, it comes with
benefits that other types of research cannot replicate.
 Advantages
• No other method provides us with an opportunity to find insights
about past events.
• Identifying key elements of past negative events can play a significant
role in preventing certain similar circumstances. In other words, it can
teach a history lesson.
• It can result in an important discovery on a global scale.
• A researcher is not involved with the event.
Limitations
• Sources may not be reliable and may represent misleading facts about
the events.
• Not all past events can be studied because of the lack of evidence and
source materials. It gets more challenging to have research if the
events are from a more distant past.
• Finding a reason for certain events does not mean that the same
reason can lead to similar events. Because it may have happened in a
totally different circumstance in the past.
• The research may last longer, depending on the historical event and
data availability.
• May require travels between various destinations.
• A researcher does not have control over the result.

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in

detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or

refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments, and
assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it
allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to
better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques
and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective,
depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other
factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of
research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical Research

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating

knowledge, regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to
generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to
answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are
usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas
and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research
problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific
knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer
science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular

productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to
said productive processes.

Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of research
design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods
and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial
projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not
yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of
reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will
enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it

relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain
these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a

particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in
the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor
is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible
for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be
extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it
provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with
the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between
two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable
changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative Research

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and
interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such
as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected
must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective,
since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is
better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its
cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data

collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure
them. This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental Research

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated

under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another
independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through
study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in

its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their
involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its
observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is

therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot
be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations. This is to
ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and
opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.
 According to the Type of Inference

Deductive Investigation

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain
conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research
problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is
applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a

generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a

conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of
time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over
time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas.

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a

group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary Research

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected
directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from

secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other
documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet)

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of

existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research
is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.
Field

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location
where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a

dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through
scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary)

sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.