Centre for Distance and Online

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Database Management System

…Databases and Database users
Module 2

Dr.Soumyasri S.M
Associate Professor, Dept. of MCA,
NIE, Mysore.
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Introduction
From this module you will be able to learn

Relational Relational Relational Update

Model Database Operations and
model Constraints Schemas Dealing with
Relational Constraint
Database Violations
Schemas
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Relational Model Concepts

The relational Model of Data is based on the
concept of a Relation
The strength of the relational approach to data
management comes from the formal foundation
provided by the theory of relations
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Introduction
• A Relation is a mathematical concept based on
the ideas of sets
• The model was first proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd
of IBM Research in 1970
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Introduction
• Informally, a relation looks like a table of values.

• A relation typically contains a set of rows.

• The data elements in each row represent certain facts that

correspond to a real-world entity or relationship
• In the formal model, rows are called tuples
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Introduction
• Each column has a column header that gives an
indication of the meaning of the data items in that
column
• In the formal model, the column header is called an
attribute name (or just attribute)
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Definition
• A relation schema2 R, denoted by R(A1, A2, … , An), is
made up of a relation name R and a list of attributes, A1,
A2, … , An.
• Each attribute Ai is the name of a role played by some
domain D in the relation schema R. D is called the
domain of Ai and is denoted by dom(Ai).
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Definition
• A relation of degree seven, which stores
information about university students, would
contain seven attributes describing each
student as follows:
• STUDENT(Name, Ssn, Home_phone,
Address, Office_phone, Age, Gpa)
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Definition
• Using the data type of each attribute, the
definition is sometimes written as:
• STUDENT(Name: string, Ssn: string,
Home_phone: string, Address: string,
Office_phone: string, Age: integer, Gpa: real)
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Definition
• A relation (or relation state)4 r of the
relation schema R(A1, A2, … , An), also
denoted by r(R), is a set of n-tuples r = {t1, t2,
… , tm}.
• Each n-tuple t is an ordered list of n values t
=<v1, v2, … , vn>, where each value vi, 1 £ i £
n, is an element of dom (Ai) or is a special
NULL value.
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Definition
• The terms relation intension for the schema R
and relation extension for a relation state r(R)
are also commonly used
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• A relation (or relation state)4 r of the relation schema

R(A1, A2, … , An), also denoted by r(R), is a set of n-
tuples r = {t1, t2, … , tm}.
• Each n-tuple t is an ordered list of n values t =<v1, v2, …
, vn>, where each value vi, 1 £ i £ n, is an element of
dom (Ai) or is a special NULL value.
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Introduction
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• The earlier definition of a relation can be restated

more formally using set theory concepts as follows.
• A relation (or relation state) r(R) is a mathematical
relation of degree n on the domains dom(A1),
dom(A2), … , dom(An), which is a subset of the
Cartesian product (denoted by ×) of the domains
that define R:
r(R) Í (dom(A1) ´ dom(A2) ´ . . . ´ (dom(An))
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Characteristics of the Database

Approach
The current relation state—reflects only the valid tuples
that represent a particular state of the real world.
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Characteristics of Relations
Ordering of Tuples in a Relation.
A relation is defined as a set of tuples.
Mathematically, elements of a set have no order
among them; hence, tuples in a relation do not have
any particular order.
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Ordering of Values within a Tuple

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and an Alternative Definition of a

Relation
• An n-tuple is an ordered list of n values, so
the ordering of values in a tuple and hence
of attributes in a relation schema is
important
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• An alternative definition of a relation

can be given, making the ordering of
values in a tuple unnecessary.
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• In this definition, a relation schema R = {A1,

A2, … , An} is a set of attributes (instead of
an ordered list of attributes), and a relation
state r(R) is a finite set of mappings r = {t1,
t2, … , tm}, where each tuple ti is a mapping
from R to D, and D is the union (denoted
by È) of the attribute domains.
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According to this definition of tuple as a

mapping, a tuple can be considered as a set
of (<attribute>, <value>) pairs, where each
pair gives the value of the mapping from an
attribute Ai to a value vi from dom(Ai).
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Characteristics of the Database

Approach

Values and NULLs in the Tuples

Each value in a tuple is an atomic value; that is, it is
not divisible into components within the framework of the basic
relational model.
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Characteristics of the Database

Approach

Interpretation (Meaning) of a Relation

The relation schema can be interpreted as a
declaration or a type of assertion.
Each tuple in the relation can then be interpreted as a fact or a
particular instance of the assertion.
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Characteristics of the Database

Approach

some relations may represent facts about entities,

whereas other relations may represent facts about
relationships.
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Entity Integrity, Referential

Integrity, and Foreign Keys
• The entity integrity constraint states that no
primary key value can be NULL.
• The referential integrity constraint is
specified between two relations and is used
to maintain the consistency among tuples in
the two relations.
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Entity Integrity, Referential

Integrity, and Foreign Keys
• The entity integrity constraint states that no
primary key value can be NULL.
• The referential integrity constraint is
specified between two relations and is used
to maintain the consistency among tuples in
the two relations.
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Entity Integrity, Referential

Integrity, and Foreign Keys
• The entity integrity constraint states that no
primary key value can be NULL.
• The referential integrity constraint is
specified between two relations and is used
to maintain the consistency among tuples in
the two relations.
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Update Operations,
Transactions, and Dealing with
Constraint Violations
• The operations of the relational model can be
categorized into retrievals and updates. The
relational algebra operations, which can be
used to specify retrievals.
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The Insert Operation

• The Insert operation provides a list of
attribute values for a new tuple t that is to
be inserted into a relation R.
• Insert can violate any of the four types of
constraints.
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The Insert Operation

• Domain constraints can be violated if an
attribute value is given that does not
appear in the corresponding domain or is
not of the appropriate data type.
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The Insert Operation

Operation:
• Insert <‘Cecilia’, ‘F’, ‘Kolonsky’, NULL, ‘1960-04-05’,
‘6357 Windy Lane, Katy, TX’, F, 28000, NULL, 4>
into EMPLOYEE.
• Result: This insertion violates the entity integrity
constraint (NULL for the primary key Ssn), so it is
rejected.
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The Delete Operation

• The Delete operation can violate only referential
integrity.
• This occurs if the tuple being deleted is
referenced by foreign keys from other tuples in
the database.
• To specify deletion, a condition on the attributes
of the relation selects the tuple (or tuples) to be
deleted.
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The Delete Operation

Operation:
• Delete the WORKS_ON tuple with Essn =
‘999887777’ and Pno = 10.
• Result: This deletion is acceptable and deletes
exactly one tuple.
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The Delete Operation

Operation:
• Delete the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn =
‘999887777’.
• Result: This deletion is not acceptable, because
there are tuples in WORKS_ON that refer to this
tuple. Hence, if the tuple in EMPLOYEE is deleted,
referential integrity violations will result.
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The Update Operation

• The Update (or Modify) operation is used to
change the values of one or more attributes in a
tuple (or tuples) of some relation R.
• It is necessary to specify a condi- tion on the
attributes of the relation to select the tuple (or
tuples) to be modified.
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The Update Operation

• Here are some examples.
– Operation:
• Update the salary of the EMPLOYEE tuple with
Ssn = ‘999887777’ to 28000.
• Result: Acceptable.
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The Update Operation

Operation:
• Update the Dno of the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn
= ‘999887777’ to 7.
• Result: Unacceptable, because it violates
referential integrity.
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The Transaction Concept

• A database application program running
against a relational database typically exe-
cutes one or more transactions.
• A transaction is an executing program that
includes some database operations, such as
reading from the database, or applying inser-
tions, deletions, or updates to the database.
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The Relational Algebra

• Relational algebra is a procedural query
language. It gives a step by step process to
obtain the result of the query. It uses
operators to perform queries.
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Types of Relational operation

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Select Operation
• The select operation selects tuples that
satisfy a given predicate.
• It is denoted by sigma (σ).
Notation: σ p(r)
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Select Operation
• Where:
• σ is used for selection prediction
r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which
may use connectors like: AND OR and NOT.
These relational can use as relational operators
like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.
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Select Operation
• For example: LOAN Relation
BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000
Perryride L-15 1500
Downtown L-14 1500
Mianus L-13 500
Roundhill L-11 900
Perryride L-16 1300
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Select Operation
• Input:
• σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)
• Output:
• BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Perryride L-15 1500
Perryride L-16 1300
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Project Operation
• This operation shows the list of those
attributes that we wish to appear in the
result. Rest of the attributes are
eliminated from the table.
• It is denoted by ∏.
Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)
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Select Operation
• Where:
• A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of
relation r.
• Example: CUSTOMER RELATION
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Select Operation
NAME STREET CITY
Jones Main Harrison
Smith North Rye
Hays Main Harrison
Curry North Rye
Johnson Alma Brooklyn
Brooks Senator Brooklyn
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Select Operation
• Input:
• ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER) NAME CITY
• output Jones Harrison
Smith Rye
Hays Harrison
Curry Rye
Johnson Brooklyn
Brooks Brooklyn
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Union Operation
• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The
union operation contains all the tuples that are
either in R or S or both in R & S.
• It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted
by ∪.
Notation: R ∪ S
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Union Operation
• A union operation must hold the following
condition:
• R and S must have the attribute of the same
number.
• Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.
• Example:
• DEPOSITOR RELATION
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Union Operation
CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO
Johnson A-101
Smith A-121
Mayes A-321
Turner A-176
Johnson A-273
Jones A-472
Lindsay A-284
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Union Operation
• BORROW RELATION
CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
Jones L-17
Smith L-23
Hayes L-15
Jackson L-14
Curry L-93
Smith L-11
Williams L-17
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Union Operation
Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOME
R_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
NAME CITY
Jones Harrison
Smith Rye
Hays Harrison
Curry Rye
Johnson Brooklyn
Brooks Brooklyn
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Union Operation
• Output: CUSTOMER_NAME
Johnson
Smith
Hayes
Turner
Jones
Lindsay
Jackson
Curry
Williams
Mayes
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Set Intersection
• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The
set intersection operation contains all tuples
that are in both R & S.
• It is denoted by intersection ∩.
Notation: R ∩ S
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Set Intersection
• Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table
and BORROW table
• Input:
• ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUS
TOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
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Set Intersection
• Output:
CUSTOMER_NAME
Smith
Jones
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Set Difference
• Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set
intersection operation contains all tuples that are
in R but not in S.
• It is denoted by intersection minus (-).
Notation: R - S
• Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table
and BORROW table
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Set Difference
• Example
• ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) -
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
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Set Difference
Output:
CUSTOMER_NAME
Jackson
Hayes
Willians
Curry
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Cartesian product
• The Cartesian product is used to combine
each row in one table with each row in the
other table. It is also known as a cross
product.
• It is denoted by X.
• Notation: E X D
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Cartesian product
• EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT
1 Smith A
2 Harry C
3 John B
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Cartesian product
• DEPARTMENT
DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
A Marketing
B Sales
C Legal
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Cartesian product
• Input:
• EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT
CUSTOMER_NAME
Jackson
Hayes
Willians
Curry
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Cartesian product
• Output: EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing
1 Smith A B Sales
1 Smith A C Legal
2 Harry C A Marketing
2 Harry C B Sales
2 Harry C C Legal
3 John B A Marketing
3 John B B Sales
3 John B C Legal
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Join Operations
• A Join operation combines related tuples
from different relations, if and only if a
given join condition is satisfied. It is
denoted by ⋈.
• Example:EMPLOYEE
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Join Operations
EMPLOYEE

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME
101 Stephan
102 Jack
103 Harry
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Join Operations
SALARY

EMP_CODE SALARY
101 50000
102 30000
103 25000

Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

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Join Operations
Result:

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY

101 Stephan 50000
102 Jack 30000
103 Harry 25000

Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

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Types of Join operations:

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Natural Join
• A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations
in R and S that are equal on their common attribute
names.
• It is denoted by ⋈.
• Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table
and SALARY table:
• Input:
• ∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)
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Natural Join
• A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations
in R and S that are equal on their common attribute
names.
• It is denoted by ⋈.
• Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table
and SALARY table:
• Input:
• ∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)
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Natural Join
Output:
EMP_NAME SALARY
Stephan 50000
Jack 30000
Harry 25000
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Outer Join
• The outer join operation is an extension of the
join operation. It is used to deal with missing
information.
• Example:
• EMPLOYEE
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Outer Join

EMP_NAME STREET CITY

Ram Civil line Mumbai
Shyam Park street Kolkata
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi
Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad
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Outer Join
FACT_WORKERS
EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY
Ram Infosys 10000
Shyam Wipro 20000
Kuber HCL 30000
Hari TCS 50000
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Outer Join
Input:(EMPLOYEE ⋈ FACT_WORKERS)

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY

Ram Infosys 10000
Shyam Wipro 20000
Kuber HCL 30000
Hari TCS 50000
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Outer Join
Output:
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY
Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad TCS 50000
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Outer Join
• An outer join is basically of three types:
• Left outer join
• Right outer join
• Full outer join
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OUTER UNION operation

• The OUTER UNION operation was developed to
take the union of tuples from two relations that have
some common attributes, but are not union (type)
compatible.
• This operation will take the UNION of tuples in two
relations R(X, Y) and S(X, Z) that are partially
compatible, meaning that only some of their
attributes, say X, are union compatible.
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Equi join
• It is also known as an inner join. It is the
most common join. It is based on matched
data as per the equality condition. The
equi join uses the comparison operator(=).
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Equi join
• Example:
• CUSTOMER RELATION
CLASS_ID NAME
1 John
2 Harry
3 Jackson
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Equi join
• PRODUCT

PRODUCT_ID CITY
1 Delhi
2 Mumbai
3 Noida
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Equi join
• Input:
• CUSTOMER ⋈ PRODUCT

PRODUCT_ID CITY
1 Delhi
2 Mumbai
3 Noida
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• Output:
CLASS_I NAME PRODUC CITY
D T_ID
1 John 1 Delhi
2 Harry 2 Mumbai
3 Harry 3 Noida
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Division operation
• The division operator is used for queries which
involve the 'all'.
• R1 ÷ R2 = tuples of R1 associated with all tuples of
R2.
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Division operation
• Example
• Retrieve the name of the subject that is
taught in all courses.
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Division operation

Name Course
System Btech
Database Mtech
Database Btech
Algebra Btech
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Division operation
• ÷
Course
Btech
Mtech
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Division operation
• =
Name
database
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Division operation
• The resulting operation must have all
combinations of tuples of relation S that
are present in the first relation or R.
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Additional Relational Operations

• Generalized Projection
• Aggregate functions grouping
• Recursive closure operations
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Generalized projection
• The generalized projection operation extends the
projection operation by allowing functions of
attributes to be included in the projection list. The
generalized form can be expressed as:
• pF1, F2, ..., Fn (R)
• where F1, F2, … , Fn are functions over the
attributes in relation R and may involve arithmetic
operations and constant values.
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Aggregate Functions and Grouping

• Request that cannot be expressed in the basic
relational algebra is to specify mathematical
aggregate functions on collections of values from
the database.
• Examples of such functions include retrieving the
average or total salary of all employees or the total
number of employee tuples.
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Aggregate Functions and Grouping

• These functions are used in simple statistical
queries that summarize information from the
database tuples.
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Recursive Closure Operations

• This operation is applied to a recursive
relationship between tuples of the same type, such
as the relationship between an employee and a
supervisor.
• This relationship is described by the foreign key
Super_ssn of the EMPLOYEE relation
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• Relational Database Design

Using ER-to-Relational
Mapping
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Algorithm
• Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types
• Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types.
• Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relationship
Types
• Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N
Relationship Types.
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Algorithm
• Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N
Relationship Types.
• Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued Attributes
• Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship
Types.
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Module 2-summary
From this module you learned

Relational Relational Relational Update

Model Database Operations and
model Constraints Schemas Dealing with
Relational Constraint
Database Violations
Schemas