Lesson Proper

Communication is derived from the Latin word “communi-

care” which means “to impart”, “to share”, “to participate” It is one
of the more essential human activities that enable us to make
connections, create meanings, and nurture understanding.
What do we share? What do we impart? Why do we participate?
When you talk to your family, friends, or anyone for that
matter, you always give something of yourself. You share your
ideas, your feelings, your aspirations, your happiness, your anger,
your anxieties. You always have that need to connect, to partici-
pate, to belong… Can you imagine existing without communica-
tion? How would life be? Even for the most introverted people
who prefer “alone moment”, they could not possibly exist with
zero communication. Somewhere in the basic needs of human
existence lies the compulsion of people to get connected, be-
cause it is what completes us.

Elements of Communica-
tion
How do people communicate? Where does communication be-
gin? The communication model below illustrates the elements
and the communication process or cycle.

1. The Communicators.
The people involved in the process of communication are cat-
egorized into sender and receiver. You have to take note
though, that in the process of communication, both communica-
tors take turns in their roles.
1. sender. The sender is one who initiates the conversation with
the intention of passing information and ideas to others.
The communication process begins with the sender, who is
also called the source. The sender has some kind of information,
a command, a request, or idea- that he or she wants to present to
others. For that message to get through the receiving end, the
sender must encode the message in a form that can be under-
stood, such as using a common language that both parties can
understand.
2. The Receiver. The person to whom a message is directed is
called the receiver or the interpreter. To comprehend the informa-
tion from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the
sender’s information and then decode it or interpret it.

2. The Message
The information that the sender wants to convey is called the
message. It can come in the form of a question, a plain statement,
a comment or remark.

3. The Medium
The medium, also called the channel, is the means by which a
message is transmitted. When people communicate, they use a
vehicle or a medium so that the message can get across the re-
ceiver. This medium is called language. Communicators use a
language that is common to both.

4. Feedback
The communication process reaches its final point when the
message has been successfully transmitted, received and under-
stood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating
comprehension. The response is called the feedback. Response
can come in the form of either verbal or non-verbal cues, depend-
ing on the preference of the receiver.
Notice that there are elements and factors that shape the way
a conversation begins, continues and ends. Our total experience
with communication largely depends on the context, the situation,
who we are talking to, and what we are talking about. Whether the
conversation is a positive encounter or a negative experience,
there are several factors that account to it.

COMMUNICATION MODELS
 Communication models are systematic representations of the
process which helps in understanding how communication works
can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in
symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by
breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the
components in order. Communication models can sometimes en-
courage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit
some major aspects of human communication.

There are three general types of communication models in

which all other communication models are mostly categorized.

1. Linear Model
In linear model, communication is considered one way process
where sender is the only one who sends message and receiver
doesn’t give feedback or response. The message signal is en-
coded and transmitted through channel in presence of noise. The
sender is more prominent in linear model of communication.
Linear model was founded by Shannon and Weaver which
was later adapted by David Berlo into his own model known as
SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of Commu-
nication.
Linear model is applied in mass communication like television, ra-
dio, etc. This model is not applicable in general human communi-
cation as general human communication has to have feedback
and responses.

Components of Linear Com-

munication

Linear model has defined set

of components required for a
communication to be estab-
lished where Sender is the per-
son who sends a message af-
ter encoding.

1. Encoding is the process of

converting the message into codes compatible with the
channel and understandable for the receiver.

2. Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message

into understandable language by the receiver.
3. Message is the information sent by the sender to the re-
ceiver.

4. Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.

5. Receiver is the person who gets the message after decod-

ing.
 6. Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communica-
tion process in channel or in understandability of the mes-
sage.

2. Transactional Model
Transactional model of com-
munication is the exchange
of messages between
sender and receiver where
each take turns to send or
receive messages.

Here, both sender and

receiver are known as com-
municators and their role re-
verses each time in the communication process as both pro-
cesses of sending and receiving occurs at the same time.

The communicators can be humans or machines but humans

are taken as communicators in this article to analyze general
communication between humans. The model is mostly used for
interpersonal communication and is also called circular model of
communication.

The transactional model is the most general model of commu-

nication. Everyday talk and interactions are also a form of trans-
actional model communication. It is more efficient for communica-
tors with similar environment and individual aspects. For instance,
communication between people who know each other is more ef-
ficient as they share same social system.
 In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communi-
cated message also depends on the medium used. For example,
the same message might not be perceived by a person the same
way when it is send through a phone and when it is provided face
to face. It is because of
possible loss of mes-
sage on a phone call or
absence of gestures.

3. Interactive Model

Interactive model or
convergence model is
similar to transactional
model as they are both
two way communica-
tion model. But, inter-
active model is mostly
used for new media, like internet. Here, people can respond to
any mass communications like videos, news, etc. People can ex-
change their views and ideas.

Components of Interactive Model

Interactive Model of Communication requires different following
components for the communication process to work:

1. Encoder-Source-Decoder: The person who originates a

message is the source. The encoder and decoder are the
same person/source. The second source is also encoder as
well as decoder. The source acts as an encoder while send-
ing the message and as decoder while receiving the mes-
sage. The second source decodes the message, then origi-
nates another message, encodes it and sends it to the first
 source. The source is known to be encoder and decoder
during the act of encoding and decoding.

2. Message: Message is the information sent during the inter-

action.

3. Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after re-

ceiving the first which is known as feedback.

4. Field of Experience: Field of experience is the experience

and knowledge that the source possess which affects the
message formation and interpretation. For example, the
source’s culture, social behavior, etc.

Communicating Meaning: Verbal vs Non-

Verbal

COMMUNICATING MEANING
When you communicate, what do you usually use as a medium?
Do you use only words? Do you use other means to emphasize
your ideas? What are they?

Verbal vs Non-Verbal Communication

Communicating meaning utilizes verbal and non-verbal ex-
pressions. Verbal communication uses words which can be ex-
pressed either written or orally. (It is therefore wrong to say verbal
to mean “oral”, like, “verbalize” you concern, to mean saying it
orally). Non-verbal on the other hand is a wordless communica-
tion. Other means are used to convey meaning like facial expres-
sions, proxemics, paralanguage, appearance, gestures,
oculesics, body language and posture, artifacts, haptics and
chronemics.
For better understanding about these different non-verbal
cues, let us discuss each of them.
Facial Expressions
Facial expressions are a form of non-verbal communication.
They are used by humans to convey various types of meaning in
various contexts. Facial expressions such as a frown, a raised
eyebrow, a smile can send meanings depending on the context.

Ekman (1992) claimed that there is a set of expressions that

are innate, and they mean that the person making that face is ex-
periencing an emotion. For example, brow raising means. “I feel
surprised.” He also claimed that there are culturally acquired fa-
cial expressions used to modulate the innate emotional expres-
sions, so-called display rules, and others that are used for com-
munication.
While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dra-
matically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness,
sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
What is important to note is that, facial expressions must be
consistent with the meaning that a speaker intends to convey.
Sometimes, communication breakdown happens because of the
inconsistency in the facial expression and the intended meaning.
For example, when you say you are happy, but displays a frown-
ing expression, there comes the confusion. It is expected that
when one claims to be happy, a smiling or gleeful expression ac-
companies the emotion.
Proxemics

Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term in

1963, defined proxemics as the interrelated observations
and theories of human use of space as a specialized elabo-
ration of culture. (study.com)

Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effect that
population density
has on bahavior,
communication and
social interaction. It
refers to an individ-
ual’s perception of
the use of space,
both personal (how
much space do
they take up) and
social (distance
from one another).

Study this illustration. How can proxemics communicate mean-

ing? Can you easily detect people who are intimately close with-
out them having announce publicly that they are in a certain kind
of relationship? When you see a couple who are normally so
close everyday, but suddenly sits apart or does not walk side by
side, what usually is your assumption?
People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is
also an important type of nonverbal communication.5 The amount
of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as be-
longing to us is influenced by a number of factors including social
norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality char-
acteristics, and level of familiarity.
The amount of personal space needed when having a casual
conversation with another person usually varies between 18
inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance
needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12
feet.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage is the technical term for the voice cues that ac-
company spoken words. It is concerned with the sound of the
voice and the range of meanings that people convey through their
voices rather than the words they use
The meaning of what you express is contained, in part, in the
words you say, but how you say it also contains powerful mean-
ings. For example, the word “Yes”, can completely convey differ-
ent meanings, even in the exact same sentence, depending on
how it is said—whether it is spoken sincerely or sarcastically. The
“how”—you say something—is referred to as paralanguage,
which includes your conscious or unconscious intonation, accent,
pitch Opens in new window, pace, pause, silence, emphasis,
word and syllable stress.

Basically, paralanguage is your voice minus the words you

speak. Again, it denotes the tone (sound) of your voice. The
sound of your voice communicates, revealing to others your emo-
tional state, attitudes, status, personality, etc.
The tone of your voice can help you communicate what
you mean to convey, or it can reveal thoughts you mean to con-
ceal. It can reinforce or negate the words you speak. How you
speak influences how others interpret your intentions, as well as
how credible, intelligent, or attractive they judge you to be. With
this in mind, you may assess yourself by responding to the follow-
ing questions:
• Does my voice enhance or detract from the impression I
make?
• Does my voice support or contradict my intended meaning?
• If I were interacting with me, would I want to listen to the
sound of my voice?

Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to
communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include
waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts.
Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. You may
wave, point, beckon, or use your hands when arguing or speaking ani-
matedly, often expressing yourself with gestures without thinking. How-
ever, the meaning of some gestures can be very different across cul-
tures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a
positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in
countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be
careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation

1. Body Language and Posture

Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by
the way they sit, walk, stand, or hold their head. The way
you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of in-
formation to the world. This type of nonverbal communica-
tion includes your posture, bearing, stance, and the subtle
movements you make.
6. Oculesics or Eye Gaze
The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and
such things as looking, staring and blinking are important nonverbal be-
haviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate
of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can in-
dicate a range of emotions including hostility, interest, and attraction.

People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone

is being honest.6 Normal, steady eye contact is often taken as a sign
that a person is telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and an in-
ability to maintain eye con-
tact, on the other hand, is
frequently seen as an indi-
cator that someone is lying
or being deceptive.

7. Haptics
Communicating
through touch is another im-
portant nonverbal behavior.
There has been a substan-
tial amount of research on
the importance of touch in
infancy and early childhood.

Harry Harlow's clas-

sic monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and contact im-
pedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced
permanent deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch can be used
to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters,
author Julia Wood writes that touch is also often used as a way to com-
municate both status and power.7

Researchers have found that high-status individuals tend to in-

vade other people's personal space with greater frequency and intensity
than lower-status individuals. Sex differences also play a role in how
people utilize touch to communicate meaning.
Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurtu-
rance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use touch to assert
power or control over others.

8. Appearance
This non-verbal cue is quite controversial. We're
taught not to judge a book by its cover. We can't assess a
person's intelligence or demeanor by the clothes they
wear. Yet, in a professional setting, one's appearance
does send a message. This is why we wear suits to inter-
views or enjoy casual Friday at the workplace.
Our everyday attire and hairstyle sends a message. Imag-
ine a woman who always wears bright, bold tones. Per-
haps she wears orange suits with red blouses or yellow
skirts with royal blue shirts. This is a woman who's not
looking to be a wallflower. You can probably roll the dice
on her high level of self-confidence.
On the other hand, just because someone chooses muted
tones or grays, it doesn't mean they're shy. They might
simply prefer a simplistic style. To them, less may be
more.
Either way, how we present ourselves to people and situ-
ations tells a story. We're told to take our hats off at the
table, put a comb through our hair, and wear our Sunday
best for a reason. It
shows we put a little
thought into the interac-
tion.

9. Artifacts
 Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communi-
cate nonverbally. On an online forum, for example, you might select an
avatar to represent your identity online and to communicate information
about who you are and the things you like.

People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular

image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey in-
formation about the things that are important to them.

Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit a tremendous

amount of information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a po-
lice officer will wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. At
a mere glance, these outfits tell people what a person does for a living.

Nonverbal communication plays an important role in how we

convey meaning and information to others, as well as how we interpret
the actions of those around us.
The important thing to remember when looking at such nonverbal
behaviors is to consider the actions in groups. What a person actually
says along with his or her expressions, appearance, and tone of voice
might tell you a great deal about what that person is really trying to say.

COMMUNICATION FILTERS/ BARRIERS

The communication process may not always result to a positive
experience. When the intended meaning is not perceived by the
recipient of the message, miscommunication happens. Some-
times, people misunderstand one another for a variety of reasons.
Specific items that can distort or prevent communication refer to
communication barriers or filters. To further understanding of
the communication barriers, the types of barriers are explained
below.

Types of Communication Filters

 Cultural Barriers

Culture refers to the attitudes and beliefs that come from our per-
sonal environment and experience. How can culture be a barrier
to communication? Study the following illustrations:

People grow from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs. How

they perceive things therefore differ from other cultures.
For example, basic pleasantries differ from culture to culture. Fil-
ipinos usually greet elders by “pagmamano”; The Japanese bow
their heads as a form of greeting or respect; the Americans shake
hands or kiss those who are relatively close to them. When one is
not particular about cultural differences, communication break-
down happens.
What to do about cultural barriers?
1. Consider the cultural makeup of the intended audience.
2. Seek to understand where are the differences.
3. Fashion the message to ensure that it says what you exactly
mean.

Language Barrier

Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the

sender and the receiver is the greatest barrier to effective commu-
nication.

Examples of language barriers that prevent individuals from effec-

tive communication include:
 • Dialects - While two people may technically speak the same
language, dialectal differences can make communication be-
tween them difficult. Examples of dialectical language barri-
ers exist worldwide. Chinese, for example, has a variety of
dialects that are commonly spoken, including Cantonese and
Mandarin.

• Language Disabilities - Language disabilities are physical

impediments to language. Physical language disabilities that
cause language barriers include stuttering, dysphonia or an
articulation disorder and hearing loss.
When a person uses inappropriate words and jargons while con-
versing or writing, it could lead to misunderstanding between the
sender and the receiver.
Can you think of a specific example or situation or maybe an ex-
perience where communication failed or resulted to hilarious situ-
ation because of language differences?
In the classroom, when your teacher uses jargons (technical
terms), do you easily understand? Tendency is you would end the
day learning nothing, unless the concepts are simplified and ex-
plained further.
What to do?
• In a work place or in a more formal setting, use visual meth-
ods of communication more than audio. Show more than tell.
Explain it with pictures as much as possible. Use pictures in
your instruction manuals rather than words. Almost every
step in every process can be described in picture format.
Give your listeners signs, cue cards or other methods to help
them learn.
 • Use repetition. As with any new concept, most people don't
learn something the first time they hear it. People need to
hear the same message over and over before they fully
grasp it. Don't expect people to learn anything after being
told once. This is true of all of people whether they have a
language barrier or not.

• Never raise your voice or over-enunciate your words. Talk

slower, not louder. Speak clearly, not forcefully. People of a
different language and culture can hear fine. They probably
also are intelligent enough to grasp what you are saying if
you intelligently deliver your message without talking down
to them. Don't speak "Pidgin English." Speak correct English
the correct way, just more clearly. People cannot learn the
language right if you don't speak it right.

• Use simpler words with fewer syllables. Be aware of the

complexities of your words. Use more common words that
convey your message in simpler terms. Again, don't talk
down; just use a less complex vocabulary.

• Minimize the use of slang or idiom.

• Keep it clear
• Use an interpreter whenever possible

Physical Barriers
Physical barriers are easy to spot : doors that are closed, walls
that are erected, and distance between people all work against
the goal of effective communication.
Physical barriers can be anything from background noise,
distractions, interruptions, equipment, connection glitches and
the like. When on the phone, and you experience signal inter-
 ruption, when sending text messages, but you suddenly run
out of load so the message failed to send, when you are talk-
ing with somebody in a noisy environment, when taking a syn-
chronous online exam and there is a sudden power interrup-
tion, those are considered physical barriers.
Examples of physical barriers that prevent individuals from effec-
tive communication include:
• Environment -Some barriers are due to the existing envi-
ronment. For example, if you are standing in adverse
weather conditions, your conversation would be hampered
because you would not be able to pay full attention to what
the other person is saying.
• Distance -Distance also plays an important part in determin-
ing the course of a conversation. For example, if the staff in
an organization are made to sit in different buildings or differ-
ent floors, they might have to substitute face to face commu-
nication with phone calls or emails.
• Ignorance of Medium -Communication also includes using
signs and symbols to convey a feeling or a thought. How-
ever, if there is a lack of ignorance about the medium in
which sender is sending the message, the conversation can
be hampered.
Perceptual Barriers
We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and
life experiences that act as "filters" on our experiences of people,
events and information. Seeing things through the lens of our own
unique life experi-
ences or "conditioning"
may lead to assump-
tions, stereotyping and
misunderstandings of
others whose experi-
ences differ from our
own.

Anything that inhibits

or prevents us from
making accurate per-
ceptions is called a
perceptual barrier or a
perceptual error. ... Five of the most common perceptual barriers
are selective perceptions, stereotypes, halo effect, projections,
and expectations.
Perceptual barriers are internal. If you go into a situation thinking
that the person you are talking to isn't going to understand or be
interested in what you have to say, you may end up subcon-
sciously sabotaging your effort to make your point. You will em-
ploy language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse,
thereby alienating your conversational partner.

Think of movie scenarios in which someone yells clipped phrases

at a person they believe is deaf. The person yelling ends up look-
ing ridiculous while failing to communicate anything of substance.

Examples of perceptual barriers that prevent individuals from ef-

fective communication include:
 • Perceptual Filters -We all have our own preferences, val-
ues, attitudes, origins and life experiences that act as "filters"
on our experiences of people, events and information. See-
ing things through the lens of our own unique life experi-
ences or "conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyp-
ing and misunderstandings of others whose experiences dif-
fer from our own.
• Triggers and Cues -What we say is affected by how we say
it (tone, volume) and by our nonverbal cues, such as body
language and facial gestures. For example, you may per-
ceive a situation differently if the person you are speaking
with is smiling or frowning, has body odour and is standing
too close or is not giving you direct eye contact.

What to do?
To overcome perceptual barriers within the workplace, there
are a few things you can do:
The audience may make assumptions about you or the situa-
tion; perhaps you are new to the organization, or the situation is a
challenging one. To get your message past these barriers, pro-
vide evidence to support your claims and enhance your credibility.
Effective communication relies on being aware of nonverbal
aspects of interactions with others. It is equally important to be
aware of one's own nonverbal behaviours and be sensitive to how
they may be perceived. For instance, maintaining eye contact
when communicating indicates interest. Staring out the window or
around the room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect.
Emotional Barriers
Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important
to put aside to engage in conversations. We are often taught to
fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the phrase
"anything you say can and will be used against you." Overcoming
this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confi-
dence in what you are saying and your qualifications in saying it.
People often pick up on insecurity. By believing in yourself and
what you have to say, you will be able to communicate clearly
without becoming overly involved in your emotions.
Examples of emotional barriers that prevent individuals from ef-
fective communication include:

• Anger- Anger can affect the way your brain processes infor-
mation given to you. For example, angry people have diffi-
culty processing logical statements, limiting their ability to ac-
cept explanations and solutions offered by others
• Pride -The need to be right all the time will not only annoy
others, it can shut down effective communication. For exam-
ple, you might focus only on your perspective, or you might
come up with ways to shoot down other people before you
even listen to their points.
• Anxiousness -
Anxiety has a
negative impact
on the part of
your brain that
manages creativ-
ity and communi-
cation skills. For
example, your
constant worries
can hinder your
ability to concen-
trate on the infor-
mation you are
giving or receiv-
ing.
To overcome emotional barriers within the workplace, here are
some helpful hints:

• Removing Yourself.Angry people have difficulty pro-

cessing logical statements, limiting their ability to accept ex-
planations and solutions offered by others. With this in mind,
remove yourself from communication until you feel you can
collect your thoughts, think clearly and hold back potentially
hurtful and undue comments.
• Accepting Imperfections. The drive to win every argu-
ment or get the last word often spawns from overcompensa-
tion, or trying to cover emotional insecurities with a sense of
superiority. Other people might find you easier to communi-
cate with when you accept your imperfections from time to
time.
• Relaxation Exercises. While a mental health professional
should address anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic
stress disorder or phobias -- typical anxiety, like the anxiety
you feel before giving a speech -- can be managed with re-
laxation exercises.
Gender Barriers
Gender
barriers have be-
come less of an issue
in recent years, but
there is still the possi-
bility for a man to mis-
construe the words of
a woman, or vice
versa.
 Even in a workplace where women and men share equal
stature, knowledge and experience, differing communication
styles may prevent them from working together effectively. Gen-
der barriers can be inherent or may be related to gender stereo-
types and the ways in which men and women are taught to be-
have as children.

Although not all men or all women communicate the same

way as the rest of their gender, several traits that tend to be more
common in one gender or the other have been identified. Under-
standing these tendencies is key in creating a work environment
that fosters open communication among all employees.

Examples Of Gender Barriers

According to Heather R. Huhman of Forbes, becoming aware of the fol-

lowing generalizations may help you more effectively communicate at
work:

• Women talk about other people. Men talk about tangible

things like business, sports, food and drinks.
• Women ask questions to gain an understanding. Men talk to
give information rather than asking questions.
• Women are more likely to talk to other women when a prob-
lem or conflict arises. Men are often known for dealing with
problems or issues internally
• Women focus on feelings, senses and meaning. They rely
on their intuition to find answers. Men focus on facts, reason
and logic. They find answers by analyzing and figuring things
out.
• A disagreement between women affects many aspects of
their relationship and may take a long time to resolve. Men
 can argue or disagree and then move on quickly from the
conflict.
Please keep in mind
that these are gen-
eralizations, and do
not necessarily ap-
ply to every individ-
ual.

Overcoming
Gender Barriers
To overcome gen-
der barriers within
the workplace, here
are some helpful hints:

• Educate Team About Gender Bias.Bias is embedded in

stereotypes and organizational practices that can be hard to
detect, but when people are made aware of it, they see pos-
sibilities for change.
• Create Safe "Identity Workspaces".Companies should en-
courage women to build communities in which similarly posi-
tioned women can discuss their feedback, compare notes,
and emotionally support one another's learning. Identifying
common experiences increases women's willingness to talk
 openly, take risks, and be vulnerable without fearing that oth-
ers will misunderstand or judge them.

Interpersonal Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching

out to each other and opening ourselves up, not just to be heard, but to
hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the most difficult area to change.
Some people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a poor self-
image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place in the
world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people be-
cause they have too many false perceptions blocking the way.
Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with oth-
ers, we learn what our actual strengths and weaknesses are. This allows
us to put forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.

Examples of interpersonal barriers that prevent individuals from

effective communication include:

• Desire to Participate -The lack of desire to participate in the

communication process is a significant barrier. There is noth-
ing more frustrating than trying to communicate with an indi-
vidual that clearly does not want to.
• Desire to Explore -Unwillingness to explore different ideas,
opinions, and priorities create communication barriers every
day of our lives. A clear lack of desire to explore your views,
opinions, or ideas can be extremely frustrating.

To overcome interpersonal barriers within the workplace, here are

some helpful hints:

• Use simple words to convey the message.To have an ef-

fective process of interpersonal communication, you have to
 simplify language. Everyone hates to decipher spoken
words, reserve the deciphering to the writing and when
speaking, keep it simple and easy to understand.
• Learn the art of listening.A person will always try to get his
opinions across first before listening to the other person's
point of view. To improve interpersonal communication, lis-
ten both attentively and proactively.
• Keep composure while communicating.The process of in-
terpersonal communication is more effective if emotions are
kept at bay. Keeping your composure while talking or negoti-
ating with a business partner will keep you on the right track
towards your goal.
• Provide constructive criticism.Constructive criticism is
perhaps the best sign that you are communicating with the
other person on a more personal level. Both the sender and
receiver of communications may use feedback for effective
interpersonal communication.

English as the Lingua Franca

Lesson Proper:

More than 350 million in the world has been speaking Eng-
lish as their first language. On the other hand, almost half a billion
people are using English as their second language.
English has become the major lan-
guage of many countries worldwide
es- pecially in dealing with economic and
po- litical trades.
How do we connect with people across the globe?
Online platforms are always available especially to those
who have access in it. During this pandemic, most of us do not let
the acquisition of learning stop. We participate in webinars and
workshops which allow us to widen our knowledge. We connect
with different people across the globe and the medium of instruc-
tion used is English.

English as the Lingua Franca (ELF)

What does lingua franca mean?
The term ‘lingua franca’ was originally formed by Arabic
speakers to communicate with the European travelers. It usually
means “any lingual medium of communication between people of
different mother tongues, for whom it is a second language."

It is also known as a bridge language, trade language or

common language used to make communication possible be-
tween people who do not share a native language in particular.
English as a lingua franca is a contact language between
persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a com-
mon culture.
The way English is used as a lingua franca is heavily de-
pendent on the specific situation of use.
Speakers accommodate to each other’s cultural back-
grounds and may also use a common language understandable
for both.
 Development of English
as an International Lan-
guage

Nowadays, the world

has become the global vil-
lage and with the rise of the
Internet, English got a dis-
tinguished role in world
communication. It has be-
come a language of self-representation and communication with
people from all over the globe.
We can therefore say that English language is owned by
everyone, and we cannot
live without it. For exam-
ple, if we want to interact
with people outside our lo-
cality, we would surely in-
troduce ourselves using
the English language.

The demand for English as

a lingua franca will in-
crease and continue possi-
bly as more and more peo-
ple use it as basic global communication tool. Speaking English
became a trend as it gains popularity day by day because it has
its own potential to attract people in many different countries.
Even if you are just simply surfing the Internet, you may al-
ready explore anything that the world offers. In terms of global
leadership, you must have command on English i.e., speaking,
writing and reading.
Hence, English is a vital language for learning and commu-
nicating to the world.

ENGLISH IS NOT A MEASURE OF INTELLIGENCE

Varieties of English Language

Did you know that there are different ways to speak the English
language? Which variety should we follow?
How we speak is influenced by many things. Our way of
pronouncing words is all part of learning how to speak and some-
how copying the speech of those around us. Depending on our
family history or background, we could ether be monolingual,
bilingual or multilingual, then we may learn to speak English
alongside another language. As we go further schooling, we will
eventually learn the standardized forms of the English language in
terms of spelling, punctuation and grammar which is known as the
standard English.
As we move across the country, we experience not only
changing landscape and architecture but also a gradual change in
the sounds we hear, in the accents and dialects that relate to the
place in which they are spoken and to which they belong.
DIALECT – a variety of English that differs from other dialects or
varieties in three specific ways:
• Lexis (vocabulary)
• Grammar (structure)
• Phonology (pronunciation or accent)
ACCENT – refers to the differences in the sound patterns of a
specific dialect and not its vocabulary and grammar
Attitudes towards Variations of English
For mainly historical reasons, certain English dialects or
varieties have been viewed more positively than others. Thus,
standard English, because of its association with being the na-
tional English language, has been perceived as the most presti-
gious English variety.
As society changes, so too do attitudes towards dialect,
accent and variational use of English generally. Until not so very
long ago, variational uses of English were associated with social
class. Today, issues of social class are not straightforward as
they were once; increased educational opportunity and economic
prosperity means that more and more young people are exposed
to Standard English than ever before. Also, increased variety of
accents in the media for example, is a great help to break down
prejudice towards variational use of English.

British VS. American English

There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations
divided by a common language.” No one knows exactly who said
this, but it reflects the way many Brits feel about American Eng-
lish. My British friend still tells me, “You don’t speak English. You
speak American.” But are American and British English really so
different

Vocabulary
The most noticeable difference between American and British
English is vocabulary. There are hundreds of everyday words that
are different. For example, Brits call the front of a car the bonnet,
while Americans call it the hood.
Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, or hols.
New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.
There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortu-
nately, most Americans and Brits can usually guess the meaning
through the context of a sentence.
Collective nouns
There are a few grammatical differences between the two vari-
eties of English. Let’s start with collective nouns. We use collec-
tive nouns to refer to a group of individuals.
In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example,
staff refers to a group of employees; band refers to a group of mu-
sicians; team refers to a group of athletes. Americans would say,
“The band is good.”
But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural.
You might hear someone from Britain say, “The team are playing
tonight” or “The team is playing tonight.”
Auxiliary verbs
Another grammar difference between American and British Eng-
lish relates to auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also known as help-
ing verbs, are verbs that help form a grammatical function. They
“help” the main verb by adding information about time, modality
and voice.
Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to
express the future.
For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall
means, but rarely use it in conversation. It seems very formal.
Americans would probably use “I will go home now.”
In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an
American would probably say, “Should we go now?”
When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use
the helping verb do with negative not followed by need. “You do
not need to come to work today.” Brits drop the helping verb and
contract not. “You needn’t come to work today.”

Past tense verbs

You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregu-
lar verbs.
The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British
English has the option of learned or learnt. The same rule applies
to dreamed and dreamt, burned and burnt, leaned and leant.

Americans tend to use the –ed ending; Brits tend to use the -t
ending.

In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending
for some irregular verbs. For example, an American might say, “I
have never gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have
never got caught.” Americans use both got and gotten in the past
participle. Brits only use got.

Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past
forms of irregular verbs. People in both countries can easily un-
derstand both ways, although Brits tend to think of the American
way as incorrect.
Tag questions
A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a
question. For example, “The whole situation is unfortunate, isn’t it?
” or, “You don’t like him, do you?”
The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be,
have or do. Tag questions encourage people to respond and
agree with the speaker. Americans use tag questions, too, but
less often than Brits.
Spelling
There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British
and American English. You can thank American lexicographer
Noah Webster for this. You might recognize Webster’s name from
the dictionary that carries his name.
Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort
to reform English spelling in the late 1700s.
He was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Web-
ster wanted to spell words the way they sounded. Spelling reform
was also a way for America to show its independence from Eng-
land.
You can see Webster’s legacy in the American spelling of words
like color (from colour), honor (from honour), and labor (from
labour). Webster dropped the letter u from these words to make
the spelling match the pronunciation.
Other Webster ideas failed, like a proposal to spell women as
wimmen. Since Webster’s death in 1843, attempts to change
spelling rules in American English have gone nowhere.
Not so different after all.
British and American English have far more similarities than differ-
ences. We think the difference between American and British
English is often exaggerated. If you can understand one style, you
should be able to understand the other style.
With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and
Americans can understand each other without too much difficulty.
They watch each other’s TV shows, sing each other’s songs, and
read each other’s books.
They even make fun of each other’s accents.
Here is the list of British words (words in blue) and their
American counterparts (words in black) arranged alphabeti-
cally for your easy reference.
British English American English
accommodation Accommodations
action replay instant replay
aerofoil Airfoil
aeroplane Airplane
agony aunt advice columnist
Allen key Allen wrench
aluminium aluminum
aniseed anise
anticlockwise counterclockwise
articulated lorry tractor-trailer
asymmetric bars uneven bars
aubergine Eggplant
baking tray cookie sheet
bank holiday legal holiday
beetroot beet(s)
biscuit cookie; cracker
black economy underground economy
blanket bath sponge bath
block of flats apartment building
boiler suit Coveralls
bonnet (of a car) Hood
boob tube tube top
boot (of a car) Trunk
bottom drawer hope chest
bowls lawn bowling
braces Suspenders
brawn (the food) Headcheese
breakdown van tow truck
breeze block cinder block
bridging loan bridge loan
bumbag fanny pack
candyfloss cotton candy
car park parking lot
casualty emergency room
catapult Slingshot
central reservation median strip
chemist drugstore
chips French fries
cinema movie theater; the movies
cling film plastic wrap
common seal harbor seal
consumer durables durable goods
cornflour cornstarch
cos (lettuce) Romaine
cot crib
cot death crib death
cotton bud cotton swab
cotton wool absorbent cotton
council estate (housing) project
courgette zucchini
court card face card
crash barrier guardrail
crisps chips; potato chips
crocodile clip alligator clip
cross-ply bias-ply
crotchet (music) quarter note
current account checking account
danger money hazard pay
demister (in a car) defroster
dialling tone dial tone
diamante Rhinestone
double cream heavy cream
draughts (game) checkers
drawing pin thumbtack
dressing gown robe; bathrobe
drink-driving drunk driving
drinks cupboard liquor cabinet
drinks party cocktail party
driving licence driver’s license
dual carriageway divided highway
dummy (for a baby) Pacifier
dust sheet drop cloth
dustbin garbage can
earth (electrical) Ground
engaged (of a phone) Busy
real estate agent, realtor
estate agent
(trademark)
estate car station wagon
ex-directory unlisted
faith school parochial school
financial year fiscal year
fire brigade/service fire company/department
first floor second floor
fish finger fish stick
fitted carpet wall-to-wall carpeting
flannel washcloth
flat apartment
flexitime flextime
flick knife switchblade
flyover overpass
football soccer
footway sidewalk
fringe (hair) bangs
full stop (punctuation) period
garden yard; lawn
gearing (finance) leverage
gear lever gearshift
goods train freight train
greaseproof paper wax paper/waxed paper
green fingers green thumb
grill (noun) broiler
grill (verb) broil
ground floor first floor
groundsman groundskeeper
hairslide barrette
hatstand hatrack
hen night bachelorette party
hire purchase installment plan
hoarding billboard
hob stovetop
holdall carryall
holiday vacation
holidaymaker vacationer
homely homey
hosepipe (garden) hose
in hospital in the hospital
hot flush hot flash
housing estate housing development
hundreds and thousands sprinkles (for ice cream)
ice lolly Popsicle (trademark)
icing sugar confectioners’ sugar
indicator (on a car) turn signal
inside leg inseam
jelly babies jelly beans
Joe Bloggs Joe Blow
Joe Public John Q. Public
jumble sale rummage sale
jump lead jumper cable
jumper sweater
junior school elementary school
kennel doghouse
ladybird ladybug
a lettuce a head of lettuce
level crossing grade crossing
lift elevator
lolly lollipop
lollipop lady (or man) crossing guard
loose cover slipcover
lorry truck
loudhailer bullhorn
low loader flatbed truck
lucky dip grab bag
luggage van baggage car
maize corn
mangetout snow pea
market garden truck farm
marshalling yard railroad yard
maths math
metalled road paved road
milometer odometer
minim (music) half note
mobile phone cell phone
monkey tricks monkeyshines
motorway expressway; highway
mum/mummy mom/mommy
nappy diaper
needlecord pinwale
newsreader newscaster
noughts and crosses tic-tac-toe
number plate license plate
liquor store; package
off-licence
store
opencast mining open-pit mining
ordinary share common stock
oven glove oven mitt
paddling pool wading pool
paracetamol acetaminophen
parting (in hair) part
patience solitaire
pavement sidewalk
pay packet pay envelope
pedestrian crossing crosswalk
peg clothespin
pelmet valance
petrol gas; gasoline
physiotherapy physical therapy
pinafore dress jumper
plain chocolate dark chocolate
plain flour all-purpose flour
polo neck turtleneck
positive discrimination reverse discrimination
postal vote absentee ballot
postbox mailbox
postcode zip code
potato crisp potato chip
power point electrical outlet
pram baby carriage; stroller
press stud snap
press-up pushup
private soldier GI
public school private school
public transport public transportation
punchbag punching bag
pushchair stroller
pylon utility pole
quantity surveyor estimator
quaver (music) eighth note
queue line
racing car race car
railway railroad
real tennis court tennis
recorded delivery certified mail
registration plate license plate
remould (tyre) retread
reverse the charges call collect
reversing lights back-up lights
right-angled triangle right triangle
ring road beltway
roundabout (at a fair) carousel
roundabout (in road) traffic circle
rowing boat rowboat
sailing boat sailboat
saloon (car) sedan
sandpit sandbox
sandwich cake layer cake
sanitary towel sanitary napkin
self-raising flour self-rising flour
semibreve (music) whole note
semitone (music) half step
share option stock option
shopping trolley shopping cart
show house/home model home
silencer (on a car) muffler
silverside rump roast
skeleton in the cupboard skeleton in the closet
skimmed milk skim milk
skipping rope jump rope
skirting board baseboard
sledge sled
sleeper railroad tie
sleeping partner silent partner
slowcoach slowpoke
snakes and ladders chutes and ladders
solicitor lawyer
soya/soya bean soy/soybean
splashback backsplash
spring onion scallion
stag night bachelor party
Stanley knife utility knife
starter appetizer
state school public school
storm in a teacup tempest in a teapot
surtitle supertitle
swede rutabaga
sweet(s) candy
takeaway (food) takeout; to go
taxi rank taxi stand
tea towel dish towel
terrace house row house
tick check mark
ticket tout scalper
timber lumber
titbit tidbit
candy apple or caramel
toffee apple
apple
touch wood knock on wood
trade union labor union
trading estate industrial park
trainers sneakers
transport cafe truck stop
trolley shopping cart
twelve-bore twelve-gauge
underground Subway
vacuum flask thermos bottle
verge (of a road) Shoulder
vest Undershirt
veterinary surgeon veterinarian
wagon (on a train) car
waistcoat vest
walking frame walker
wardrobe closet
water ice Italian ice
weatherboard clapboard
white coffee coffee with cream
white spirit mineral spirits
wholemeal bread wholewheat bread
windcheater windbreaker
windscreen windshield
wing (of a car) fender
worktop countertop
zebra crossing crosswalk
zed (letter Z) zee
zip zippe

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and

Written Language

Lesson: Local and Global Communica-

tions in Multicultural Settings
Introduction:

Communication is guided by culture and context. It is pre-

dicted by the type of culture dictated by its context. Culture is
manifested in our actions and affects how we tell the world who
we are and what we believe in. It is also the basis of how we be-
have in a certain communication context. The context of commu-
nication brings a better understanding about culture in general
and our own culture in particular. Context was contextualized by
Edward T. Hall, a cultural anthropologist, as anything that refers
to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an event.
Our notion of context leads us to be better able to adapt to a mul-
ticultural perspective of communication.
Local communication is highly grounded on the cultural
context. This context of communication reflects the culture of peo-
ple who are creating their self-identity and community. On the
other hand, global communication has turned to be a modifying
factor of local communication. It attempts to bring changes that af-
fect communication conversations.
The increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world
requires the study of intercultural communication, a discipline that
focuses on how culture affects communication. Intercultural com-
munication concerns on the ability to understand and value cul-
tural differences. It considers the context of communication where
people from different cultural backgrounds interact and under-
scores the wide range of communication processes and problems
that naturally appear within a social context.

Language is a cultural component that is linked to intercul-

tural understanding. How language is used and its non-verbal
forms are decoded based on culture. Hence enhancing oral and
written communication in intercultural environments is a way to
achieving intercultural competence.

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written

Language
Language Variety
• It is also called lect.
• It is any distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression.
• It refers to any of the overlapping subcategories of a language
including :
• dialect
• register
• jargon
• idiolect

Varieties of English refer to the different kinds of English used

around the world based on geographical locations.
Several Major Varieties are:
American English
British English
Australian English
New Zealand English
Black English
Other Varieties are:
Singapore English
Philippine English
*These are identified as variations based on the phonological
(speech sounds) and lexical (vocabulary/grammar and construc-
tion) levels of use. Language variations are more or less similar
and while most English speakers can understand each other,
problems occasionally arise. (Manzano, et al. 2018)

Difference of Lect from Standard English

Lect Standard English

 · a form of the English lan-
Developed for a number of reasons:
guage that is written and
1. Geographical = people who live spoken by educated
in different geographic areas users.
often develop distinct dialect
· it is synonymous to good
– variations of Standard English.
and correct English
2. Jargon = language from spe- usage.
cific academic and profes-
· it also refers to a specific
sional groups which is known
geographical dialect of
to and understood by members
English or a dialect of
of the group.
English
3. Idiolects = developed by individ-
· or a dialect favored by the
uals at a particular period of
most powerful and presti-
time
gious social group.

Subcategories of Language Variety

1. Dialect - characterized as a way of speaking that differs from
the standard variety of the language.
Greek word : dia = ‘across,between’ + legein = ‘speak’

Dialect prejudice : certain dialects gained negative connotations

in the U.S., thus the term refers to discrimination based on a per-
son’s dialect or way of speaking.

According to Carolyn temple and Donna Christian in their article,

“Applied Social Dialectology:
“… dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated and
institutionalized in social enterprise that affect almost everyone
such as education and media.”
There is limited knowledge about and little regard for linguistic
study showing that all varieties of a language display systemati-
cally and that the elevated social position of standard varieties
has no specific linguistic basis.

2. Register is the way a speaker uses lan-

guage differently in different circum-
stances. It is the level and style of your
writing, and it should be appropriate to
the situation you are in. It determines
the vocabulary, structure and grammar
of your writing.

Observe how you speak with a friend and

compare it with the way you should speak
be- fore an audience or during an interview; it varies formality. This
variation is called stylistic variation known as register in linguistics.

Factors which determine Registers:

• social occasion
 • context
• purpose
• audience
- They are marked with a variety of specialized vocabulary and
turns of phrases, colloquialisms, the use of jargon and difference
in intonation and pace.
- Registers may be extremely rigid or very intimate depending on
the following:
1. grammar
2. syntax
3. tone
Forms of Language Register

1.Formal Register – is more appropriate for profes-

sional writing
- is impersonal
*This form of language register is most appropriate in professional
and business writing. It entails the use of formal writing which
seems to be the most difficult type of writing. Not all professionals
are good at it because of the many complexities that writing re-
quires. It is impersonal which means that it requires strict imple-
mentations of rules in standard writing and is written without con-
sidering emotions. (Manzano, et al. 2018)

Examples:
◦ Business letters
◦ Business reports
◦ Announcements
◦ Some essays
◦ Official speeches
◦ Professional emails
Rules of Formal Language Register:
• Do not use contractions – cannot instead of can’t; have not
instead of haven’t
• Spell out numbers less than one hundred – nineteen, sev-
enty-eight, twenty-two, six
• Write in the third person point of view – avoid using: I, we,
you, us
• Avoid using too much passive voice – Passive: The bone
was eaten by the dog; Active: The dog ate the bone
• Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration, and clichés – awe-
some/cool, ok/okay, check it out
• Avoid abbreviations and acronyms – Department of Educa-
tion (DepEd), influenza (flu)
• Do not begin a sentence with words like and, so, but, also –
Use these words instead: Nevertheless, Additionally, How-
ever, In addition, As a result of, Although
• Always write in complete sentences.
• Write longer, more complex sentences. – *Longer and com-
plex sentences are acceptable as long as they do not be-
come wordy. Write using substantial and meaningful sen-
tences.

2. Informal Language Register – is conversational

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and
family. This form is used when writing to someone you know very
well.
Examples:
◦ Personal emails
◦ Short notes
◦ Most blogs
◦ Phone texts
◦ Friendly letters
 ◦ Diaries and journals
3. Neutral Register – is not necessarily formal or informal
- is used to de-
liver facts
Some writings are written in a neutral language, which means that
they are not specifically formal or informal, positive or negative.
The neutral language register is used with non-emotional topics
and information.
Examples:
◦ Reviews
◦ Some letters
◦ Technical writing
◦ Articles
◦ Some essays
◦ Some reports
3. Jargons
• refers to the specialized language of a professional or occu-
pational group.

• Such language is often meaningless to outsiders.

• George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016
article in the New Yorker magazine:
•
“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments,
in government offices—can be a fence raised to keep out the
uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that
what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned. Jargon
acts not only to euphemize but to license, setting insiders against
outsiders and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.”
In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of di-
alect that only those on this inside group can understand.

Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in

reverse:
• It is a way of making those who understand this particular
variety of language more erudite and learned;
• those who are members of the group that understands the
particular jargon are considered smart, while those on the
outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this
kind of language.

Types of Lects

1. Regional dialect:A variety spoken in a particular region.

Examples:
• Ilocano
• Chavacano
• Waray

2. Sociolect: Also known as a social dialect, a variety of lan-

guage (or register) used by a socioeconomic class, a profes-
sion, an age group, or any other social group.

Examples:
• gay lingo
• jejemon

3. Ethnolect:A lect spoken by a specific ethnic group.

Example: Ebonics (the vernacular spoken by some African-Ameri-
cans).
4. Idiolect:The language or speech pattern of one individual
at a particular period of time.
Example, one would say:
• “buhfor” instead of “before”

Cultural Practices and Nuances

Korea
In a country where almost half the population have the same last
name, you may be forgiven for becoming a little confused about
who is who and what is what. Valuable for anyone researching
Korean culture, customs, language, society, manners, etiquette,
values, business norms and essentially wanting to understand the
people better.

Whether visiting South Korea on business, for tourism or even

hosting Korean colleagues or clients in your own country, this
guide will help you understand your South Korean counterparts,
improve communication and get the relationship off to the right
start. How do we know all this information? Well, we are experts
in cultural awareness training courses on Korean culture!
FACTS AND STATISTICS
• Location: Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean Penin-
sula bordering the East Sea and the Yellow Sea
• Capital: Seoul
• National anthem: Aegukga
• Nationality: Korean
• Ethnic Make-up: Homogenous (except for small percentage
of the population who are from elsewhere but reside in the
country permanently). It is one of the most racially pure
countries in the world.
• Population: 50,924,172 (July 2016 Est.)
• Population growth rate: 0.53% (2016 Est.)
 • Climate: temperate, with rainfall heavier in summer than
winter
• Time Zone: Korea Standard Time UTC (UTC+09:00)
• Currency: South Korean ‘won’
• Government: Republic
• Internet penetration: 92.1% (2016)

LANGUAGE IN SOUTH KOREA

Koreans share one language, with approximately seventy million

people around the globe speaking Korean.

The language structure, grammar and vocabulary are similar to

Japanese. Dialects are regional; differing mainly in accent, but are
so similar that comprehension for speakers, or listeners, is not an
issue. Key difference in dialect are also attributed to social status.
Korea has one of the highest literacy rates in the world due to the
phonetic nature of the written language which was invented in the
mid-fifteenth century to give one language to Koreans.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & ETIQUETTE TIPS FOR SOUTH KOREA

The Concept of Kibun

• Kibun is a word with no literal English translation; the closest
terms are pride, face, mood, feelings, or state of mind.
• If you hurt someone's kibun you hurt their pride, cause them
to lose dignity, and lose face. Korean interpersonal relation-
ships operate on the principle of harmony.
• It is important to maintain a peaceful, comfortable atmos-
phere at all times, even if it means telling a "white lie".
• It is important to know how to judge the state of someone
else's kibun, how to avoid hurting it, and how to keep your
own kibun at the same time.
 • In business, a manager's kibun is damaged if his subordi-
nates do not show proper respect. A subordinate's kibun is
damaged if his manager criticizes him in public.
• Nunchi is the ability to determine another person's kibun by
using the eye.
• Since this is a culture where social harmony is crucial, being
able to judge another person's state of mind is critical to
maintain the person's kibun. Nunchi is accomplished by
watching body language and listening to the tone of voice as
well as what is said.

Naming Conventions
• In South Korea names operate in the reverse of Western cul-
tures; Family name (surname), a second family name shared
by all of that generation, and finally their given name.
• It is considered very impolite to address a Korean with his or
her given name. They should be addressed using their pro-
fessional titles, or Mr, Mrs Etc, until permission is given oth-
erwise.

Meeting & Greeting

• Bowing is the traditional way to greet in South Korea

• Handshakes often accompany the bow among men
 • Your left hand should support your right forearm when shak-
ing hands
• Korean women do not always shake hands and may slightly
nod instead of a full bow
• Always bow to individuals when departing

Communication style

• Communication can be complicated in South Korea due to

an inherent dislike of saying ‘no’ as it is considered poor eti-
quette
• Discussions can be prolonged due to the avoidance of de-
clining or refusing
• If disquiet is verbally or visibly displayed it is a sure sign that
something is amiss
• Good posture and positive body language is most beneficial
in meetings; patience and politeness must be maintained
throughout
• Do not use excessive or overt body language
• Use two hands, or support your right arm with your left, when
passing on business cards, gifts, or when receiving an item
• Respect, trust and satisfaction are displayed through a
deeper bow

Personal Space

• It is insulting for Koreans to be touched by someone with

whom they are unfamiliar; don’t pat them on the back or hug
them
• Prolonged, direct eye contact can be inferred as a challenge
and is seen as impolite, especially when dealing with others
of a higher social standing
 • Keep your body within its own personal space; avoid ex-
tended or crossed legs and limit arm movements when ex-
plaining something so as to evade others’ personal space
• If calling someone over to you do not point with your index
finger, instead use your hand palm down in a claw move-
ment
• In cities (especially Seoul) pushing, shoving and touching
are regular occurrences – don’t be offended by the lack of
apologies
• Friends, of both sexes, will often walk arm in arm together,
especially teenagers and the younger generations

Gift Giving Etiquette

• Koreans are generous people and enjoy giving gifts
• Accept the gift with both hands – but never open the gift im-
mediately, wait until the giver is absent
• Return the favour and offer something of a similar value. Ko-
reans enjoy Western gifts and items so be prepared before
leaving home
• If giving gifts be sure to wrap and present them in an attrac-
tive way. Avoid using dark wrapping paper, especially red,
instead choose bright yellow/green
• If invited to a Korean home always take the hostess a gift;
chocolates, sweets, cakes or flowers but preferably not alco-
hol
• Gifts are often given at the first business meeting and the
host should present his first. To reciprocate, give good qual-
ity alcohol such as scotch, or desk accessories
• Do not give overly expensive gifts as Koreans feel indebted
to give as they receive
• Avoid gifts such as knives, scissors, sets of four, and red
writing (these are seen as ‘cutting ties’ and signifying death
respectively)
Dining & Food

• Always wait to be seated by your host. If given the seat of

honour (looking at the front door) it is polite to demonstrate a
slight objection
• Elders are served first and begin the dining process
• Food and dining are important parts of Korean culture and
are used to build relationships. Be sociable and work at
shaping good associations for pleasure and business as
they are interlinked
• Don’t pour your own drink, although it is considered good
manners to pour another’s. Women often pour for men but
not for other women. Rather than refuse more drink (remem-
ber, Koreans don’t like outright refusal) simply leave your
glass part full, as opposed to empty
• Do not tip if you see a ‘no tipping’ sign
• There are often prolonged periods of silence during Korean
meals – socialising can happen once everyone has feasted
• Don’t forget to pass and receive food with two hands or with
just your right if it is supported by your left
• When it comes to settling the bill, the invitee may offer to pay
but the host will generally pay for everyone.
• If you are invited to continue after dinner with drinks or a
party, don’t refuse this invitation.
• On occasion you may be asked to sing a solo after dinner.
Try not to refuse this request, instead sing with enthusiasm
and spirit
• Do not point with your chopsticks, or leave them sticking out
of your bowl
• The national drink of Korea is ‘Soju’, a clear vodka-like drink
that is generally 18-25% alcohol
•
Visiting a home
 • Always remove your shoes before entering a Korean home
(in recent years there has been an increase in Western cul-
ture and this may not always be the case - follow the lead of
your host if unsure)
• It is possible to arrive up to thirty minutes late without caus-
ing offence but punctuality is highly respected
• Remember, never pour your own drink. The host will do this
in your presence
• Being invited into a Korean’s home is considered an honour
(especially if it is for a meal) so it is essential to treat it as
such. Be polite, respectful and observe their customs
• Bring a gift to reciprocate your host’s kindness
• Once the party is over you will usually be escorted to your
car or the gate by the host. This is a sign of respect

Taboos in South Korean Culture

• Do not wear your shoes in places of worship or peoples’
homes
• Do not put your feet on furniture
• Do not eat or drink in public places while walking
• Do not place your thumb between your middle and index fin-
ger while making a fist as this an obscene gesture
• Do not use red ink. This is a symbol of death and is reserved
only for writing the names of the deceased. It is considered
unlucky and suggests you wish death to the recipient
• Do not use the number four if at all possible – if giving gifts,
do not give four of something. It is considered unlucky due to
the similarity between the Korean word for death and the
pronunciation of the word ‘four’
• Do not stand too close to people you are meeting for the first
time – keep an arms length between you

BUSINESS CULTURE, ETIQUETTE AND PROTOCOL IN

SOUTH KOREA
If you are considering doing business in South Korea, or with a
South Korean, it is essential to understand their culture and busi-
ness etiquette to maximise your potential and avoid any unneces-
sary awkwardness.
Korean culture is profoundly influenced by Confucian principles and this
pervades not only personal lives, but also business. Confucianism sup-
ports group harmony, respect for elders and authority, the importance of
family, friendship and ancestors, and also, tradition. Kibun (equivalent to
face, or honour) is highly significant to Koreans and they will always at-
tempt to maintain their Kibun, or personal dignity. Confrontation is to be
avoided at all cost as once Kibun is lost it cannot be regained.
In South Korea, good relationships are crucial to success both in per-
sonal and business circles, and these are assimilated within the busi-
ness world. Korean’s make friends first, and clients second. To make the
most of your business acumen you must also appear trustworthy, hon-
ourable and respectable in a social and business setting.
Korean business is founded upon relationships; even large corpo-
rations are often family managed with members still acting in exec-
utive positions. The Confucian principles regarding respect for age,
family, rank and tradition have ensured the continuance of this sys-
tem. There have been recent calls for reforms, due to economic
downturns, in Korea but this will take time due to the entrenched
systems in place.
Alongside the formal power structures in place within a company one
must learn to recognise, and assess, the informal structures which may
be based on long-standing family ties, personal relationships and alle-
giances. Insight into these practises will ensure a greater comprehen-
sion of Korean business etiquette.

What to wear?
• Dress is conventional and conservative for both women and
men
• Dark suits, white shirt and tie are accepted as the norm for
men
• Suits, dresses, or blouse and skirt are acknowledged for
women. Trousers are not generally worn for business
• Women should avoid sleeveless, tight-fitting garments
• Colours should be understated and traditional
• Good quality accessories are accepted
• Be aware that winter can be very cold, and summer very hot,
in South Korea

Titles
• As discussed previously, Koreans have three names; they
are used in order of surname, generation name, and then
given name.
• If unsure address people as Mr_____ (surname) or surname
______ and then their title (teacher, professor, etc)
• Generally, Koreans will offer you their name, which may be a
westernised version of their Korean name

Business cards
• Business cards are considered important and ritualistic in
Korea
 • It is advisable to have one side printed in English and the
other in Korean
• Give and receive cards with both hands, with the Korean
side uppermost for ease of reading
• Take time to read and examine the cards you are given – it
is respectful
• Place cards in a holder to keep them safe and show you are
treating them well
• Never write on or mark the cards you are given

Meetings
• Organise your meeting ahead of time, giving plenty of notice
• Arrive punctually and be prepared
• The most senior Korean will enter and be seated first
• As Koreans live and conduct business within a Confucian
framework, initial meetings are often used in an introductory
fashion and business may be instigated later
• Do not show impatience at this stage as these pleasantries
are a way of getting to know you
• Only remove your jacket once the senior Korean does
• Choose delegates who are on par with their Korean counter-
parts – this shows respect and knowledge
• Exchange business cards in a respectful manner after the
initial introductions
• Ask open ended questions that do not require a yes or no
answer as Koreans dislike refusals

Negotiating
• Allow the senior Korean to instigate business discussions
• Phrase questions in a manner that allows for discussion (Ask
‘When can we expect delivery?’ And not, ‘Will delivery be
within two weeks?’)
• Avoid using an outright ‘No’ in response to questions
 • Be aware of others’ Kibun – do not force an issue if you
sense reluctance as you may harm you own dignity and lose
their respect
• Always show respect for senior colleagues and management
• There are often times of silence during meetings, try not to
break these as they are moments of contemplation and
show consideration for others
• Avoid a hard sell and forceful negotiations – remember Ki-
bun

Management
• Korean business and personal lives are based upon strict hi-
erarchical structures
• Confucianism supports this structure within the family and
workplace
• Older and senior delegates should be deferred to at all times
• 'Sonsaengnim' means "respected person" and is frequently
used when addressing someone of a higher position
• In South Korea managers take a paternalistic role with em-
ployees and may be familiar with staff in a personal manner
• This allows for a mutual respect and understanding so don’t
be put off if asked questions of a personal nature
UAE (United Arab Emirates)
Whether visiting Abu Dhabi on business or Dubai for tourism or
even hosting Emirati colleagues or clients in your own country,
this guide will help you understand your counterparts, improve
communication and get the relationship off to the right start.
FACTS AND STATISTICS
• Location: Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the
Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia.
• Capital: Abu Dhabi.
 • Flag: The flag of the United Arab Emirates was adopted in
1971. Its colours of red, green, white and black represent the
unity of the Arab countries.
• National anthem: The National Anthem of the United Arab
Emirates is also known as Ishy Bilady (Long Live my Nation)
It was adopted in 1971 when the UAE was first formed and
composed by Mohammed Abdel Wahab as an orchestral
piece. It was not until 1996 that the lyrics written by Arif Al
Sheikh Abdullah Al Hassan were officially adopted.
• Nationality: Emiratis.
• Ethnic Make-up: Emirati 11.6%, South Asian 59.4% (in-
cludes Indian 38.2%, Bangladeshi 9.5%, Pakistani 9.4%,
other 2.3%), Egyptian 10.2%, Philippine 6.1%, other 12.8%
(2015 est.)
• Population: 6,072,475 (July 2017 est.
• Population growth rate: 1.2% annual change (2016).
• Climate: Desert; cooler in The eastern mountain area.
• Time Zone: Gulf Time Zone – UTC+4:00
• Currency: Dirham.
• Government: Federal Constitution.
• Internet penetration: 70.0% of the population – est 2011
•
BASIC INTRODUCTION
The United Arab Emirates was formed as an independent federation
on December 2nd, 1971 and originally included six countries: Abu
Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah.
The following year Ras al-Khaymah joined the federation. The
Sheikhdoms also known as the Trucial States were formerly a British
Protectorate from 1820 until they achieved independence in 1971. In the
18th and early 19th Century, the Trucial coast (south-eastern Persian
Gulf) was known in the West as the ‘Pirate Coast’ as shipping vessels in
the area were frequently targeted by local tribal inhabitants. The British
Government retaliated and were successful in bringing matters under
control. These events led to the creation of the ‘General Treaty of Peace’
in 1820 which established Britain’s obligation to maintain peace in the
Gulf.
Since the second half of the 20th Century, the discovery of oil has been
a driving force in the economy of the UAE. The international finance and
banking crisis in 2008 saw a severe economic slump in UAE and they
narrowly avoided being caught up in the so called ‘Arab Spring’ that rico-
cheted around the Middle East in 2010. As a response to the crisis, the
UAE embarked upon an ambitious programme of economic and political
reform. The poorer areas of the UAE received significant investment to
improve the infrastructure and raise educational standards.
The UAE is a member of the US-led anti-Islamic State coalition along
with 61 other states.
LANGUAGE IN THE UAE

Arabic is the official language of the UAE although English is

widely spoken and understood.
Since the UAE is home to a large expatriate community, a number of
other languages are widely spoken which primarily include: Persian,
Hindi, Urdu, Bengali and Chinese.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

Naming conventions:
• The first name is the personal name followed by ibn which
means son of and the name of the father, then followed
again by ibn meaning the name of the father of his father.
This is then followed by the family name.
• Where a daughter is concerned the ibn becomes bint. Her
first name followed by bint (daughter of) father’s name, then
ibn to indicate the grandfather’s name followed by the family
name.
• When a couple marry, the wife retains her family name and
children will take the name of the father.
 • In modern times ibn and bint are often only used in official
circumstances. Additionally, addresses are likely to only in-
cluded son or daughter of the father as opposed to both fa-
ther and grandfather, e.g. the first prime minister of the UAE
was addressed as Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum

Meeting & Greeting:

• A long but steady handshake is common. Ensure you only

use your right hand.
• Greetings between individuals of the same gender who know
each other well are often warm and include hugs and em-
braces.
• Arab men or women may decline to shake the hands of
those from the other sex. This is a religious adherence prac-
ticed by many male and female Muslims. It is not personal
and it should not be taken offensively. We suggest therefore,
that men wait to see if a female offers her hand prior to offer-
ing his.
• Likewise, if a female offers her hand and it is refused by a
male, then we suggest the use of a gesture that is often
used across the Muslim world as an alternative greeting
whereby the right hand is placed flat over the heart, coupled
with a brief nod of the head and a smile.
• It is polite to greet the oldest or most senior members of the
group first.
Communication style:

• Small talk is common, indeed expected, and is often the pre-

lude to business discussion.
• Business is conducted on the basis of trust in the UAE and
will fall short if individuals try to hurry on to business matters
to hastily. Take the time to get to know your counterpart by
asking generic questions and showing an interest in them
 personally. Ask about their children, their school, sporting
interests, trips abroad etc.
• It may take a good few meetings and a restaurant visit be-
fore your counterpart will feel ready to move into any busi-
ness transactions with you.
• Genuine flattery will never go amiss
• Be aware of hierarchal structures and show due respect to
those in a higher position. Use titles where appropriate.
• Never criticize Islam, the ruling classes or local traditions.
• Never sit in a position that shows the soles of the feet. To do
so is an insult as feet are considered dirty.

Personal Space:

• Maintain eye contact with people of the same sex.

• Men should show courtesy and respect for women. Never
make prolonged eye contact with a woman or compliment
her on her appearance or dress.
• It is not uncommon for men to greet other men with a kiss or
a nose rub. Male friends often link arms or hold hands.
• Members of the opposite sex do not embrace or kiss in pub-
lic

Gift Giving:

• All gifts should be of a high quality. Good perfume is accept-

able even for men who take a pride in the appearance and
status but such a gift for a woman should
• only be given by another woman.
 • Gifts with a personal touch that show thoughtfulness are
very acceptable.
• Never give alcohol, pork products, knives or dog related
items.

Dining & Food:

• Dining in the UAE is a very social affair and can be a means

to doing business also.
• It is considered polite to arrive fifteen minutes late.
• Expect to eat with the right hand – the left hand is consid-
ered dirty. However, if you are left handed it is acceptable to
eat with a utensil in the left hand. Arabs may eat with their
hand only and without utensils. Hand cleanliness is there-
fore very important.
• Some families prefer to be seated on cushions on the floor.
• It is not considered polite to decline the offer of more food.
• If eating with utensils, place the cutlery facing up in the mid-
dle of the plate on finishing the meal.
• If dining in a restaurant give more than the service charge –
up to 10% is acceptable.

Taboos:

• Do not discuss religion or criticise Islam.

• Men should not stare at women or offer compliments
• Do not go outside scantily dressed
• Non-Muslims should not enter a mosque or touch a Qu’ran
• Kissing or cuddling in public is strictly prohibited and such
conduct can result in arrest.

BUSINESS CULTURE & ETIQUETTE TIPS

What to wear:
 • Dress conservatively. Men should wear a neat suit and tie.
• Women should dress smartly and modestly ensuring that
their arms are covered regardless of temperature.

Titles:
• The Emiratis expect formality and respect.
• Position is important and should be recognised.
• Expect to be addressed by your title and be sure to research
the position and titles of those with whom you do business.It
is polite for instance, to address the head of the department
or company as ‘Sheikh’.

Business cards:
• Business cards are given before the meeting and should be
printed in Arabic on one side. The Arabic side should be pre-
sented first.
• Present and receive business cards with your right hand.

Meetings:
• Appointments should be made at least two weeks ahead and
confirmed a day or two before the meeting is due to take
place.
• It is not unusual for a meeting to take place in a café or
restaurant.
• Punctuality is important and deemed respectful.
• Informal ‘small talk’ prior to the start of business is common
and is essential to building relationships.
• Face is important to the Emirates so that any criticism or
conflict should be strictly avoided.
• It is not unusual for meetings to seem a little disorganised
and interruptions are not uncommon. An individual unrelated
to the meeting may therefore join the meeting for a period
and the subject may change accordingly. You may also find
 that some individuals make or receive calls during the meet-
ing.

Negotiating:
• Building relations in UAE and personal contacts are para-
mount to successful business. If you have not taken the time
and made the effort to build a positive relationship with your
counterpart then it’s unlikely that they will trust you suffi-
ciently to negotiate with you.
• Any business agreements should be passed by a lawyer be-
fore signing on the dotted line.
• If there is some doubt about the outcome of negotiations this
should not be expressed too negatively and the word ‘no’ is
best avoided.
• Do not use high pressure tactics as these will not be toler-
ated and are likely to negatively impact proceedings.

Management:
• Be aware that the work week in the UAE runs from Sunday
to Thursday. Friday and Saturday are weekend days.
• Government office hours are typically between 07:30 and
15:00, although private office hours are typically open for
longer and often finish as late as 21:00. However, where
this is the case, a three to four-hour break at some point in
the day is given.
• The boss often holds a fairly paternalistic role. As such, it’s
not uncommon for conversations to be move to more per-
sonal matters during discussions between boss and team
member.
• Managers tend to be slightly more conservative in the UAE
and, as such, this may affect the speed and nature of
change.
• Although timescales and deadlines are broadly adhered to,
less priority is given to them compared to Western cultures.
 If therefore, you are a Westerner doing business in the UAE,
then you may wish to, gently and politely, reinforce any
deadlines.
• In family owned companies, deference is paid to the head of
the family who will also most likely be the key decision
maker.
• Managers will typically consult stakeholders during the deci-
sion-making process. Responsibility for implementation will
then be passed to subordinate team members.
• Do not question the boss in a way that puts him / her on the
spot as this will potentially cause a loss of face and will not
be well received.

UK (United Kingdom)
FACTS AND STATISTICS
• Location: Western Europe
• Capital: London
• Flag: The national flag for the UK is known at The Union
Jack and represents the three older nations of Great Britain
with the red cross of St George (patron saint of England), the
white saltire cross of St. Andrew (patron saint of Scotland),
and the red saltire of St. Patrick (patron saint of Ireland -
Northern Ireland being part of the United Kingdom)
• National anthem: God Save the Queen is the patriotic song
dedicated to the reigning monarch of The United Kingdom
• Nationality: English, Irish, Scottish or Welsh (or just British
which covers all of them)
• Ethnic Make-Up: white 87.2%, black/African/Caribbean/
black British 3%, Asian British: Indian 2.3%, Asian/Asian
British: Pakistani 1.9%, mixed 2%, other 3.7% (2011 census)
• Population: 65,511,098 – 2017
• Population growth rate: 0.8% annual change (2015)
 • Climate: Temperate; moderated by prevailing southwest
winds over the North Atlantic Current; more than one-half of
the days are overcast.
• Time Zone: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Britain operates
daylight saving time (DST) which begins on last Sunday in
March; ends last Sunday in October and puts the clock
ahead of GMT by one hour
• Currency: Pound Sterling, known as the Pound or Great
British Pound (GBP)
• Government: parliamentary constitutional monarchy

OVERVIEW OF THE UK

The United Kingdom includes England, Scotland, Wales and North-

ern Ireland. Historically the country was a forerunner in the devel-
oping world and, at its peak during the 19th Century, had an empire
that stretched across the globe.
They have led the way in science, literature and industry. However, the
influence and power of Great Britain began to erode in the first half of the
20th Century with two world wars. This had its consequences in the
gradual breakup of the Empire during the second half of the century
since when, the UK has re modelled itself into a leading, wealthy Euro-
pean nation.
The UK is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Coun-
cil which was created on 24th October 1945 and a founding member of
NATO and the commonwealth. The UK takes a global stance in foreign
policy.
Until June 2016, the UK played an active part in the European Parlia-
ment after joining in 1973 although they chose not to enter into the Eco-
nomic and Monetary Union. Following a national referendum on June
23rd 2016, the UK narrowly voted to leave the EU (known as Brexit) al-
though this will not be complete for some years. It is largely thought the
vote to leave was driven by perceived ‘bureaucracy’ in Brussels, the cen-
tre of the European Parliament and concerns regarding immigration.
LANGUAGE IN THE UK
English is the main language spoken by approximately 98% of the
population in the UK with numerous dialects. Accents can vary
tremendously from south to north, even occasionally confusing
Brits themselves.
There are some regional language speakers including Scottish Gaelic,
Irish Gaelic and Welsh. The latter is one of the most widely spoken re-
gional languages.
As a multi-national country, the UK has a number of other languages
spoken across the country. The second most spoken, non-native lan-
guage in the UK is Polish. The next commonly spoken languages come
from India and Pakistan: Punjabi, Bengali and Gujarati. These are fol-
lowed by Arabic, Chinese, Portuguese and French.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & ETIQUETTE

Naming conventions
• In the UK, the first name is also known as ‘the Christian
name’, although this has little to do with religion today. This
is traditionally followed by a middle name and then the family
name which in the UK is known as the surname.
• In previous centuries children tended to be named after a
member of the family or a religious figure. Catholic families,
in particular, tend to name their children after saints.
• In modern times, children are often given names that are
liked by the parents and which have no particular signifi-
cance regarding family or religion. Some children are named
after famous football stars, singers or film actors.
• Traditionally when couples marry the woman takes her hus-
band’s name as her surname but some couple now choose
to amalgamate their names which is referred to as a double-
barrelled name.
Meeting & Greeting
• Although the British may appear on the surface to be re-
served and perhaps even aloof, they are in fact friendly peo-
ple and welcoming to foreign visitors.
• The etiquette when greeting is to shake hands with all those
present, even children.
• At social or business meetings, it is polite to also shake
hands upon leaving. Hand-shakes should not be too hearty,
just a light friendly touch.
• Last names should be used with the appropriate title unless
specifically invited to use the first name.

Communication style
• The British have an interesting mix of communication styles
encompassing both understatement and direct communica-
tion.
• Many older businesspeople or those from the 'upper class'
rely heavily upon formal use of established protocol.
• Most British are masters of understatement and do not use
effusive language. If anything, they have a marked tendency
to use ‘qualifiers’ such as 'perhaps', ‘possibly’ or 'it could be'.
• When communicating with people they see as equal to
themselves in rank or class, the British are direct, but mod-
est. If communicating with someone they know well, their
style may be more informal, although they will still be re-
served.
• Written communication follows strict rules of protocol. How a
letter is closed varies depending upon how well the writer
knows the recipient.
• Written communication is always addressed using the per-
son's title and their surname. First names are not generally
used in written communication, unless you know the person
well.
 • E-mail is now much more widespread, however the commu-
nication style remains more formal, at least initially, than in
many other countries. Most British will not use slang or ab-
breviations and will think negatively if your communication
appears overly familiar.

Gift Giving
• It is customary to take a small gift for the host if invited to
their home. This is usually either a bottle of wine, flowers or
chocolates. Some people may send flowers in advance of a
dinner party but it is equally acceptable to take them on the
day. Gifts are opened on receipt.
• It is not usual for gifts to be exchanged in a business setting.

Dining & Food

• Table manners are Continental, i.e. the fork is held in the left
hand and the knife in the right while eating.
• The fork is held tines down so food is scooped on to the
back of the fork. This is a skill that takes time to master.
• Remain standing until invited to sit down. You may be shown
to a particular seat.
• Do not rest your elbows on the table.
• If you have not finished eating, cross your knife and fork on
your plate with the fork over the knife.
• Indicate you have finished eating by laying your knife and
fork together at the clock position of 6.30.
• Toasts are given at formal meals when the host will raise a
glass (usually wine but a soft drink is acceptable) and will in-
vite the guests to commemorate a person or event. The
guests then raise their glass and repeat the toast before tak-
ing a sip of their drink.
• When in a pub, it is common practice to pay for a round of
drinks for everyone in your group.
 • If invited to a meal at a restaurant, the person extending the
invitation usually pays. It is important to arrive on time. Do
not argue about the check; simply reciprocate at a later time.
• Do not wave your hand or call out to summons a waiter if in
a restaurant.

Visiting a home
• Unlike many European cultures, the British enjoy entertain-
ing people in their homes.
• Although the British value punctuality, you may arrive 10-15
minutes later than invited to dinner.
• It is not always required to remove your shoes when entering
a British home, but it is recommended that you ask upon en-
try whether or not shoes can be worn.

Taboos
• Do not rest your elbows on the table.
• Do not stare.
• Do not be overly familiar with people you do not know well.
• Do not ask personal questions such as how much someone
earns, who they voted for etc.
• Do not speak too loudly or cut into a conversation.

BUSINESS CULTURE & PRACTICE

What to wear?
• Although the rules on business wear have changed in the
last decade and some professions are less formal, more
conservative businesses still expect men to wear a suit and
tie and women to dress smartly.
• This may involve a smart, unfussy dress and shoes but it is
also acceptable for women to wear trousers, a smart blouse
and jacket.
Titles
• In addition to formal professional titles, (such as doctor or
professor), it is polite to refer to men with ‘Mr’ and women as
‘Mrs’ (if married) or ‘Miss’ (if unmarried).
• Formal titles should be used in business unless otherwise
stated.

Business cards
• These are usually given at the end of a meeting.
• There is no ceremony as to business card giving in the UK.
• Do not be surprised if someone writes on your business
card.

Meetings
• Meetings always have a clearly defined purpose, which may
include an agenda.
• There will be a brief amount of small talk before getting down
to the business at hand
• If you make a presentation, avoid making exaggerated
claims. Make brief eye contact with the team members to en-
courage a feeling of inclusion.
• Make certain your presentation and any materials provided
appear professional and well thought out.
• Be prepared to back up your claims with facts and figures.
The British rely on facts, rather than emotions, to make deci-
sions.
• Maintain a few feet of personal space.
• Always be on time to a meeting if not a bit early.
• If you have hosted the meeting then you should send an
email summarizing what was decided and the next steps to
be taken.

Negotiating
 • Major decisions are made from the top and will be passed
down the chain of management.
• Any hard selling or confrontation is ill-advised.

Management
• The style of management in the UK has been changing over
the past few decades from what may be perceived to be
stuffy, conservative values to a more open and progressive
approach recognising the significant role played by the em-
ployees.
• Where meetings are concerned, it is important to treat all
people with respect and deference and that time should not
be wasted.
• Always arrive promptly prepared for the discussions on the
content of the business at hand.
• Although some organisations will appear to be hierarchical
people within the company, whatever their position, play an
important role in the decision-making process for the greater
good of the company.
• Employees expect to be consulted on issues that
affect their working environment and morale.

USA (United States of America)

This is a country so large that it has six time zones – indicative of
the many regional and geographical distinctions. Understanding
America through popular culture, media and politics will only ever
offer skin-deep insights. Our guide is valuable for anyone researching
American culture, customs, language, society, manners, etiquette, val-
ues and essentially wanting to understand the people better.
FACTS AND STATISTICS
 • Location: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic
Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and
Mexico
• Capital: Washington, DC
• National anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner
• Nationality: American
• Ethnic Make-up: White American (72.4%), African Ameri-
can (12.6%), Native American (0.9%), Asian American
(4.8%) (2010 Census)
• Population: 324,700,000 (March 2017)
• Population growth rate: 0.75%
• Climate: mostly temperate, but tropical in Hawaii and Flor-
ida, arctic in Alaska, semiarid in the great plains west of the
Mississippi River, and arid in the Great Basin of the south-
west.
• Time Zone: There are 4 standard times zones as follows -
Pacific Time UTC -8:00 / -7:00 : Mountain Time UTC -7:00 / -
6:00 : Central Time UTC -6:00 / -5:00 : Eastern Time UTC
-5:00 / -4:00
• Currency: US Dollar
• Government: Constitution-based federal republic
• Internet penetration: 84.2%

LANGUAGE IN AMERICA

There is no official language in the USA although English (specifi-

cally American English) is the primary language used for legisla-
tion, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal court rulings,
and all other official pronouncements.
Due to the large number of immigrants that make up the population
America is very much a multilingual nation. Per the American Commu-
nity Survey 2011, endorsed by the United States Census Bureau, the top
5 spoken languages in America are:
1. English – 230 million
2. Spanish – 37.58 million
 3. Chinese – 2.88 million
4. French – 2.05 million
5. Tagalog – 1.59 million

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

Naming conventions
• Family, friends and colleagues use first names.
• Nicknames are also common.
• In formal situations you would use your name & surname or
that of the person you are introducing, for example, “Please
meet Jane Doe.” Mr or Mrs may also be used in more con-
servative states.
• Within work situations use professional titles when address-
ing others, i.e. “Nice to meet you Professor Lacey.”
• Do not use professional titles when introducing yourself.

Meeting & Greeting

• American greetings are generally quite informal and casual.
• It is becoming more common in social situations not to shake
hands upon meeting and simply smile or nod.
• When people are introduced handshakes are common ac-
companied with a “How d’ya do?”, “How you doing?” or “How
are you”? depending on where in the US you are.
• Within business handshakes are generally expected when
meeting and leaving.
• Pleasantries are exchanged out of courtesy rather than be-
ing genuine.
• Rather than say “bye” Americans may also use terms such
as “call me some time,” “let’s do lunch” or “see you around”
as politer ways of departing.
• If introducing someone, use their full name and a bit of infor-
mation about them, for example, “This is Larry Whyte; he
works at the local school as a science teacher.”
Communication style
• Americans can come across as self-interested, aggressive
and rude to some outsiders.
• This is down to the US communication style which is influ-
enced by the need to be direct, clear, transparent and open
about matters.
• Plain and simple talk is very much valued in America.
• Americans see coded, indirect communication which relies
on body language as confusing and unnecessary.
• The emphasis within communication is on the facts at hand
and not the relationships – thus the term, “It’s just business.”
• Americans are much more open in conversation about pri-
vate affairs than many other cultures and do not shy away
from asking direct questions.

Personal Space
• Americans do not tend to like close contact with others.
• 2-3 feet of personal space during conversations is the norm.
• For most Americans there is little or no touching ever with
others although within some communities this may be much
more common within the community itself. This will also be
different between good friends and family.
• In public, such as in parks or on the bus, people try to give
one another space.

Gift Giving
• Americans do not really have any customs or taboos con-
cerning gifts.
• Gifts are usually given for special occasions or between
friends and family.
• Gifts within business are generally discouraged due to anti-
bribery policies.
• Cash should never be given as a gift.
 • If visiting a house, bring flowers, a potted plant, a fruit bas-
ket, chocolate, wine, a book or a small household ornament
like a vase.

Dining & Food

• Americans socialise and do business over breakfast, lunch
and dinner.
• If business is the goal, then socializing is kept to a minimum
at the start and end.
• Social meals are more about eating that chatting and taking
hours over the food.
• If you invite someone to a restaurant, you should pay.
• The fork is held in the left hand facing down with the knife is
held in the right hand.
• Napkins if provided are placed on the lap.
• A toast might take place at the start of a formal meal or for a
special occasion/guest.
• Feel free to refuse specific foods or drinks without offering
an explanation.
• Many foods are eaten by hand.
• Food is often served family-style, which means that it is in
large serving dishes and passed around the table for every-
one to serve themselves.
• Do not begin eating until the hostess starts or says to begin.
• Remain standing until invited to sit down.
• Do not rest your elbows on the table.

Visiting a home
• Being invited to an American’s home can be fairly informal.
• One should dress casually but also smart and arrive no later
than 10-15 minutes late without notifying your host that you
will be late.
• If an invite says 6pm-8pm it is polite to leave as close to 8pm
as possible.
 • It is a good idea to bring a gift or if there is going to be some
food, then some drinks.
• Send a note of thanks after the occasion to your host.

Taboos
In public:
• Do not spit.
• Do not discuss race, religion, politics or sex.
• Do not swear.
• Do not discuss the wrong/rights of abortion.
• Do not assume you can smoke anywhere, even outside.

BUSINESS CULTURE, PRACTICES & ETIQUETTE TIPS

What to wear
• Dress code depends on where in the USA you are doing
business. The weather and local culture will determine what
is appropriate or not.
• In general, people in the East dress more formally, while
people in the West are known for being a bit more casual.
• It is best to always dress conservatively until it is clear what
the accepted dress code is.
• Men should wear shirts with suits and shoes. Ties are gener-
ally worn but not in all States. Colours should be traditional
such as black, blue, grey, etc.
• Women should wear modestly with not too much make-up or
jewellery. Low-cut blouses, short skirts and tight clothing are
not appropriate.
• ‘Casual Friday’ is common in many companies. High tech-
nology companies often wear casual clothes every day.

Titles
• Most Americans move to a first name basis pretty quickly.
 • Always start by addressing people using Mr/Mrs/Miss + sur-
name until you are invited to call them otherwise.
• Some, such as Doctors, will use their professional titles.

Business cards
• Americans have no etiquette when it comes to giving and re-
ceiving business cards.
• They are swapped with no fanfare.
• It is quite common for the recipient to put your card in their
wallet, which may then go in the back pocket of their
trousers. This is not an insult.

Meetings
• Arrive on time for meetings since time and punctuality are so
important to Americans.
• In the Northeast and Midwest, people are extremely punctual
and view it as a sign of disrespect for someone to be late for
a meeting or appointment.
• In the Southern and Western states, people may be a little
more relaxed, but to be safe, always arrive on time, although
you may have to wait a little before your meeting begins.
• Meetings may appear relaxed, but they are taken quite seri-
ously.
If there is an agenda, it will be followed.
• At the conclusion of the meeting, there will be a summary of
what was decided, a list of who will implement which facets
and a list of the next steps to be taken and by whom.
• If you make a presentation, it should be direct and to the
point. Visual aids should further enhance your case.
• Use statistics to back up your claims, since Americans are
impressed by hard data and evidence.
• With the emphasis on controlling time, business is con-
ducted rapidly.
 • Expect very little small talk before getting down to business.
It is common to attempt to reach an oral agreement at the
first meeting.
• The emphasis is on getting a contract signed rather than
building a relationship. The relationship may develop once
the first contract has been signed.

Negotiating
• Final decisions are usually made from the top down although
group consensus is valued.
• Hard selling tactics are used from time to time.
• The deal at hand is always more important than then per-
sonal relationship.
• Americans sometimes start negotiations with excessive de-
mands or a low price. They are usually taking a starting po-
sition that gives them room to bargain.
• Negotiations may seem rushed – always remember that
"time is money" to Americans.

Management
• In the U.S.A, there is a sense that all people in the organiza-
tion have an important role to play and all are valued for their
input.
• Employees expect to be consulted on decisions that affect
them and the greater good of the organization.
• American managers are viewed as facilitators--people who
help employees do their best work--and not simply decision
makers.
• Missing a deadline is a sign of poor management and ineffi-
ciency.

INTRODUCTION:
 The digital society in which we all live has drastically al-
tered reality across industries. It’s changed the way we live (okay,
Google!), the way we work (hello telecommuting!) and, most im-
portantly, the way we communicate.
Nowadays, there are many advanced and diverse medi-
ums that individuals use to create some form of communication
with his/her friends, family members or significant others. People
are using images, graphics, audio, and video to share information
they would have otherwise shared with ink and paper only a few
decades ago.
MULTIMODAL TEXTS
This include picture books, text books, graphic novels, comics,
and posters, where meaning is conveyed to the reader through
varying combinations of visual (still image) written language, and
spatial modes.
Digital multimodal texts
This includes film, animation, slide shows, e-posters, digital sto-
ries, and web pages, convey meaning through com-
binations of written and spoken language, visual
(still and moving image), audio, gestural and spatial
modes.
Live multimodal texts
Example of this are dance, performance, and oral storytelling,
convey meaning through combinations of modes
such as gestural, spatial, spoken language, and au-
dio.
Each mode uses unique semiotic resources to create meaning
(Kress, 2010). In a visual text, for example, representation of peo-
ple, objects, and places can be conveyed using choices of visual
semiotic resources such as line, shape, size, line and symbols,
while written language would convey this meaning through sen-
tences using noun groups and adjectives (Callow, 2013) which
are written or typed on paper or a screen.

INFOGRAPHICS
What is infographics?
By definition, an infographic is a visual representation of any kind
of information or data.

Whether it’s a study on market trends or a step-by-step guide on

how to do your laundry, an infographic can help you present that
information in the form of an attractive visual graphic.

(Notice how the use of bright colors, illustrated characters and

bold text instantly grabs your attention and gives you an overview
of the topic as you skim through.)
Keep in mind that the goal of an infographic is not only to inform,
but also to make the viewing experience fun and engaging for
your audience. It all comes down to how you combine different
graphic elements—like colors, icons, images, illustrations and
fonts—to explain a topic in a compelling and easy-to-understand
way.
The infographic above also showcases the statistics and percent-
ages in a visual form using radials and a donut chart. So even if
you don’t read the text above, you’ll still get the picture.
REMEMBER: In infographics, especially those that include lots of
data, ALWAYS include citations.
Why should you use Infographics?
There’s a reason why infographics are so popular—they’re fun,
engaging and super easy to share. Plus, they have tons of bene-
fits for all kinds of content creators, including businesses, educa-
tors and nonprofits.
• Marketers can use infographics to drive more website traffic, in-
crease visibility and brand awareness, and boost engagement.
• Educators and trainers can use infographics to explain difficult
concepts or break down complex information to make it easier to
understand.
• Nonprofits can use infographics to spread awareness about a
cause or social issue.
Generally, infographics are used for one or more of the following
reasons:
/ Illustrating data: Present statistics, facts and figures visually using
charts, graphs and other graphic tools.

/ Simplifying a complex subject:Explain difficult concepts with the help

of illustrations and visual cues.
/ Drawing a comparison: Visually compare two or more products, ser-
vices, features, brands or concepts.
/ Creating awareness: Spread word about an important cause or create
brand awareness and visibility.
/ Summarizing longer content: Repurpose long videos, blog posts and
reports into bite-sized infographics.

TYPES OF INFOGRAPHICS
• Statistical Infographics
- Statistical infographics make use of typography, charts and graphs to
present research, facts and figures in a visual way. This helps make data
look more interesting and easier to digest than a bunch of plain numbers
or tables.
• Informational Infographics
 • - Informational Infographics use a mix of text and visual elements
to explain or simplify a topic, or guide readers through a series of
steps. The example explains the tips to keep one’s chin up with the
help of a colorful informational infographic that’s easy to follow and
fun to read.

• Process Infographics
- Process infographics usually make use of flowcharts, diagrams and
even timelines to guide readers through a series of steps or to help
simplify the decision-making process. Here’s an example of a process
infographic template:

• Timeline Infographics
- Timeline infographics are useful for presenting information in a chrono-
logical order. Whether you’re visually showcasing your brand history or
showing how something has evolved over time, a timeline infographic
can help you out.

• Anatomical Infographics
- Looking to break down and explain the different parts of something?
An anatomical infographic can help you do just that. This type of info-
graphic has a labelled diagram format, which can help you highlight
and explain ingredients, product parts, characteristics, personality
traits and more.

PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
Propaganda refers to a type of message aimed at influencing
opinions and/or the behavior of people. Propaganda may provide
only partial information or be deliberately misleading. Propaganda
techniques are often found on television and radio, as well as
magazines and newspapers.
• BANDWAGON
As human beings, we have this innate desire to fit in. And that’s
exactly the kind of follow-the-herd mentality this technique follow.
Bandwagon propaganda is all about persuading the target audience to
take action. It’s about creating an urge amongst people to become a
part of the “in crowd”.
To enforce such a feeling, advertisers typically use phrases like,
“join the crowd” or “trending now” for their products and services.
Notice how Maybelline uses the phrase “America’s Favorite”?
That’s a way of persuading people to use the product because it
is loved by all of America.

• FLAG-WAVING
Flag waving is an attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing
so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a group, country
or idea.
• PLAIN FOLKS
Have you ever noticed how some brands use ordinary folks to promote
their products and services as opposed to celebrities? The ultimate goal
here is to demonstrate how the product is meant for everybody and will
provide value to everyone.
Today, buyers are on the lookout for REAL experiences instead of the
glossy images portrayed on television.
• OVERSIMPLIFICATION
Favourable generalities are used to provide simple answers to
complex social, political, economic, or military problems. An ex-
ample of this is the use of the word “worklessness” instead of un-
employment.
• TESTIMONIAL
Testimonial propaganda is popular advertising technique that
uses renowned or celebrity figures to endorse products and ser-
vices. Now in this case, when a famous person vouches for
something, viewers are likely to take account of the credibility and
popularity of that person.
This establishes trust and boosts the credibility of that particular
brand. Consequently, some brands may also use figures like doc-
tors and engineers (basically experts) to promote their products
and services.
• GLITTERING GENERALITIES
Glittering generalities is a propaganda technique where propa-
gandists use emotional appeal or/and vague statements to influ-
ence the audience. Advertising agencies thus use of phrases like
as “inspiring you from within” or “to kick-start your day” to create
positive anecdotes. This makes the product look more appealing,
resulting in better sales.
For better effect, brands may use hyperboles, metaphors or lyrical
phrases to attract more attention.
• AD NAUSEAM/REPETITION
This approach uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a
simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be taken as
the truth.
• EXPERIMENTAL
This technique pertains to the comparison of the prime brand to the rival
item.
• JINGLE
This technique pertains to the use of musical accompaniment to
promote a certain brand or advocacy.
• STORYLINE
This technique relates a story in-line with the product or program
to appeal to the emotions of the viewers.
 EDITORIAL CARTOONING
EDITORIAL
It’s a drawing that expresses a certain message or viewpoint—an
essay or a cartoon—that seeks to persuade and reflects the point
of view of the author, the media organization’s editors, or its pub-
lishers.
NEWS REPORT
A text that informs readers about current events by using facts
and interviews.
Editorial cartoon uses pictures and text to make a statement. Edi-
torial cartoons express opinions about a wide range of topics in
the news, such as politics or culture. Cartoonists often use im-
ages of well-known people, places and things to send a message.
Editorial cartoons can be challenging because you often need
background knowledge to understand them.

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN CREATING AN EDITORIAL

CARTOON:
1. Brainstorm ideas for your cartoon; you have to under-
stand the topic you choose.
- Think of possible ideas in your head that you could create,
and do not neglect ideas if they seem silly at first.
2. Roughly draw a sketch of the idea that you like the most.
 - Do a rough drawing/sketch on what you think is the best
that you thought of.
3. Make sure your idea shows symbolism, irony, exaggera-
tion, sarcasm, and/or multiple meanings of words.
- If you make your cartoon on just two people talking and use
none of the above techniques, that is not a political cartoon.
4. Do not make the political cartoon too easy to analyze.
- Make the cartoon understandable, but yet hard enough to
make the reader think about the topic and get their mind working.
5. When you are finished, look at it and see if it makes you
think to understand it
- Look at it when you’re done and see if it makes sense and
yet still challenging to analyze.
6. If needed, create a title.
- Make sure it is creative and/or necessary

Tips in Editorial Cartooning

• Give most importance in originality and clarity of your Car-
toon's ideas and artistry
• Select update/current interesting news and draw a caricature
of the personalities involved.
• Study professionally drawn editorial cartoons. STUDY
THEM- DON'T COPY
• Don't include so many ideas on your cartoon, decide on a
single point
• Use black ink- draw in bold lines and keep lettering large and
legible
• Draw in horizontal
• Don't do SLOGAN- limit the use of words and labels
 • Turn complex ideas into simple and understandable but
thought provoking
• Go for emotion- aim to trigger emotional response from the
readers
• Target local news
• Be careful in placing labels-change parts that can be libelous

Why do artists create editorial cartoons?

Artists create editorial cartoons to express their opinions about
events in the news.
How can an editorial cartoon be evaluated?
• A good editorial cartoon combines a clear drawing and good
writing.
• A good editorial cartoon expresses a recognizable point-of-
view or opinion.
• In the best instances, the cartoon cannot be read or under-
stood by only looking at the words or only looking at the pic-
ture. Both the words and the pictures must be read together
in order to understand the cartoonist’s message.
• Not all editorial cartoons are meant to be funny. Some of the
most effective editorial cartoons are not humorous at all. Hu-
mor is only one tool available to editorial cartoonists.
Editorial cartoons provide a window into history by showing us
what people were thinking and talking about at a given time and
place. Today’s editorial cartoons will provide the same record of
our own time.

Lesson 7: Communication Aids and

Strategies
 With the unexpected events that is happening now in the
world which abruptly disturbed the semester last school year, our
university is all prepared for a school year unlike any other- and
teachers, students, and parents will have to adjust to the neces-
sary help needed so education can be delivered to all. This lesson
will enhance your skills in the use of different tools of technology
while learning different strategies of communication.
While it is true that face to face learning is still prohibited,
communication’s scope is not only limited through this kind of
learning. With the continuous development in technology, people
can now communicate through the use of different online plat-
forms that help them relay the message they wanted to pass.
Lessons can now be accessed through these platform thus, mak-
ing learning more accessible.
Whatever platform you may have opted to use to continue
learning, I am sure you have heard and experience yourself the
reality that our world has changed, A lot! How seminars are now
called webinars, how we use LMS as a support learning platform
before now becomes our main platform, and how people now use
social media for business purposes. All of these is communicating
by applying different aids and strategies using tools of technology.

Lesson Proper:
You learned from the previous lessons that different tools
can be used to communicate certain messages. Aside from writ-
ten texts, communication tools include audio-visual aids that may
be developed through digital means. You may have done these
presentations effectively because you knew your purpose, audi-
ence, and context.

In the academic context, one way you have learned to communi-

cate is by writing effective compositions. Aside from sharing your
ideas in the written mode, some of your tasks in school can also
be shared through multimedia presentations.
‘A multimedia presentation refers to the integration of animation,
audio, graphics, text, and full-motion video through computer
hardware and software for education, entertainment or training”
http://www.businessdictionary.com). Bear in mind that you are not
expected to incorporate all of these elements; however, you need
to integrate at least three of them in one presentation. Similar to
the process of writing a paper, making a multimedia oral presen-
tation involves three stages: 1) planning the presentation; 2) deliv-
ering the presentation; and 3) evaluating the presentation. Al-
though this process is similar in most oral presentations, the con-
texts that require you to present may vary.

Types of Presentations
a) Individual Presentation
This involves one person who shares relevant information
about one’s research or work. This type of presentation
culminates in an open forum that allows the audience to ask the
presenter certain relevant questions.

b) Group Presentation
This involves at least three members who take turns in
sharing relevant information on a single topic that forms
the group research. This also leads to an open forum or a Q & A
with the audience.

c) Panel Presentation
This involves around three to six members with a modera-
tor, the members called panelists, present different topics
that are based on a similar theme. Panelists do not necessarily
belong to the same research team. At the end of the
presentation, the moderator facilitates the discussion between the
panelists and the audience.

d) Workshop Presentation
This involves one or two members who act as facilitators
to give participants a chance to experience how a
specific skill, technique or concept can be employed; this is usu-
ally done with a small group.
e) Poster Presentation
This manner of presentation employs the use of a poster
in showing one’s work. The audience views the posters
on display while the presenter stands next to it to respond to
questions or comments from the viewers.

f).Individual / Group Demonstration

This involves one or more members who demonstrate
how something is done or how something is used in a specific
context.

Preparing Audio-Visual Presentation

Planning a Presentation

• Knowing Your Purpose:

What is the objective of the presentation? Why is it rele-
vant? What will your audience gain by watching the presentation?
 • Analyzing Your Audience:
Who is your target audience? What are their age range?
Are they also students like you? Are they professionals in the field
of your study? What are their interests? How is your pre-
sentation relevant to them?

• Making Sense of Your Context:

What is the venue of your presentation? What is the occasion? Is
it a formal event? What guidelines have been given, if any?
What considerations and adjustments should you make
about the materials, design, content and delivery of the
presentation?
• Constructing Your Presentation slides
The use of slides is crucial in delivering an effective presentation.
You can create slides with the help of software like Power-
Point, Keynote or Prezi. In “How 10 Give an Academic
Talk, v5.1,” Paul N. Edwards suggests the following:

About Presentation Software

Make slide extremely concise and visually un-
cluttered. Slides should be seen as maps not as territories.
They are tracking devices that let both you and your audience fol-
low the flow of the talk. Therefore, hey must not be overfilled. Six
lines of text per slide are plenty. Nine lines is a lot. Twelve lines
are pretty much unreadable. Bullet points should be no more
than two to six words – and they should NOT be complete sen-
tence.
If you need more text, use more slides. One of
the beauties of software is that you can make as many slides as
you want. I’ve seen extremely effective presentations with only
one word on most slides, only one image on many others. Why
cram one slide full of text when you can make two or three unclut-
tered slides instead.
 Use images. People are visual creatures, and the old
adage that a picture is worth a thousand words is especially apro-
pos in presentations. Pictures, graphs, charts, and other image
can be extremely helpful. As with text, keep them simplified and
uncluttered. Also, avoid dark images that won’t show up well on a
screen.
Always choose white or light-colored slide
backgrounds. Why? To see light text on dark slides. You’ll
have to turn down the lights, or even turn them off. This makes it
hard to see your notes, the podium, etc. Worse, it will tend to put
your audience to sleep. Really. By contrast, dark text on light –
colored slides can usually be read with lights on and shades
open. Don’t let your host or anyone else, manage the lighting for
you- tell them you prefer to leave the lights on. If you can see it,
your audience can probably see it too. If in doubt, work to the
back of the room and check.
Keep the glitz factor low. Fades, transitions, back-
grounds, sound effects and so on can be a real pitfall. Glitzing up
your presentations can turn into a serious time sink, detracting
from the far more important time you spend on content. Also, they
can give your audience the impression that you care more about
surface than substance. Finally, they can cause breakdowns during
the presentations if they work as you expect them to- whirl are often. Noth-
ing irritates an audience more than watching somebody fiddle
frantically with a computer in the middle of a talk. So keep every-
thing basic, at least until you’ve completely mastered the soft-
ware. Always practice the final version.
Talk to the audience, not the screen. Everyone
else is staring at the screen, so you may find yourself drawn to
stare at it too. If you do this, the audience will be looking at your
back and they won’t be able to hear you. Instead, have your lap-
top, or a paper version of your notes in front of you. Speak from
that, rather from the slides on the screen. This takes practice and
more practice.

Delivering the presentation

Depending on the type of presentation you will make, you
need to know and understand your role as a speaker. Are you go-
ing to be the only speaker who will present everything and ad-
dress your audience ‘s queries after? Are you one of several
speakers in a team? If so, are you the man speaker? Are you go-
ing to start or end the presentation? Whatever your role is; you
need to remember that you have to own the stage once you are
up there. Here are some tips from Paul N. Edwards (2013)

Some Rule of Thumb

Usually Better Usually Worse
Talk Read
Stand Sit
Move Stand still
Vary the pitch of your voice Speak in a monotone
Speak loudly, facing the audi-
Mumble, facing downward
ence
make eye contact Stare at your laptop
Focus on main points Get lost in details
Use outlines, images and
Have no visual aids
charts
Finish within your time limit Run overtime
Summarize your main points Start without an overview. Trail
 at the beginning and end off without a conclusion
Notice your audience and re-
ignore audience behavior
spond to its needs
Emulate your advisor, even if
Emulate excellent speakers
he/she gives lousy talks.

In making effective presentations, Baker (2011) suggests that you

take the control of the material, the audience, and yourself. First,
make sure you have sufficient knowledge on your topic. How well
do you know your subject matter? Can you present without read-
ing your notes? Do you have credible and reliable information
from purposeful research? Remember that you must demon-
strate credibility as a presenter. Aside from knowing and under-
standing your topic, you also need to know who your target audi-
ence is. Learn as much as you can about them. Are they older,
younger, or the same age as you? Are they experts in the field?
How can your presentation capture and sustain their levels of in-
terest and attention? Lastly you need to take control of yourself.
Remember that although you will use multimedia elements, you
are your best visual aid. So you need to prepare emotionally, psy-
chologically and intellectually for the presentation. To be an effec-
tive communicator, use your voice, eyes and body effectively. Be
mindful of the time allotted for your presentation and stick to it.
Avoid doing anything that feels unnatural to you. Feel comfortable
on stage and in front of the audience. Establish and maintain eye
contact. Make sure you practice as it will go a long way.

Evaluating and Reflecting on the Presentation

Being an effective communicator does not happen overnight. Like
any successful individual, one goes through a process that in-
volves looking back in order to learn from experience prepare for
the next similar task. In the context of oral presentations, here are
some questions to help you evaluate and reflect on your experi-
ence:
• How did | perform as a speaker? Did I fulfill the role effec-
tively?
• How did I communicate my message to my audience? Did
my presentation make any visible impact on them?
• What should I continue to do effectively?
• What should I improve on for next time?