MY ORIGINAL CREATIV

Basic Computer Skills

In this role, you will provide maintenance of the computer desktop environment by analyzing
requirements, resolving problems, installing hardware and software solutions, and supporting the
internal IT Helpdesk. You will be responsible for administration and internal support of the
Company’s PCs, printers, servers, and related equipment. Tasks include end user support, license
tracking, and performing PC maintenance, upgrades and configurations.

Simplified Computer Notes\Computer Generations.docx

Roba

BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

How Computers Work

Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input devices such as
thekeyboard, disks, or through other computers via network connections
or modems connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves information off disks.

Output: Output Devices displays information on the screen (monitor) or the printer and
sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may have
occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be input. The
output device also saves information on the disk for future use.

Processing: The CPU or central processing unit is sometimes called the Control Unit and
directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessor or the Arithmetic-
Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons. The memory or RAM temporarily stores
information (files and programs) while you are using or working on them. The BIOS or basic
input/output system controls the dialogue between the various devices.

Keyboard Layout and Data Entry

ENTER or RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter also
processes commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and submitting a
form.

DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of the cursor
and all highlighted (or selected) text.

BKSP or BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all hightlighted text.

SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right

SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper character on keys
with two characters on them

CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when caps lock is
on)

TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually adjustable). Tab
moves to the next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous field).
Roba

ESC or ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box

ARROW KEYS - Moves the cursor around document without changing text

FUNCTION KEYS or F KEYS - Access commands by themselves or in combination with the

threecommand keys; CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT

Command or Special Keys

Command keys normally do nothing on their own but work in combination with other keys.
Each piece of software uses the command keys differently though there is a move to
standardize some functions. The Control key or Ctrl is often used to access commands.
The Alternative key or Alt is often used to access menus. The Shift key is used to type
CAPITAL LETTERS. As well the command keys are all used to move through documents and edit
text faster and easier. As well many computers have Special keys designed specifically for the
particular computer. Apple computers have the Apple keys and Macs have Command keys.
Many keyboards now have a Windows key specifically for Windows 9x and newer systems.
Many older computers also have special keys used for a variety of different functions.

Some Notebook or Laptop keys are left out because of space limitations and they usually have
aSpecial function key which allows other keys to double for the missing ones.

Basic Typing Rules

Place one space between each word, after a punctuation mark and at the end of a sentence.
Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Use capitals for names, addresses, provinces and
countries, places, organizations, businesses, associations, schools, colleges, universities, days
of the week, months, holidays, nationalities, ethnic groups and languages.

Learning the keyboard is the first step to learning computers. Learning involves practice. It
really is as simple as that. There are two kinds of typing.

The first is called Touch Typing. The Touch Typist uses the Home Keys (asdf for the left hand
andjkl; for the right) and all the fingers on both hands as well as the thumbs for the Space Bar
Roba

while typing. There are many commercial and public domain programs that are designed to
teach this method.

The other method is some times called 'Hunt and Peck' or depending on finger strength 'Search
and Destroy'. This involves using one or more fingers on one or two hands to type. It is a
perfectly acceptable way of using a computer and many people get along fine with this
technique.

Keyboard Symbols

The following chart displays the character symbols, name and Latin-1 number on a standard
keyboard in their approximate position on the keyboard. Most characters from any Roman
based language can be created on any computer using the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange or ASCIIusing a single byte. Most computers and software also
recognized American National Standards Institute's (ANSI) formatting standards as well. View
the entire ISO Latin -1 Character Set.

Health and Safety

Health and Safety is crucial to the effective operation of a computer. Stress is widely accepted
as a common and possibly the most dangerous aspect of using a computer.

It is possible to use a computer safely if a few simple rules are maintained.

Musculoskelatal problems can occur when improper office equipment is used. Chairs should be
adjustable so that legs are at a right angle. The back should have good support for the spine
and lower back. The seat should swivel and be made from fabric that is porous.

Eye strain can be caused by staring at a fix object for extended periods of time (like a
computer). People who use glasses may have to get their prescriptions changed and people
who use bifocals can find that the line interferes with the screen and trifocals triple the
problem. Regular users of computers may develop focusing problems. Temporary colour
distortion has also been reported.

A safe working environment is crucial. Ventilation is an integral part of the new

technological workplace. Though standards are set by the manufacturer of computer
equipment the modern office has many different pieces of equipment. All electronic
equipment emit some level ofelectromagnetic field which, on it's own, most likely isn't a
concern but when combined with other equipment can create hazardous working
Roba

environments. Pregnant women should take extra care when working around electromagnetic
fields. Like any piece of equipment, computers should havescheduled maintenance.

Stress is caused by many things including poor or inadequate training, monitoring, fear of new
technology, lack of control over work, physical problems, hardware problems causing delays,
poor layout of work space and the myriad of other problems that people experience that
combine to create stressful situations.

Time away from the computer during the work day is crucial! This gives the body a chance
to stretch and gives the eyes a chance to rest. Breaks should be scheduled and followed with
great discipline. Computers, even more so than television, have a mesmerizing effect on the
user so that it is easy to work right through breaks without noticing.

Some thought should also go into how you get rid of old equipment. Try to avoid throwing old
computer and other electronic equipment into the garbage. Instead find a local company or
community group that can recycle the old equipment.

There are many other issues to be discussed around computer health and safety but it is
important to understand that there are problems and solutions to those problems that the
user, administrator and manager must address.

Using Software

As stated earlier software is anything created and/or stored on a computer or computer

storage device (like a disk). The work that is produced using an application or program is also
software and is usually referred to as a file or a document.

The following section looks at using files. It

covers saving, printing and exiting files, compressing andbacking up your files, managing files
and folders, using menus, installing software, using the desktopand working with software
applications. It provides a basic introduction to word
processing,spreadsheets, database, multimedia programs and desktop publishing.

Last update: March 2, 2011

Files & Documents

Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your computer, you will have to
decide what to do with it. You could print it right away using a Print command and then Exit
or Quit your program without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your
document for future use.
 Roba

The computer saves its information on a disk, most often the hard disk, and the users
determines where and when the file or document is saved.

Saving Files or Documents

In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most modern
software place this command in a menu which you access with the mouse button or Alt key.
Each file must be given a filename so it can be found easily the next time it is needed.

Modern operating systems allow computer users to use filenames up to 256 characters. Mac
users, Windows 9X & NT/2000 and UNIX/LINUX (along with a few other) use long file
names but names using over 32 characters get unwieldy. It is better to use a directory or
folder to help describe them and keep common files together with shorter filenames.

Computers using older operating systems followed the 8.3 rule: a filename can only be 1 to
8characters long followed by a 1 to 3 character extension separated by a dot. Three character
extensions are common because of this.

Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension to filenames. These
extensions allow operating systems to recognize certain filenames and associate (match) them
to the program that created it.

As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk to store the file in.
Make sure that you are consistent and use a logical structure. Once you are sure you know
where the file is going to be stored press Enter on the keyboard or press the left mouse button
over the word Save orOkay to store the document on a disk, in the directory with
the filename you have chosen. Some software programs will automatically save files in specific
directory that is created when the program is installed (default settings). You can easily
changed these settings permanently using the applications Preferences or temporarily at the
point of saving the file.

Some common rules are:

 All files are saved on a disk or storage device.

 A disk is usually broken up into directories and sometimes into partitions.
 A directory or folder is a way of keeping like files in a common area.

A partitioned disk, though physically a single disk, is treated like separate disks and given a
separate drive letter (and/or name).

It is possible to save or move files anywhere that your computer can access. This includes disk
(or other storage devices) on your computer, to any directory or sub-directory on your
Roba

computer or on anetwork that your computer is connected to. Always make sure that you have
chosen the correct directory and filename before pressing Enter or choosing Save.

Printing

The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation is catching on and it is
possible to reduce paper consumption by using your computer more effectively. Having said
that many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out
documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs and applications allow
the user to print the information that is created in the program.

When choosing a printer consider the peripheral equipment that you will need as well as the
actual printer. Peripherals include paper, ribbons or ink cartridges, toner and
occasionally print heads.

You may have to adjust some of the settings for the printer to get the output you
want. Densityadjustments determine how much ink is placed on the paper or how many dots
per inch (DPI). Draftquality will print quicker but creates a fainter copy (less dense). Modern
Software has a Previewoption which show what the page will look like when it is
printed. Portrait prints the document up and down. Landscape prints the document on it's
side. Most software allows the user to adjust themargin width or the blank space at the top,
bottom, left and right edge of the paper.

A printer can be attached directly to your computer using a printer cable or connected through
a network. Though network printers can have their own modem it is common in a small or
home network that one computer is connected to the printer and the other computers on the
network send their print jobs through that computer.

Exit or Quit

It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating system before shutting
off the computer. It is a good idea to Quit a program when you are finished with it as it takes
upmemory. Exiting a program should free up the memory that the program was using. Having
a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be needed in another
project.

Exiting properly also saves the program settings so that when you return to the application the
changes and preference that were made will still be active.

Some programs have a backup feature and will try to recover documents and pages if your
computer crashes or there is a power failure. Once the computer is running properly open the
program to recover and save your documents.
Roba

Compression and Decompression

Most software you buy or get off the Internet is Compressed. Computers store information
in byteswhich are made up of on or off signals. The software applications that use these files
need to have all the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the file is stored they can be
modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape.

There are commercial and shareware programs that will compress and decompress files for
you. Some popular form of data compression are zip, tar or stuffit but there are others
available as well.

Programs are also available to compress and decompress your files as you or the application
you are using requires them. This can be a way of making more space available on a hard
drive. Windows comes with a program that will compress part of your hard disk. Be sure to
read the documentation before embarking on a project like compressing a hard drive.

Backing up Files

Computer errors and software failures happen occasionally so it is important to backup your
files and documents.

One simple way to backup your files is to copy them to a backup disk. If there are only a few
small files a floppy disk will work but if you are backing up lots of large files a cd/dvd burner,
a flash drive, a second hard drive or tape backup may be needed. You can use a software
program to do automate backups or do it manually. A manual backup usually involves dragging
the files or folders to the backup disk or tape to create the duplicate backup. There are
various methods of automated backup systems including disk imaging which duplicates the
entire contents of your disk and incremental backups which duplicates all changes. Backup
systems include redundant array of independent disks (RAID), continuous data protection (CDP)
and replication.

There are also online backup systems that provide space to store your backup files using the
internet.

Store your backup files in a safe place out of the sun and away from electro-magnetic devices
such as speakers and wires with strong electrical currents.

Every file that you create and plan to keep should be backed up. This includes word processing
documents, financial information, databases, photos, etc...

Some less obvious files that also need to be backed up are email, Internet Favorites or
Bookmarks, and Address Books. Check the help files in your email program on how to back up
Roba

email. Generally each folder name in your email program is a file containing the individual
email messages and copying these files to the backup disk or tape will be sufficient. Software
preferences such as customized menus and settings can also be backed up. Check your
software's help files to find out where these files are located.

A newer software version may be installed on the computer before ever needing the backups
so make sure that the newer programs can handle the older file format.

When to backup is an individual choice. A company should have a backup policy which explains
how and when data should be backed up. It all depends on how important the information is
and how difficult it would be to duplicate it in the event of a system failure. If the information
is critical, an automatic backup system that duplicates the documents immediately may be
needed. If the files are not critical a weekly backup may be all that is needed. It is impossible
to determine when a system failure will occur so it is better be cautious.

It is also a good idea to store a copy of your critical files in another location in the event of a
catastrophe.

The backed up data can then be used as an archive, to recover from a system failure or to
transfer data to a new computer system. Simply copy the files to the correct folder to restore
them. Backup software will have an automatic recovery feature that will restore the backed
up file automatically.

Last update: August 7, 2013

Folders & Directories

On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These directories

or folders could be compared to a filing cabinet. All files are stored in a
directory. Most hard disks have many directories or folders and files can
be stored in any of them.

Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories many levels down. The directory
immediately below the current directory is called the child directory. The directory
immediately above the current one is called the parent directory. The top of the directory
structure is called theroot directory.

When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer the installation process will
usually create a new directory or folder to store the application's files.

Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises. Older operating systems
require that the directory be emptied of files before it can be deleted. When removing a
directory always check before deleting it to make sure that it doesn't contain files you need.
 Roba

You can easily move files from one folder or directory to another using menu commands, drag
& drop using the mouse or a file utility. It is important to understand your computer's
directory structure as a file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory.

One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system. Modern operating
systems address the 'filing problem' by automatically creating a (My) Documents folder. By
saving files or documents in this folder you will always know where to look for your files.
Create sub-folders within this folder for your main projects. Examples could be a separate
folder for your correspondence called Letters or a folder for images called Graphics or
Pictures. The main Documents folder can also be renamed to what every name you want it to
be called. If your operating system doesn't automatically create this folder simply create your
own Documents folder to save your documents in.

Last update: March 2, 2011

<< ^^ >>

 Home

 Menus


 Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your software. Though
each program has it's own menu, modern software developers have begun establishing
some standardization in how they create their menus. Many programs have a menu
called File which controls things like Opening,Saving and Printing your file
and Exiting the program. Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main editing
commands like Cut, Copy and Paste.
 The items on the menu are Commands or the features of the program. You choose the
command that you want with the keyboard, mouse, trackball or touchpad. Commands
control the operation of the software.
 Menu bars are usually positioned at the top of the screen and are accessed by moving
the cursor to the menu and pressing the button (left button if there are two). This
displays a pull down menu with a number of commands or features. Depending on how
the program works either let go of the button and move to the command you want
then press the button again to choose it or while holding down the button, move to the
command and let go to choose it.
 Menus can also be controlled through the keyboard. The most common way of
accessing the menu through the keyboard is by pressing the Alt key and using
the Arrow or Cursor Movement keys to move through the menu items, then
pressing Enter to choose the item you want. Many menu items can also be accessed
Roba

using Hot key combinations. One common keyboard combination is to first tap the Alt
key and then press letter key for the command you want.
 Menus are created in a hierarchy. Some menu items branch out to give even more
choices. Some menu items open Dialog Boxes that allow you to choose from a number
of different options.
 Dialog boxes allow computer users to select different
options. Some dialog boxes have 2 or more Tabs which
can be clicked to choose more options. Once the
options have been chosen press Okay to apply the
options. Some dialog boxes have an Apply button which
will apply the options that you have chosen without
closing the dialog box. Choose Cancel to close the
dialog box without applying the changes selected. Note
that options set with the Apply button cannot be
canceled this way.
 Modern software places the most popular commands on
a toolbar for easier access. Simply click the left mouse button over the menu item to
access a particular command. These tool bars can usually be customized and often
allow the user to move or Tear Off the menu and drag them to a preferred location
or Dock on the screen. Menus can also be customized by adding or removing
commands.
 Windows has a context sensitive menu that is activated with the right button. When
the right mouse button is clicked over an object on the screen or area of the screen, a
specific menu with commands related to that object will be displayed. Click the left
mouse button on the command to choose it.
 Last update: August 7, 2013

Installing New Software

Most software sold today has an automated install sequence that is activated with the press of
a button. The installation process will create a directory to store the files related to the new
program, uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself the desktop
(Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to other parts of the computer
and register itself with the operating system by updating the registry. Some programs will
associate themselves to a certain filename extension.

Older software may not have this option. The installation procedure is the same though. First
create a folder or drawer to store the program and it's related files in. This makes it easy to
find them and minimizes file clutter in the main directory. Copy the files from the installation
disk to the folder that you will be running the program from. A lot of Software
is compressed and you may need to uncompress it before you can use it. You then can create
a new item, create a short cut to the program or add it to your desktop menu or utility
program.
 Roba

Uninstalling software can also be an automatic process. Windows users can access the uninstall
feature by choosing Add/Remove Software. A list will display all the programs that are
currently installed on the computer. Clicking on one of the programs will give you the option
to remove it. Be certain that you want to remove the program and that you have the
installation disk if you may want to install it at another time.

Unistalling programs will not always remove everything that was installed. Files that where
created with the program will not be removed. Also some fonts and clipart may be left behind.
Some programs do not remove their registry settings.

Last update: August 7, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

home desktop

Search form

Search
SEARCH THIS SITE

 Sign up

 Login

 computers

 using software

 internet
 Roba

 advanced topics

 web development

 intro content

<< ^^ >>

The Desktop

The Desktop offers many features that make using your computer easier. You can easily start
programs or applications, copy and move files from one place to another and drag and drop
files and program where you want them on the computer or even on to a program's icon to
open a file. Open and Save menus are streamlined to allow all applications to have the same
basic features plus program specific features.

Operating systems are often backwardly compatible with older system so that older programs
will run. Usually when new programs are created they are designed to work with the newest
operating system to allow them to use all the newest features.

Desktop

Menu

The Start Button or Apple menu starts programs, opens documents, and access most parts of
the system. Windows Program and Apple Dock menus can be customized as needed.

 Program or Dock displays a list of the programs that are installed through Windows and
available to use
 Documents displays a list of the last 15 documents used allowing the user to open them
directly from this menu
 Settings displays system components, such as printers, control panel and taskbar
 Find/Search has search abilities to find files, folders and phrases in documents on your
computer
 Help displays help topics broken up into contents, index and find components
 Run allows you to start a program from a command line
 Shut down shuts down the computer, restarts the computer or logs you off a network
 Favorites and Active Desktop is an option available to Windows 98+ (or Internet Explorer 4x)
users

Taskbar (Windows) or

Dock (Apple)
 Roba

displays the program running and windows open

to bring a program or window to the front single click on the item on the
taskbar or dock
right click in Windows and click hold in Apple to display a menu for the item
right click an open area or click hold the seperator for a Taskbar or Dock
menu
the Window system tray on the right of the Taskbar displays indicators for
certain tasks
(for instance a printer icon will appear when the printer is engaged)
click and drag the Taskbar to the top, bottom, left or right and choose Dock
properties to place Dock on left, right or bottom
drag the Taskbar to extend it and the Dock to make it bigger
drag and icon to the Dock or Taskbar to add an alias or shortcut and drag
the icon off to remove it
the Dock and Taskbar can be hidden until needed
use Start/Settings/Taskbar to customize the Start menu properties and
choose Apple/Dock to change the Dock properties

Control Panel & System Preferences

 used to change system settings like screen savers, time, screen colours
 also used to add and remove programs, fonts add and make changes to hardware and software
settings

Computer

 displays all the components of the computer including disk drives and networks
 all parts of the computer can be accessed through My Computer's hierarchical structure
 double click on any icon to view the contents of a disk, folder or run a program

Windows & Finder

All programs, folders, tasks and most other operations open in a window.
 Roba

Windows are used to:

 share common attributes through out the entire system

 contain menus for File, Edit, View and Help which change depending on the task
o File
 open, rename, delete or change properties of files and folders
 Send To used to open files in a specified program
 create "Shortcuts"
o Edit
 move, copy and paste files and folders
 Undo the last change
o View
 change how files are displayed
 toggles Toolbar and Status bar (Microsoft)
 sorts files by choosing column name
 can be set system wide
o Help
 displays help topics for active application

Toolbar

 displays icon menu of main options

Status bar
 Roba

 shows current status of the window (Microsoft)

Shortcuts & Aliases

 can be created anywhere that is convenient to access a program, file or folder

 select item and choose Create Shortcut or Make Alias then drag or move it to where it is
needed
 use the right mouse button to drag the item to the target and choose Create Shortcut Here
from the menu that appears (Microsoft)
 when you delete a Shortcut or Alias the original application and its icon remain intact

Favorites

 collection of short cuts to documents, programs and websites

Programs & Features

Some Features

 Long file names - document names can now use names up to 255 characters including spaces
using any character except \ / : * ? " < > |
 Plug and Play - many hardware devices like CDs, tape drives, upgrade cards, etc... will
automatically be detect and can be automatically install on the system
 32 bit Preemptive Multitasking - allows users to leave a task running while working on
another
 Right Mouse button - used to display event specific or context sensitive menus (Microsoft)
 Drag and Drop feature allows files or other information to be dragged from one area and
dropped in a new location or into an other application
 Active Windows - make your Desktop behave like a web site (Microsoft)
 Software Update - automates updating software through the Internet
 System Information or Profile - provides information about the computer system

Using Help

 to get help about a specific procedure click the help button in the top right corner of the
screen
 Contents list general topics grouped by subject
 Index list specific topics accessed by scroll bars or typing the topic
 Find creates an index of words in Help and allows searches by word or phrase
 click Help Topics to return to the Help menu
 Troubleshooters will step you through a series of steps to solve computer problems (Microsoft)

Microsoft Explorer Bar

 Roba

 Folder, Search, Favorites, Radio and History information is displayed on the left side of the
window
 click a folder or link to display contents on the right
 click plus to expand or show the sub-folders and minus to hide them

Using Old DOS Programs

 many older DOS program will run under Window

 the PIF editor is replaced with a Properties dialogue box
 note that some DOS programs cannot run in a window and require a full screen

Using Older Software in MAC OS 10.x

 When Apple OS 10.x tries to open an older version of a program is will run it in Classic mode

Switching between tasks (programs/applications/folders)

 depending in your system's resources you can have many programs running at once and easily
switch from one to another using various methods
 while hold down Alt, tap the Tab key to cycle through a menu of running tasks
 click on the taskbar or dock icon of the task you want to bring it to the front

Hints & Shortcuts

The right mouse button is a great feature of the Windows operating system and can be a real
time saver. Right click on;

 an empty space of the desktop to change Desktop Properties,

 My Computer to display or modify your computer's properties,
 Network Neighborhood to display and modify your network properties,
 Start menu item to modify it,
 right click an icon to work with it, etc.

On a Mac hold the mouse button down to display a context menu.

Backing up files

Many backup options are done automatically by the computer which will provide various
options to recover them in a crisis but a hard drive error can happen at any time and without
warning. Be sure to back up all your personal and business data on a regular basis. If you have
a second hard drive files can be backed up to that drive. A CD-R can also be used to make a
back up or a collection of floppy disks can also be used. When backing up files don't forget
 Roba

your email and address book. Some people also have extensive collections of favorites that can
be backed up as well. Check your email, address book and browser for information on backing
up these files. Some programs have an export feature that can be useful when making back
ups.

Different Methods of Opening Documents and Programs

 Open a program and use the Open command in the File menu
 Use the Documents command in the Start or Apple menu to open a recently used document
 Use the Find command in the Start menu or the Sherlock program on a Mac
 Double click on an icon in a Folder
 Right click and choose Open
 Choose Start, Run and type the application (and path)

Creating Folders

 Use the New Folder option in the File menu (or right click) to create a folder in the active
window

Moving and Deleting Files

 Use Drag & Drop to drag the file or folder from one folder to another
o with the right button a menu will appear allowing you to Copy or Move the file or folder
(Windows)
o files on the same disk are moved (hold Ctrl to copy)
o files on another disk are copied (hold Ctrl to move)

Use the Edit menu to Cut the file and Paste it in the destination folder

Hold down Shift while Deleting a file to by pass the Recycle Bin and permanently delete files

Multiple Selection

 to select files sequentially click on the first file and move to the last file, hold down shift and
click on the last file in the sequence
 to select files non-sequentially click on the first file and hold Ctrl while clicking the rest
 the two methods can be used in combination

Organizing your files and icons

It is important to develop a filing system early. Create a folder on your Desktop to store your
data. Create sub-folders within that folder to sort the various documents, image, sounds and
 Roba

other files that you create and use. A new folder can be created easily and given a logical
name which will help organize data.

 My Documents or Documents is the default folder created by the operating system and can be
used as is or rename

Troubleshooting

 Both Windows and Mac have a number of tools built in to assist in solving computer problems
 Choosing Help allow Window users to access Troubleshooting Wizards that provide step-by-step
suggestions
 System Information under System Tools provide valuable information and access to other
system tools in Window
 System Profiler under Application, Utilities provide information about the Mac
 Running a Disk Scan occasionally or on a schedule can solve many simple errors

Word Processing

A word processor is a program used to type documents. Documents can be saved, closed and
theopened again to continue working on them.

The keyboard of a word processor is similar to that of a typewriter, but its capabilities extend
far beyond the typewriter's. For example, you don't have to press the Return or Enter key at
the end of every line - in word processing, the line "wraps around" when it reaches the margin
you've set and allows you to continue typing without stopping, you only press Enter (or Return)
when you want to start a new paragraph or insert blank lines. If you make a mistake while
typing use backspace ordelete to erase it.

There are many commercial word processing programs including Open Office Writer ,

Microsoft Word , Corel WordPerfect and others. Windows comes with WordPad to
edit and format documents and NotePad to edit text. Mac OS X comes
with TextEdit or SimpleText in previous version. Open Office is an Open Source office
application that can be downloaded for free at openoffice.org.
Roba

Editing functions such as inserting, deleting, moving, and copying characters, words, lines,
and evenblocks of text are fast and easy with only a few keystrokes. Advanced programs
will number pages,repeat material in the same place on every page automatically, and check
the spelling of every word in your document. You print your document only after it looks
exactly the way you want it to. Finally, copies of your documents can be stored on a disk,
enabling you to retrieve, edit, and print them at any time.

The text appears at the cursor. Use the space bar to place spaces between words. Use
backspace to erase to the left of the cursor and delete to erase to the right of the cursor. Use
Enter (or Return) to move the cursor down a line.

Word processors allows you to type your text in Bold, Italics or Underline. This is useful when
you wish to highlight some word or line in a document. To activate Bold, Italics or Underline
click the icon button on the Toolbar, type the text that you wish to have highlighted then
press Toolbar icon again when you are finished. The indicator on the Toolbar will appear
highlighted as long as the highlight style is on.

The text can also be modified by changing the Font. A font is the shape and size of a
character of text. The three main types are serif (with tails); sans-serif (without tails);
and script (similar to handwriting). Text colours can also be changed.

Text can also be indented and tab settings added which modify where the text is placed on
the page. Rather than press the space bar more than once set tabs where you want the cursor
to move to.
Roba

The page can be modified by changing the margins, adding headers or footers (repeating text
on each page), page numbering, graphic images and various other ways.

The Insert key toggles between Insert and Typeover. Sometimes an indicator on the bottom
of the screen will display the typing mode you are in. Normally, any text after the cursor will
be pushed across the screen (inserted) as new characters are typed in. With Typeover on the
new character will just replace the old character at the cursor.

Editing text is quite easy once you get used to it. Select text that you want to modify with the
mouse or by holding down Shift and using the arrow keys. Holding Control (CTRL) will select
text one word at a time.

Once you have the text selected use Cut (Ctrl-X) to cut the text off the page and into
a clipboard. Use Copy (Ctrl-C) to transfer a copy of the selected text to the clipboard.
Use Paste (Ctrl-V) to paste the text into the document at the cursor. The Windows clipboard
will only hold a single selection of text which is replaced with each new cut or copy.

If you make a mistake most modern programs have an Undo feature (Crtl-Z). Many also have a
Redo feature.

Most word processors will check your spelling and many have thesauruses and will check
yourgrammar. Don't rely on the editing tools to replace a good proof reading though! (as this
editor tends to do ;)

atabase

A Database is a collection of information stored in a way that makes it easy

to retrieve, modify andsearch. A database can be stored in a single file with all the
information stored together in a single table which is called a flat database or stored in
multiple tables with some common access information referred to as a relational database.

There are many commercial database programs including Microsoft Access , Corel
Paradox, FileMaker, IBM DB and others. There are also an Open Source databases such as

OpenOffice.org Base and MySQL.

Each person or item in a database has it's own Record. Each piece of information about that
person or record are stored in Fields. All the information in all the records makes up the
Database.
 Roba

Each Field can have information typed into it. Use the Tab key to move forward through the
Field and the Shift-Tab to move backwards. Many databases also allow users to use the arrow
keys to move around as well.

Though many fields only allow a single line of input some allow multiple lines. When the
cursor reaches the bottom of a field with multiple lines the text will scroll upwards to show
any information that is below the line of sight. If there is more text in the field than there is
room on the screen use the arrow keys to move the cursor through the text.

It is possible to mask individual fields to make data entry easier. For instance the field for
phone numbers can be formatted to only allow numbers to be entered.

There are many different ways to use information in a database. In order to use it you can
search for and display information using various filters to allow or disallow certain records to
display. This is referred to as a query.

The data can be arranged to create reports and print the information in a specific format.

It is crucial that the information typed into a Database or information updated

be saved before leaving the program. Many data errors can be traced back to power-failures or
accidental computer shut downs.

The data can also be used by other programs for things like invoicing and form letters. The
data from a database can be merged with forms created in other programs for a wide range of
uses.

When setting up a database make sure to take a bit of time to decide what fields are needed
and how they relate to other information. For instance, if an address is required does it need
to be broken down into a number of fields such as street, apartment, city, etc? Does the street
need to be broken down into house number, street name, street type, etc? Does a phone
number need a separate field for the area code? Taking time to decide what is needed before
beginning a database project is better than spending many frustrating hours modifying the
data in the future.

Last update: December 10, 2010

<< ^^ >>

 Home

 Spreadsheet
 Spreadsheets are used to work with financial information. Spreadsheets are laid out
in numbered rows and lettered columns. Where the row and column intersect is
Roba

called a cell. The cell is referred to by the letter and number of the intersection called
the cell address. The first cell in a chart is at the intersection of column A and row 1
and is referred to as Cell A1.

 Some commercial Spreadsheets are Microsoft Excel , Corel QuatroPro , Lotus

123 and others. OpenOffice.org Calc is an Open Source office program that is free
to download and use. Tax and accounting software are also
spreadsheets but are designed to provide tools and utilities
which help get the specific job done. A B C
 When working with numbers in a spreadsheet, refer to the cell 1
addresses when creating mathematical formulas. This is 2
because any changes you make to a single cell will be 3
automatically updated without having to reenter the numbers
in the rest of the cells.
 Use the plus sign (+) to add; the minus (-) sign to subtract; the asterix (*) to multiply;
and the back slash (/) to divide.
 Spreadsheets use formulas to create simple to complex mathematical equations. A
sheet can be built to handle the financial needs of businesses.
 Most of the standard editing features are available in the spreadsheet such as Bold,
Italics, Underline, Move, Copy and Paste.
 Information from a spreadsheet can be displayed in chart form.
 Most spreadsheet programs include templates to handle many of the average financial
needs of a home user or small business. These templates can be modified or
customized to personalize them for your own needs.
 Most spreadsheet programs allow users to work on many sheets at once and access
information from any of the sheets in the workbook group.


Multimedia

Graphic Images, Sounds & Animation

Graphics

Computer graphics are anything that can be displayed on the screen except the text and
sometimes even text falls into the graphics category if it is saved in a graphical format.

Commercial graphics programs

include; Corel PhotoPaint Corel Draw
Roba

Macromedia Macromedia
Fireworks Freehand

Adobe Photoshop Adobe Illustrator

LView ULead

...and many others

There are basically two types of computer graphic, bitmapped and vector/structured.

Bitmapped graphics are images that are mapped to the monitor or

screen. The screen is made up of tiny dots called pixels. These dots can
display various colours depending on the type of computer hardware and
software you have. Using shades of red, green and blue (RGB) an image
can be displayed on the screen by mapping different colours to the
screen in different sequences.

Vector graphics use objects created from mathematical formulas to represent things
like lines, curves, fills, line thickness, etc. to create the image.

Each type of graphic has it's own advantages and disadvantages. Older versions of HTML were
only able to recognizes bitmapped graphics so most graphics created for the Internet, using
standard HTML, are created or converted to a bitmap format. The newest version of HTML or
XHTML is able to display vector graphics but not all browsers are able to display these
graphics.

Within each of the two main types there are dozens of different formats.

Graphics formats are distinguished by their filename extensions.

The three main bitmapped format graphics used on the Internet are .gif, .jpeg (.jpg)
and .png. There are many others including .bmp, .tiff (.tif), .pcx, .ppm, .tga and a
host of others.
Roba

Some of the structured formats are .ai, .cmx, .eps, .wpg, .cgm and a host of others.

Bitmapped graphics can be created and modified in a paint program and vector or structured
graphics can be created and modified in a draw program.

The main tools in a graphics program allow you to select a section of a picture, erase part of
a picture, fill a defined area, select a colour, magnify a section, draw free hand, draw with
various tools such as a straight line; a curved line; a rectangle; an oval; and a polygon. You
can also modify a drawing by changing the size, colour, placement, and, depending on the
program, hundreds of other modification.

Sound

To listen to sounds on your computer it must have a sound card and audio software installed.
Most internet browsers will play sounds using a plugin which will play the sound directly from
the website. Some audio (and video) plugins will stream the multimedia content so that the
sound and/or video will start playing before it has completely transferred to your computer.

Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) or more commonly MP3 is a multimedia format which is
an attempt to create a standardization among the various formats available. MPEG has made it
possible to place audio content on your website without having it sound tiny and hollow or
taking an extreme amount of time to download. There are many different formats for sound
including; Microsoft's .wav, Sun's .au & .snd, RealNetwork's RealAudio , .ra(*), and various
others.

You may have heard .mid files play when visiting various websites. Musical Instruments Digital
Interface (MIDI) files are basically sound tracks which use a collection of sounds contained in
the .mid file to play a tune.

To create a sound file you will need an audio program. You can then record with a microphone
or off of a prerecorded medium. Your computer will need to have a sound card properly
installed and a speaker to hear your recording. You can save the sound file to play back later.

Animation and Video

With the advent of faster computers comes animation and video.

Though it has been around for years the modern computer has made it
possible to include animation in programs without causing them to slow down (much). As with
every multimedia format there are a number of types.
 Roba

You may have seen .gif animations on this website. A GIF animation is a series of separate
images orframes that display one after the other to give the impression of movement. Other
formats are Audio Visual Interleave's .avi, the before mentioned mpeg, Microsoft's Media
Player .wmv, Apple's Quick Time .qt, .aif(*) & .mov, RealNetwork's RealVideo .rm(*), Adobe's
Flash which creates Shockwave .swf, and many websites use the programming
language JavaScript. There are various others as well.

There are various animation or multimedia players available for a free download off the
Internet.

To create animations, sounds or graphics you will need a program that has the capabilities you
want. Adequate storage space on the computer is also needed as animation and video files can
be large. Visit the various multimedia company websites to read up on their product to see if
they can do what you want. (Hint: to find a company website type "www.'replace this with the
companies name'.com"). Most companies offer free trials that you can download from their
website.

You should also be aware that most media content placed on the Internet is considered
published material and therefore copyright unless explicitly stated otherwise.

Last update: September 29, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Desktop Publishing

Desktop publishing (dtp) uses both word processing and graphics to produce publications and
presentations.

Some common dtp programs are MS Publisher and Quark Express. Both Adobe and Corel

have a number of programs that work like dtp programs. OpenOffice.org Draw is an
OpenSource free option.

Desktop publishing programs layout their documents in a series of slides that can contain text,
graphics and dynamic content. Content is added to each slide in a series which can be printed
or saved as a slide presentation. Sound and music can also be added to the presentation.
 Roba

This marks the end of the section on using software.

Last update: March 2, 2011

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Internet

The Internet or the Net is a collection of computers, all linked together, to share information
globally. It was first developed in the U.S. by two universities who were both working on the
same contract and wanted to share their data. They were faxing information back and forth
and then retyping it until they came up with a piece of software called Unix to Unix Copy
Program or UUCP.

The Internet was born and has mushroomed outward from that
point.

There are 4 things that are necessary to "get on the net" with a
fullgraphic interface (picture, sounds, animation, etc...).

 A computer - preferably with a fast processor and lots of memory

 A modem - preferably high speed digital (56,000 baud if high speed is
not available)
 Browser Software - often installed with your operating system or can
be downloaded off the Internet
 An Internet Service Provider (ISP) which is a service that connects
your home or office computer to the Internet

Once you are connected you will have access to Email, the World Wide Web (WWW), Social
Networks,File Transfer Protocol (ftp), Instant messaging, Search Engines, Ecommerce and
other Internet Services.

Last update: March 2, 2011

<< ^^ >>

 Home

 Feedback

Internet Browser
 Roba

An Internet browser is a program that locates websites for you and allows users to maneuver
around (surf) the World Wide Web and view web pages. Some of the more popular browsers

are MozillaFirefox and Microsoft's Internet Explorer. Mosaic was the first browser
and most modern browsers still use the basic model that the first browser used. Some other
browsers are Opera,Chrome, Safari, Netscape as well as dozens of others. Before graphic

browsers Lynx was the most popular browser and is still available for text browsing. New
browser are being developed and current browsers are constantly updating there programs. It
is extremely important to update your browser every once in a while to take advantage of
security and feature updates.

Type the url or web address of the website that you want to visit in the address bar of your
browser and press Enter or click Go. Collect your favorite websites by adding them to
your Favorites orBookmarks. To go to a Favorite or Bookmark, click on the menu and click on
the link.

Browser software can be download from the internet. Make sure that you are using the newest
version.

Last update: September 29, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Email

An email program controls sending, composing and receiving email. Most email programs can
also be used to read postings on newsgroups.

Email is the electronic equivalent of sending a letter through the mail. There are many
different mail reading programs or clients that control email but the basic functions are all the
same. An email address directs a message to the recipient.

Email addresses are made up of...

 the account name (often the users first initial and then the last name
(sometimes only 8 characters)
Roba

 then the @ symbol

 then the name of the user's ISP
 the last 3 characters describe the type of service for the top level
domain (TLD) name. For example .com stands for commercial
domain, .mil - U.S. military, .gov - U.S. government, .net - network,
etc...
 when an address has 2 characters it is a geographical top level domain
(gTLD). For example .ca - is a domain registered in Canada, .au - is a
domainregistered in Australia, .tv - is a domainregistered in Tuvla
 new TLDs are occasionally added
including; .biz, .info, .name, .asia, .mobi
 in 2013/14 dozens of TLDs are introducted
including: .africa, .berlin, .bid, .bike, .blog, .book, .buy, .buzz, .came
ra, .capetown, .career, .careers, .clothing, .club, .coffee, .constructio
n, .contractors, .diamonds, .directory, .domains, .durban, .email, .ent
erprises, .equipment, .estate, .foo, .futbol, .gallery, .gift, .graphics , .
guide, .guru, .holdings, .inc, .jetzt, .joburg, .kitchen, .kiwi, .land, .lig
hting, .llc, .london, .luxury, .menu, .music, .nyc, .onl, .online, .photog
raphy, .photos, .pink, .plumbing, .recipes, .reviews, .ruhr, .sexy, .shoe
s, .shop, .singles, .site, .tattoo, .technology, .tips, .today, .uno, .vent
ures, .viajes, .voyage, .web, .wien, and .wiki

As well as sending and receiving mail the recipient can;

 save the address for future reference in an address book

 reply to the original message
 forward the message to a third party
 edit a message
 check the spelling and a wide range of other options.

One of the services provided by your ISP is to provide a storage area or mailbox to collect
email in. Email software programs control the transfer of this stored email by downloading the
messages from your mailbox on your ISP's computer to your own computer. You must be
connected to the Internet to do this.

An email message is made up of two parts; the header information and the body. The
recipient's address (to), the subject, the sender's email address as well as other information is
contained in the header. The content of the message is in the body. You can find out
information about an email message by viewing the header content. Most email programs had
a 'view header' option in the menu.
Roba

Email can be composed and sent as plain text or HTML. Plain text messages can be read by
any email client but most modern email clients can compose and display email documents
containing formatting such as bold, different font size and colour, images, etc.

New messages can be written or composed off-line (not connected to the Internet). If the ISP
charges by the hour, connect to the Internet only to send and receive your email and then
disconnect to read and compose your mail.

Many ISP's also offer web mail programs so that you can logon to check and send email using
any internet accessible computer.

Some companies offer free email service that you can sign up for. These free services rely on
a combination advertising and market research for revenue so your recipient may receive an
advertisment with the email. Most free email accounts are accessed through a web browser
where the user composes and reads their mail online. The benefit is that you can easily access
your mail from any internet terminal and the address is easily disposable (if it gets added to a
junk mail list for instance).

Most companies that offer free email services also extract information from the messages
traveling through their system. People should always read the end user agreement to
understand how their information is being used. Be sure to read the sections on privacy and
how your information is being used. People are often suprised to discover that many services
track every key press and every mouse click.

Many companies and large organizations also offer email services to their employees, clients
and members. These email accounts are setup on a company network and messages are send
and recieved through this private network. When setting up an account of this type alway read
the end user agreement as companies track all activity on the networks. The end user
agreement should let you know what is being tracked and give you an idea of how private your
messages are.

You can also attach files to email messages to send picture, sound, documents, videos and
other types of file with your email. Some email programs automatically open attachments such
as photos and html code. Change the program's properties or options to turn this feature on or
off.

Unrequested or spam email has become a problem on the internet. A large percentage of the
email sent is this unrequested email which takes up bandwidth and causes prices to rise.
Businesses must take time to sort through spam to find the legitimate email which also takes
time and money. Most ISPs provide software that will filter out the worst of this email. If you
find that you are receiving a lot of unrequested email contact your ISP to see if they can
provide you with spam filters.
 Roba

Last update: November 9, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Email Attachments

An attachment is a computer file or files placed inside an email message.

Email was originally designed to handle only plain text (no formatting, ie. bold,
centering, etc.) which was transferred from one computer to another in a
format called ASCII. ASCII is a standard across all computer types which makes
e-mail universal. Today many modern email programs allow HTML (hypertext
markup language) to be included in email messages which allow you to format
your email messages with font sizes, bold, centre and such. The recipient must
have an HTML capable email reader to see the formatting otherwise they will
get a document marked up with HTML tags.

To attach a document to an email message drag the file attachment to the body
of the message and drop it. An attachment can also be added by choosing File
Attachment from the menu. Most modern email programs place a button on the Toolbar
usually in the shape of a paper clip that you can click. A dialog box will open that allows you
to browse and select the file that you want to attach. You can attach more than one file to a
single email message. Don't move the original document until the message has been sent.

Most documents created on computer, such as word processing documents (Word,

WordPerfect, etc.) or spreadsheet documents (Excel, Quatro, etc.) or graphic files (Corel
Draw, Paint Shop, or .gif and .jpg files) are stored in their own unique binary code format.
This binary format is determined by the program that the file is created with. Email
documents are created as text files so in order to send a binary file or document via email, it
must first be encoded into a text format and then attached to the email text message.

Such an 'encoded' document may end up looking something like this:

ugAAANAAAAALAAAAAgD//zQAQgBvAGQAeQAgAFQAZQB4AHQAAABCAG8

AZAB5ACAAVABlAHgAdAAAANMFCwAAAQAACwDT0wQdAAATAAD//wUAsA

QAmA0AEA4AaBAAK5sdANPUGxkAgAEAAAgAigIAAAAAAACKAooCGQDU1
 Roba

BpXAIABAQAIAAAAAAAAAAAAHAD0GlwSGgkAABEJAAAAYAAYEQAAECoA

VABpAG0AZQBzACAATgBlAHcAIABSAG8AbQBhAG4AAAAAAAAAVABUAAA

AVwDU1AILAAABAAELANTUAwsAAAEA

These lines are all printable or lower-ASCII characters and can be sent via email. When it gets
to your computer and you want to view the document, it first must be decoded or converted
back to it's binary format before it can be opened. Today this is typically handled by your
Email program.

There are several common encoding standards, the most popular being uuencoding, mime,
and binhex. Not all email packages support even these three, let alone all the non-standard
ones. If someone sends you a document encoded in a format that your email program doesn't
support the email program will not decode the attachment.

The attached file must be loaded into a program to be viewed. For example, if the attached
document was originally created in Microsoft-Word you need Word, Open Office or another
modern word processor on your computer to work with the document. Most modern software
suites canimport documents from other suites.

Most modern email programs work hand-in-hand with your operating system to try and open
the correct program required to view the document sent as an attachment. This is done by
matching the file extension such as .jpg, .gif, .doc, etc... with a registered file type.

Viruses can also be transferred via email attachments. Because your email software handles
the decoding of programs sent as attachments it is easy to infect your computer simply by
opening an infected attachment. Always check email attachment with an anti-virus program
before opening them.

There are several reasons why an attachment will not display properly or at all:

1. the encoded file is corrupted and cannot be decoded. This is usually due to damage in transit
and happens very seldom these days.
2. the encoding type is not supported by your e-mail program and so the file cannot be decoded
back to it's original type.
3. the attached document was created in a program that you don't have on your computer or is
not a registered file type.
4. the email program has an option set which automatically locks attached files

When sending an attachment you should think about whether the intended recipient has the
same program on their computer. When you are sending an attachment to someone you should
always use a standard encoding process (the one that comes with your email program is usally
Roba

best) and send the document in a format that the recipient can view. If in doubt, ask them
first by email.

Attachments can also be used to send private and confidential documents by encrypting files.
An encrypted file will require a password or an decryption key to unlock it before it can be
viewed.

If your email software automatically locks attachments and you want to view the attachment
you can change the program's settings by modifying the Preferences or Options.

If the formatting isn't important it's better to copy your text from the original program and
then paste it into the body of a plain text email message rather than sending an attachment.
Everybody's email software can read this 'plain text' ASCII format.

Last update: November 9, 2013

Messaging & Chat

Instant Messaging software, such as ICQ and MSN allows users to find friends and
contacts through the Internet and communicate with them in real time. Users maintain a list
of contacts which the software will notify when they are online and contact is available. To
use an instant messaging service it is necessary to have and register software available on the
Internet. Instant messaging allows you to chat, send messages and files and various other
features but only with people you choose. Often the software and registration is free.

Cell phones and other handheld devices that can send text messages can use some messaging
services to post or send a text to websites which can then be seen by people using the
messaging service. Web messaging services like Twitter can also be used to send text
messages to cell and handheld devices.

Some services also provide the ability to connect a microphone and video camera to your
computer and talk and see your contact. Your contact can talk back and see you. Your comuter
must be equipped with speakers or head phones to hear your contact.

Internet Relay Chat (irc) allows users to participate in real-time discussions with other users
through the Internet. A user logs on to an irc site and then types messages and replies to
others messages as they are written. Often an irc discussion has a topic and users will join to
discuss this topic. Other irc discussions are free flowing and regardless of how centred the
discussion is it can take some time to sort out the different threads of discussion in a busy irc.

Other software is used for online conferences with a famous or knowledgeable person
contributing their time to answer questions and present information in real-time.
 Roba

Along the same theme are online game sites where Internet users can compete against other
users on the Net.

Last update: November 9, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Navigating the Internet

World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of web pages connected together with hyperlinks.
Each document or page has a unique address that allows you to find it among the millions of
other documents on the Web. The address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or
sometimes aUniform Resource Indicator (URI). When you chose a new link by clicking on it or
by typing it into theaddress field your browser sends a request for that document and displays
it on the screen. That link can be to a different section of the current document, another
document on the same website as the original or on another website anywhere in the world.
Web pages are designed using hypertext markup language or HTML.

The key to the web are the links to different, useful or interesting pages. Internet users collect
links to their favorite sites or web pages and add them to a bookmark or favorites list.

An example of a link would be http://www.grassrootsdesign.com/intro/navigation. A link

begins with HTTP which stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol and describes the type of
connection. WWW (World Wide Web) is the sub-domain and not always required.
GRASSROOTSDESIGN is the domain name and COM is the generic top level domain (gTLD). Some
of the other gTLD are ORG, NET, BIZ, INFO, and NAME. Beginning in 2013 dozens of gTLDs
where introduced. Everything after the domain name is the path to the specific file and/or
folder that is being accessed. In the example above 'intro' is the folder and 'navigation' is the
file that is being viewed.

Hint: If you are looking for a specific company or organization try typing www.company

name.cominto the address bar to go directly to that company's website.

Most countries maintain their own "country specific" top level domain (ccTLD) which is two
characters. The lists below show the ccTLDs sorted by country and by ccTLD.
 Roba

Canada - CA

CA - Canada

Receiving information, such as a web page, from another computer is called downloading.
When a user chooses a web page to go to the browser automatically downloads the information
from the website and displays it on the user's computer screen. The user can also choose to
download specific files. Sending information to another computer is called uploading. To place
a web page on a website a web developer must upload the file from their computer to the
ISP's server.

Being Online means being connected to another computer, whether that computer is your ISP,
your friend's computer across town or a remote office computer, through a modem, or digital
connection. Going Offline means disconnecting your computer from the remote connection.

Last update: March 29, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Search

Search Engines make finding things on the Internet relatively easier. Search engines are run
by companies that collect information from the Internet, sort and categorize it and present
the information to the user based on keyword searches or through directory listings.

It is worth taking some time to learn how to make an effective keyword search as the amount
of information that these search engines provide can be overwhelming. It is common to be
provided with 10s of thousands of references to any given search term. By narrowing your
search to a specific phrase you can target your searches more effectively. Many search engines
require that you enclose a search phrase in quotes (e.g. "the cat in the hat").

Different search engines will display different results and sort those
results differently. If you don't find the information you want on one search site try another.
Some search companies offer meta searches which are compiled from a number of different
search engines' results.
Roba

Some search sites offer directory listings as well. The information is categorized in a hierarchy
from general categories to specific categories. To find a specific web site follow the links
down to the category that matches your interest.

The results from a search are a list of pages with links to the documents that match your
search. Each search engine has a different way of displaying the results but generally you will
see a list with the name of the organization or title of the page. You may also see a short
description of that web page. Clicking on the title will take you to that page.

Though there are hundreds of search engines on the Internet there are only a couple dozen
that the majority of people use. If you choose "customize" in your browsers search tool you will
see a list of some of these search engines.

Website Search

As well as Internet searches many websites offer a website search feature to help visitors find
information on that specific website. Generally there will be a button marked 'Search' beside a
text field. Enter your query to display links to the pages that match.

Last update: December 15, 2010

<< ^^ >>

Home News, Discussion & Social Networking

Social Networking has become a large part of the internet.

Facebook, Twitter, MySpace and other services provide areas for like minded people to
communicate. YouTube, Vimeo, Flickr and other media services provide space for people to
share their videos and photos.

To access these services you will need to register for an account. Once you have logged in with
your personal username and password you can access the resources that these website offer.

Newsgroups are discussion groups that are going on all the time. You can write a message
and post it to a newsgroup in the morning and come back to read a reply to the message in
the afternoon. You can also reply to other's messages.
 Roba

There are thousands of news groups covering as many topics. Some are moderated, meaning
that a person who has knowledge or an interest in a certain topic will receive the message and
read it before posting it. This keeps the discussion on topic. Most are not moderated and the
discussion can go anywhere but it can be a great way to get a quick reply to your questions.

As well as the public newsgroups many organizations and companies will provide discussion
groups or bulletin boards which focus on areas related to their own topics. This can be a great
spot to find out more about an organization, find a solution to a problem you are having and
participate in the discussions related to that company or organization.

One problem with posting a message to a discussion or newsgroup is that unscrupulous

companies mine the newsgroups for email addresses and then send unsolicited email (spam)
to the poster. It is recommended that you disguise your email address using your email
software preferences or the bulletin board settings.

Many newsgroups have a publicly accessible faq. A faq is a collection of frequently asked
questionsthat have been posted many times to a newsgroup. You may get a gentle reminder or
a completely rude and insulting comment if you post a question that is on the faq. It is
acceptable to post a question as where the faq is located and you may find that frequent
posters will mention the faq in their message.

Last update: November 9, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

End User Agreement

scroll.png
 Roba

When signing up for any service on the internet or installing software there is often an end
user agreement or terms of use agreement that you must click on to indicate that you agree to
the companies' policies. It is very important that you, the end user, be aware of what you are
agreeing to when clicking this check box. There is a wide range of uses that are written in
these agreements. Most are designed to explain what the rights and responsibilities of the user
and company. Part of the agreement usually explain the companies privacy policies and how
your information will be used.

Many user agreements have a clause which allows them to use anything you submit (upload,
type, click, etc) without telling or paying you.

Most end user agreements are written in a legal format that the average person has difficulty
understanding but make sure that you read the section on privacy and how your information is
used.

 Add new comment

Last update: November 10, 2013

<< ^^ >>

 Home

ECommerce

Electronic Transactions on the Internet are becoming

commonplace. Books, software and even groceries can be bought
and sold with the click of a button (and a credit card). The biggest
problem with doing business over the Internet is the lack
of common standards around security. There are dozens of
different standards involving hundreds of different methods.
Roba

The Internet, by it's nature, is an open system which means that information can flow freely
from one computer to the next. Information transmitted through the Internet can be
intercepted and copied at any point along the path. For this reason it is not a good idea to
send confidential information like credit card numbers through the Internet the same way you
might send an email to a friend. In order to send confidential information you must be sure
that your private information can not be intercepted along the way.

The most common method is Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). A transaction computer with an
order form for the product that you wish to purchase creates a secure connection which
ensures that all the information that you send to it is not accessible to anyone else. If
information from a secure connection is intercepted it will be encrypted making it useless to
persons with malicious intent.

Most small businesses will not find it economical to setup their own secure server and can
purchase a service from a third party which offers a transaction service. These services vary
but all require a setup fee and some form of payment for transactions performed on their
secure server. This payment can involve a monthly fee, a transaction fee, a percentage of the
transaction, a credit card company fee or a combination of some/all of these fees.

When considering hiring a transaction service a company should decide whether they want to
setup their own merchant agreement with the credit card companies or pay the transaction
service to use theirs. Some transaction companies retain a percentage of receipts for security
deposit until a proven transaction record is established anywhere from 30 to 90 days. Some
allow limited outside development of the forms used on the secure server and others insist
that the forms be developed in-house.

Another model is the Secure Electronic Transaction (SET). This model requires that the
customer download and install a wallet into which they enter their password protected credit
card information. The SET system development was promoted by the major credit card
companies to provide a safe and secure environment for online transactions.

The SET "wallet" model requires that the customer obtain a Digital Certificate from a Certified
Authority (CA) which they then use to perform the transaction. The Certified Authority,
usually the bank or financial institution that the customer deals with, verifies the validity of
the Certificate to the merchant. The customer enters their personalized password to verify
that they have the authority to use the Certificate and the transaction is made. This model
allows customers to use their credit cards to purchase items from merchants without
transmitting their actual credit card details to the merchant.

The merchant uses their merchant

agreement with the credit card
company to complete transactions, process refunds and verify the validity of the customers'
credit card information.
 Roba

Though still in its infancy, many billing companies have begun Internet transaction projects
using the SET model to allow their customers to pay their bills, check their account status and
much more.

This document marks the end of the section on the Internet. Try the Internet Quiz or click the
Next button to skip it!

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

There are often a choice of ISPs to choose from. It is a good idea to shop around to find the
service that meets your needs. Service can be provided through telephone lines, cable,
wireless or satellite.

Once you have purchased an account with an ISP you will be given an account name. This is
often your email address as well. You will also be given a password and should also be
provided with instructions on how to change the password to a unique and personalized. The
generic password provided with your account should be changed to one of your own. Protect
your password as you would any personal identification number (PIN) number.

The ISP will also provide information on how to configure your software. This can be as simple
as inserting a disk and following the steps or using a more difficult process of entering the
settings manually. Once you have configured your internet connection simply run the software
to connect your computer to your ISP giving you access to the Internet.

There are a number of pieces of software that work together to connect you to the Internet

The first and most complicated is the dialer or socket software. This is the software that
makes the physical connection with the ISP's computer and the Internet. This needs to be
configured only once but you will need instructions from your ISP on how to do this as each ISP
has a different setup.

The second piece is a modem. The modem can be analog and use the old style phone lines or
digital and use digital lines, cables or wireless signals to connect.

The third piece is software. The most common software programs are
web browser and emailprograms but there are many software programs that need internet
access.
 Roba

There are many different ISPs. If you attend a university or college or belong to a military or
government organization you can most likely get internet access through your school or work.
If not you will most likely buy access from a commercial provider.

Another option, if you are in a major center, is the Freenet. Many major cities have groups
devoted to making the Internet accessible to the greater majority of people and create
Freenets which allow members free access to the Internet. They run on private and public
donations. It is an excellent way of learning about the Internet in a helpful environment.

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

File Transferring

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows users to transfer files and documents from one computer
to another. There are a few different software programs that will make this process quite
simple. If you are designing a website you can use ftp to update your website.

Computer users can also use an ftp program to download files and software off the internet.
Many companies and universities offer ftp sites that contain software which can be
downloaded and used on your computer. A search for 'ftp' will display dozens of ftp programs
that can be used to download software.

Most website hosting companies provide a file manager which is a program that allows website
owners to manage the files on their website including copying files from a computer to a
website. The benefit of using an ftp connection is that your computer makes a direct
connection with the server allowing for the transfer of multiple and/or large files.

This marks the end of the section on the Internet.

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Advanced Topics
Scripts & Macros
 Roba

Scripts are used for many things on computers. Everything from customizing and automating
repetitious tasks to changing the way the computer functions can be controlled with scripts.
One example of a script is a batch file and the most common of these is
the AUTOEXEC.BAT file. With older versions of Windows, this script contained the steps that
the computer went through when starting up. The CONFIG.SYS file controls how your
computer's hardware is configured each time you restart it. These type of files contain
instructions for your computer; one instruction per line. These instructions are operating
system commands and can be modified in any text editor. Always be sure to make a backup
before modifying a *.BAT file.

One of the most common scripts that the average user will come in contact with are macros.
Most programs use some form of macro. A macro, at it's simplest, is a recorded series of
keystrokes that help automate repetitive tasks. These tasks, once copied into a script, can be
accomplished with a few keystrokes. You can use macros to help you write letters, create
memos, or build reports. Some macros stop and beep when you need to enter information.
Some present a screen with detailed information and multiple choices. Many programs allow
the user to record personalized macros for their own unique use such as inserting your name
and address.

Most computer users will use scripts in some way, perhaps without realizing it. One common
script that users often use are Wizards or scripts that install new software. These type of
scripts will take you step by step through complex processes and stop at a certain points to
offer users different choices.

On the Internet there are a number of script languages including JavaScript, Perl, VBScript,
PHP and many others. These programming script languages allow website programmers to
create many interesting and useful functions. These scripts are often written into web pages or
stored on the server that you connect to. These type of scripts are used for processing forms,
keeping statistics, counting visitors to website, querying databases as well as limitless other
processes with more being introduced each day.

There are many scripting languages and programming languages designed to be used with
programming tools or as stand alone programs but, as this is an introduction to computers, lets
stick to the basics for now.

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home
Roba

The following topics are more advanced than the previous sections. They include Scripts and
Macros, Viruses, Computer Security and Networks.

Computer Viruses

A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain

unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying a happy face on
the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and damage your
computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working.

The reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted reason is
simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the machine"
motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others that
range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.

A virus take two basic forms

One is a boot sector viruses which infect the section of a disk that is first read by the
computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it comes in
contact with. The second is a program virus that infects other programs when the infected
program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves
(polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.

Though viruses do not damage computer hardware there have been attempts to create
programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodge itself in the
computer's clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months
after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain microchips (BIOS chip for
instance). These microchips need to be modified under normal computer use but the virus
program can produce changes which cause them to fail. Other viruses will affect the
characters or images displayed on the screen which may give the impression of monitor failure.

Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers it infects and can cost a lot of time
and money to correct it.

Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before computers became widely
used and they will likely remain with us forever. For that reason computer users will always
need ways to protect themselves from virus programs. The main, common feature of a virus is
that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect other computers.

A computer gets a virus from an infected file.

Roba

The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both shareware and commercial) or
a filedownloaded from a bulletin board or the Internet.

You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text file! That is because
the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can take effect. This usually happens when
the user tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file with an
infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text which does
not execute or run when opened.

Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages with HTML
and attach scripts to them for various purposes and it is possible for a malicious hacker to
attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML type of email message.

When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown
senders it is best not to run a program from that site or sender without checking it with
an anti-virus programfirst.

Protect yourself

You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get an anti-virus program.
Most reputable companies that create virus protection programs release an evaluation
copy that an Internet user can download for free and use for a certain amount of time. This
anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for viruses and repair
damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to replace infected files
that cannot be repaired.

The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this is that
viruses are constantly being created. When you purchase an anti-virus program you are also
purchasing periodical updates which keep your anti-virus program up-to-date and able to deal
with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus programs also allow the user to
customize when and how the program will check the computer for viruses. You will need to
renew this updating service periodically.

If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an anti-virus program to
clean your computer and make sure to check all the disks that you use. This includes all the
hard drives on your computer(s) and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that
you save information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your computer from one
infected file!

If you have to reload your computer programs, use the original program disks. You may want to
check your original disks before reinstalling the software. If your original disks are infected
contact the distributor to get replacements.
 Roba

Always take the time to ensure that your computer is properly protected. Spending money on a
good virus checking program could save you hundreds of dollars and lots of time later.

A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious people
without programming skills will send out fake virus warnings causing people to take unnessary
measures which often cause your computer harm. One example tries to get the unsuspecting
computer user to delete an important system file by warning them that it is a virus. A
legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a website operated by an anti-virus company
with more information about that virus. Don't forward a virus warning until you have checked
out whether it is legitimate.

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

Computer Security

As more people use email and more services such as banking, mail orders and subscriptions
become available through the Internet computer security becomes a necessary part of using a
computer. But how secure is the Internet and what is computer security?

Updating Software

It is very important to update your software periodically. When a program is released,

particularly internet browsers, it may contain flaws usually referred to as bugs. These bugs
may not appear to be a problem but criminals will attempt to use these flaws for their own
use. Keeping your software up to date will help keep your computer secure.

Computers & Security

Before the Internet, computer security was limited to 'closed systems' or network computers
such as offices or banks where only people physically in the office could use the computer
system. It was quite easy for the network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and
monitor all the activity on the network. People have become used to logging on before they
can use these types of computers or resources.

With the advent of the Internet, computers users can now work in an 'open system' and
security has become more complicated. Even though you can now connect your home or office
computer to the Internet and perform remote transactions you still want to be sure that the
transaction is secure. The transaction takes place through the Internet by routing the
information through various computers before it reaches the computer you are connecting to.
Roba

You want to be sure that no one observes the transaction along the way and collects or
modifies your transaction information.

This is where computer security comes in. There are many different types of security systems
though most use a process called encryption. When you connect to your bank or other service
to make a transaction you are often required to send your account number or user name as
well as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification. This information
should only be sent after establishing a secure connection. If you are using an Internet
browser you will see a small closed lock appear in the window of the browser. Once you are
connected to a secure server any information you send or receive is scrambled
or encrypted using a mathematical formula and then reassembled ordecrypted at the other
end. The computer user usually will not notice this happening as they perform their secure
transaction. Anyone with criminal intent who intercepts your transaction will be treated to a
stream of garbled nonsense - (e.g.. qANQR1DBwU4D560EJv6XqrMQB)!

If this is the first time you use a new service you most often will need to setup an account and
possibly download a small piece of software called a plug in which allows your computer to
create the secure connection or link.

The transaction often involves the exchange of a small file that keeps track of the transaction
and can act a flag or bookmark when you next visit that website. These small files are
called cookies and are set by the website you are visiting. They can contain information such
as the type of server you are connecting from, the type of browser you are using, the last site
you visited and any information you volunteer. You can view the information stored in the
cookie. Try a search for 'cookie' to find the cookies folder. Windows users can view any cookies
they are storing in the folderC:\Windows\Cookies\.

Setting up security

As the most people won't be setting up their own secure server the scope of this section is
limited to the topics of protecting email and small business or organizational transactions.

Email can be protected using a service or an application (program). There are others but the
two that stand out currently are S/MIME and PGP. S/MIME requires the user to register with a 3
party service which issues a digital id that you attach to your message. Though this is usually a
commercial service there is often a free introductory period. PGP is free for personal use or a
commercial application for business use and is run from your own computer.

Both methods allow users to sign or attach a digital identification to the email message which
verifies, to the recipient, that the message is from the original person or organization and that
the information wasn't tampered within transit. These methods also allow the user to encrypt
their message so that anyone intercepting the message wouldn't be able to read it. You can
also decide the level of encryption from low; in which a nerd with some good software and
Roba

enough time on their hands could possibly decrypt to high (128 bit) which would take a whole
mountain of experts weeks to decrypt if even then. Most of us will choose somewhere in
between as this process involves increased time and file size.

Both methods use key pairs of public and private keys. Your public keys is sent to everyone
that you communicate through email with. Your public key can be sent through various
methods including posting it to an internet service or sending it as part of an email message.
Public keys can also be post on your website in a file. Your friends and associates can add your
public key to a file called akey ring. When someone wants to send you a secure email the
sender encrypts their messages with your public key. When you receive the email you must
decrypt it using your private key. Many email programs will automatically verify that the
message is authentic. You will need to type in your password to view the message.

Encryption also involves using the key pair but in reverse. Once your message is completed you
encrypt the file using the recipient's public key ensuring that only the recipient can ever
access that message with their private key. (Editor's note: Don't lose your private key!).

Small businesses and organizations that wish to offer transactions over the Internet
or Ecommercecan take their chances and set up an unsecured system, set up their
own secure server or purchase a service from a third party. There are various types including
services that take a percentage of the transaction and/or charge a service fee and/or charge
for each transaction. Some organizations are more reliable and you should always shop around
before committing to a service. Because this type of service is so new the length of time a
company has been operating is not always a way to decide. Things to watch for is downtime. If
your company's website is operating properly yet the customer or user can't access the
transaction server because it is down, too busy or misconfigured they will easily be put off
perhaps entirely. Watch for contracts that lock you in as the market is still developing and
prices tend to fluctuate. It is easy to switch services by simply changing the address on your
website's order forms.

Security and Websites

As was stated at the beginning of this document the nature of the Internet is an open system.
Having said that there are many reasons and many ways to set up a secure or closed system
within this open framework. Private or member based discussion groups, private files or
folders, protected databases, copyright material to name a few all need some way of allowing
them to be distributed to the intended recipient only. Also many businesses are
creating Intranets which are closed systems only accessible to registered users. An Intranet
can provide a way of making company information easily accessible and allow branch offices to
communicate with each other easier.

Account Security
Roba

Your website itself is protected by your ISP's software. When you attempt to access your web
space to change or modify a file using a shell or ftp you are challenged to send your username
and password. This is the first line of protection and adequate for many website
administrators.

Server Security

The server that your website is installed on is the second line of protection. Most servers have
security features built in to them allowing users to password protect folders or build scripts to
send a username/password challenge to a user trying to access a file or folder. This allows
website administrators the ability to create discussion groups within their site or to place
confidential documents or information that is made available only to registered users on their
own website. Unfortunately some ISPs either don't make this option available, charge a
premium to use them or only allow their own employees to set them up.

Third Party Security

Another option includes contracting the protection of private files to a separate service, pay a
third party to hosting a private discussion group or obtain web space on another server that
allows access to security options. The entire Internet is as close as your computer connection
and whether the file the user is viewing is stored in your own current web space or on another
server is usually immaterial. When your customers, employees or members move from one
page to another the consistency of the website is maintained by the design, not the address of
the separate pages. It is also possible to control the address that is displayed if required.

Software Security

Another option is to use JavaScript or Java applets to control how customers or members
access secure features. This option is only available to users who are using Java enabled
browsers. Scripts and applets can control access to documents and databases, create content
on the fly based on users input, detect the browser the visitor is using and direct them to the
proper page, retrieve cookies and use that information to determine whether a user has access
to a certain area or not, as well as many other uses.

Copyright

Copyright is protect using the same process as any original material (books, artwork, film,
etc...). Anything that a user gets off the Internet should be treated as privately owned
information unless otherwise noted. Anyone posting private information to the Internet should
be aware that copyright law is not the same in every country and may be difficult to enforce.
It is possible to set up a page that won't be stored on the users computer once they leave the
site but that will only slow down not stop users who want to obtain information posted on a
 Roba

website. Notices of copyright are often added to the main page of a website sometimes with a
link to a page describing the details of how the content can be used.

Is Security Necessary?

Though you may think that it is not necessary to setup security systems there are many reasons
to consider it. I have come across a number of examples of people forging documents and
email. A digital signature will be the only way to verify whether a document is genuine or not.

Many organizations need to discuss draft articles, changes to bylaws and other documents that
could cause problems if they were made public before they are approved. A secure directory
within your website is an ideal spot to store sensitive material making it available for members
and people who have the proper password.

I would be remiss to not point out and as all articles on the subject also point out mining the
Internet with malicious intent is also possible. One common malicious act is to search websites
for email addresses and then add them to spam distribution lists. Unfortunately there is very
little that can be done to counter this other than removing your email address from your web
site but this makes it difficult for your customers to contact you.

Whether you decide to add a security component to your web site project initially it is a good
idea to think about or have a discussion about web site security when planning the site. You
should also review your security systems periodically whether that is changing your password
or reviewing and updating your security system.

Last update: January 5, 2014

<< ^^ >>

 Home

 Computer Networks
 Most people working in an office with more than a couple of computers will be using
some form ofnetwork. As networks become easier to setup and maintain more home
users are also setting up networks to share resources such as disk space, printers,
Internet connections and access to software.
 A network is basically two or more computers connected through a cable, wire or
wireless network which share resources. Network software controls how the computers
communicate.
 There are dozens of different types of networks and this article focuses on home and
small business networks.
 The cloud is a group of computers linked together to provide users with the ability to
access software applications, files and resources. Most modern cloud systems are run
Roba

on internet servers so people can access these resources from any internet accessable
computer. cloud users login to an account and are able to access these resources, open
files and work on documents that are stored on these servers. Most cloud servers are
linked to other servers which provide the flexability to expand and move information
around between servers to provide users with a seamless system. One benefit is that it
isn't necessary to install program or applications on a computer as they can be
accessed through the cloud.
 To connect computers each on the computers needs a network card with a connection
that allows a cable to be connected to it or for a wireless connection, within the range
of a wireless router. Two computers can be connected directly using a bi-directional
cable but if the computers are some distance away a router is necessary. The router
connects all the computers in your local network together. A router also allows more
than two computers to connect. A router can also be used to connect two local area
networks together to create a wide area network.
 Some form of network software is required. This network protocol software is
installed through the network preferences. NetBIOS was commonly used though
recently a secure TCP/IP protocol has been developed. The network protocol
determines how computers become part of the network and how they are recognized.
The network must have a name and you can use some creativity at this point. Each
computer can also have an unique name that other computers on the network can
access them with. The router is usually setup to assign each computer on the network
with a unique identifier called an IP address.
 If all goes well this is all you need but if there is a conflict it can be resolved by
establishing exactly how the computer will communicate. To solve these types of
conflict your network needs a set DNS server address and each computer in the
network needs to be manually assigned a IP address. The addresses usually are in the
range of 192.168.x.x where x means any number between 0 and 255. Once these
numbers have been entered your network should be functioning with each computer
able to see the other computers on the network.
 You must also decide which resources you want to share. You may want to make a disk
or folder available, a printer or tape backup system so that everyone can use it. You
may also want to have parts of the network that are either not accessible or accessible
only through a password. File and print sharing must be enabled on the computer that
will share it's resources or host computer and they determine how they are accessed by
other computers or clients.
 An Internet connection can also be shared with other computers on the network.
Sharing an Internet connection also raises some security issues. If your home network
isn't setup properly adding an internet connection and connecting your home or office
network to this existing system can cause problems. Though you may want to allow a
computer in another room of the house to access files or run programs on your
computer you probably don't want the kid down the block to have that same access.
 Security on networks begin with passwords. Everyone who wishes to access the network
must logon with a username and password. If someone cancels the password challenge
they will be able to access the files and programs on that individual computer but can't
Roba

access any of the network resources. Specific passwords for important folders or disks
can also be set or access to folders or disks can be forbidden.
 Unlike server/client networks where the server must be running before the computers
can communicate, a peer-to-peer network allows any computer to communicate with
another member of the network directly. When a computer in the peer-to-peer
network is turned on the computer recognizes the network and can access resources on
the other computers and also become accessible to the other computers in the
network.
 Networks can also be open to remote secure access through a virtual private network.
A VPN allows a computer to connect to a computer or network through the Internet.
 This ends the Introduction to Computers.