ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

Benefits and Challenges as Viewed By Founders of

International Schools in Ethiopia

Heidi Karvonen
Master’s Thesis
Department of Teacher Education
Faculty of Education
University of Turku
December 2017

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THE UNIVERSITY OF TURKU
Faculty of Education, Department of Teacher Education

KARVONEN, HEIDI: English as a Medium of Instruction - Benefits and Challenges

as Viewed By Founders of International Schools in Ethiopia
Master’s Thesis, 47 pages, 2 appendix pages
Education
December 2017
____________________________________________________________________

This research explores the benefits and challenges of using English as opposed to a
local language as a medium of instruction as viewed by founders of two private
international schools in Ethiopia. While mother tongue-based learning is strongly
advocated, specifically in the African context, and the educational policies of
Ethiopia in this regard are recognized as the most progressive on the continent, there
are several gaps between policies and implementation. One such gap that remains
unaddressed and under-researched is English as a choice of the medium of
instruction in a widely esteemed growing number of private international schools.
This study gives a preliminary impetus for doing further research and addressing this
gap, which can easily be overlooked due to the relatively greater academic success of
international private school students. These students are in the minority, and are not
primarily the concern of the government, but rather of the private school owners. The
choice of medium of instruction in these schools certainly influences their students
learning, but also the wider community.

The data for this research was collected through an open questionnaire from four
founders of two different private international schools where the medium of
instruction is English, but where more than 90 per cent of the students are
Amharic-speaking Ethiopians. The results showed that the main benefits of using
English as a medium of instruction as identified by the founders were: better
accessibility of English materials as well as the existence of better curricula, better
job and career development opportunities, a positive influence on the wider
community and wider chances for communication. The main challenges of using
English as a medium of instruction as identified by the founders were: teachers’ lack
of proficiency both in the English language and in teaching in English, lack of
parental involvement, loss of mother tongue or culture and lack of support from the
government.

The benefits identified can be achieved even if English is taught as a second

language as long as better materials and curricula are developed in the local language
and culture. Most importantly, according to earlier research the challenges identified
could largely be overcome by using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction.
This area should definitely be researched further and more widely to identify the
underlying factors regarding the choice of the medium of instruction in private
international schools and ultimately to re-examine the choice itself.

Keywords: English medium of instruction, mother tongue medium of instruction,

private international schools
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 4

2 ETHIOPIAN LANGUAGE POLICY 6

2.1 Language policy then and now 6
2.2 Language policy implementation 7

3 THE EFFECTS OF MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION 12

3.1 The mother tongue as a medium of instruction 12
3.2 English as a medium of instruction 15

5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 20

6 RESEARCH METHOD 22
6.1 The participants in the study and the collection of data 22
6.2 Data analysis 25
6.3 Reliability 26

7 RESULTS 28
7.1 The benefits of using English as a medium of instruction 28
7.2 The challenges of using English as a medium of instruction 30
7.3 The importance of the mother tongue 32
7.4 The educational aims behind the international schools 34

8 DISCUSSION 36

REFERENCES 43

APPENDIX

3
1 INTRODUCTION

Language, communication and the underlying culture are without doubt the very
basis of learning, due to which they must be given primary attention throughout a
child’s schooling, specifically during the first years. The importance of focusing on
becoming fluent in one’s first language is a consensus supported by numerous
studies (Wilmot 2003; Mwinsheikhe 2003; Alidou, Aliou, Brock-Utne, Diallo,
Heugh 2006; Shin, Sailors, McClung, Pearson, Hoffman, Chilimanjira 2015; Debreli
& Oyman 2016). The benefits of learning a second language at a young age are
likewise widely researched and confirmed (Barac & Bialystok 2011; Nicolay &
Poncelet 2013).

The importance of both first and second language learning is unquestionable.

Comparing international languages of wider communication to local ones, however,
would not be justified, for they are complementary and have distinct values. They are
both essential for the harmonious and full development of both individuals and
society at large. (UNESCO 2010, 6) Therefore, without creating false dichotomies
between the languages, the questions that need to be separately explored are what the
importance of learning each of these languages is and how they should be
emphasised in harmony with each other. These question is approached in this thesis
from the perspective of the choice of medium of instruction, in other words the
language used for learning and teaching, in a specific school context.

For more than half a century, UNESCO has encouraged mother tongue-based
education in early childhood and primary education (UNESCO 1953), and a plethora
of research, policies and documents support this. However, monolingualism in
official or international languages still dominates around the world (Wolff &
Ekkehard 2000; Arnold, Barlett, Gowani, Merali 2006). More specifically, most
African countries continue to use a former colonial language as the primary language
of instruction and governance (UNESCO 2010, 6).

4
In the context of Ethiopia, a country so rich in languages and cultures, the attention
which should be paid to the choice of medium of instruction cannot be stressed
enough. Ethiopia is a country with 89 different languages and cultures (UNICEF
2016, 32). Needless to say, to adequately support the learning of the native speakers
of all these languages, special attention is needed from educational developers and
the larger community, from parents and private investors, in the choice and support
of the medium of instruction. While the question of medium of instruction has been
widely researched, and the implementation of national mother tongue-based
educational policies scrutinized (Heugh, Benson, Bogale, Yohannes 2007; Nekatibeb
2007; Ramachandran 2012), in the present study the formerly unexplored specific
focus is on the perceptions of private investors, in this case the founders of two
private international schools where the medium of instruction is English, but where
the vast majority of children speak Amharic at home.

This research was inspired by the author’s stay in both of these schools, half a year in
each. Having seen the challenges of using a foreign language as a medium of
instruction in practice, there was a strong urge to dig deeper for the reasons behind
these challenges and the choices involved. An evident gap between national policies
and their implementation in private schools called for further research, specifically
because international private schools are generally highly esteemed among the public
and are increasing in number.

This thesis proceeds from laying out the Ethiopian language policy context to
examining the wider theory behind mother tongue-based language policies,
ultimately narrowing the focus to the international private school context and the
choice of medium of instruction. It will explore the benefits and challenges of
English as a medium of instruction as well as the importance of mother tongue
learning from the perspective of the founders of these two international schools.

5
2 ETHIOPIAN LANGUAGE POLICY

Language policies in Africa have been strongly influenced by the colonial history of
the continent. Even to this day, most African children are learning using a colonial
language instead of their own mother tongue, due to a persisting idea that the only
means for upward economic mobility is through the international languages of wider
communication, such as Arabic, English, French, Portuguese and Spanish (UNESCO
2010, 4). There are many negative consequences of such language policies, which
will be discussed in this and the following chapter. Research findings indicate that
these policies are causing low-quality education and the further marginalisation of
the continent, resulting in the “creeping amnesia of collective memory” (Prah 2003,
16). Not surprisingly, the continent is almost completely excluded from knowledge
creation and production worldwide, contributing only 0.4 per cent of its international
gross expenditure to research and development, of which South Africa alone covers
up to 90 per cent (UNESCO 2010, 5). Although language policies are only part of the
equation, there is much indication to the significance of their impact.

2.1 Language policy then and now

In regards to the colonial influence on language policies, Ethiopia is quite

exceptional. Apart from being occupied by Italy for a brief period between 1936 and
1941, Ethiopia did not experience colonial rule like the rest of the region, enabling
the country to take a very different approach in its language policies. However,
according to the Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Education (EFMoE 2002, 11), the
system of education was not designed with the concrete conditions of Ethiopia in
mind, but rather, it was influenced by whichever country happened to be close to the
government at any given time.

According to Ambatchew (2010), in the 19th century the traditional system of

6
education used the Ge’ez and Amharic languages. In the beginning of the 20th
century, modern schools also began to teach French and Arabic. During the short
period of Italian colonial occupation, vernaculars were used as media of instruction
with the aim of disuniting the country. Following this period, Emperor Haile Selassie
changed the medium of instruction to Amharic in the government schools in the
1940s in order to reunite the country (Ambatchew 2010, 199-200). As a result of
modernization, English was also used as a medium of instruction. The socialist
government from 1974 to 1991 encouraged the use of local languages in literacy, but
not so much as media of instruction. The problems resulting from using English as a
medium of instruction were noticed as early as 1983, mainly due to the lack of
proficiency in English among Ethiopian teachers (Negash 2006, 31). After the fall of
the socialist regime, the government allowed instruction in different languages, and
finally in 1994 adopted the language policy still prevalent today (Ambatchew 2010,
199-200).

2.2 Language policy implementation

The current language policy allows any language in the country to be used as a
medium of instruction, and all Ethiopian languages enjoy equal state recognition,
although the official language of the country is Amharic. Each federal member state
of Ethiopia can determine their own official language or languages (FDRE 1994, 23;
Nekatibeb 2007, 51; Ambatchew 2010, 200). The policy further states that primary
education, which goes on up to grade eight, should be given in nationality languages,
assuming that the nationality language of the region is the mother tongue of most of
the children within the region (FDRE 1994, 23; Alemu & Abebayehu 2011, 403).
The goal of this policy is to improve literacy rates and academic achievement, as
well as advance appreciation of local languages and cultures (Wolff 2011, 97).

English becomes the medium of instruction at secondary school and at university

level, and therefore is taught as a foreign language starting from the first year of
primary schooling (FDRE 1994, Dearden 2014, 26). Learning Amharic, on the other

7
hand, starts from grade three or five depending on the region (Heugh et al. 2007, 5).
It is taught as a language of countrywide communication (FDRE 1994). In total,
currently more than 30 languages are being used as a medium of instruction or taught
as a subject in primary schools in Ethiopia (Derash, 2013). The percentage of
children learning in their own mother tongue ranges from 71.5 per cent (in the region
of Benishangul-Gumuz) to 97.8 per cent (in the Sidama zone), with the majority of
regions exceeding a relatively high percentage of 85 (Piper 2010, ES2).

While the Ethiopian language policy supporting mother tongue learning is being
widely recognized as the most progressive in Africa (UNICEF 2016, 32), as these
relatively high percentages may indicate, practice is not always aligned with policy.
For example, in practice English is still allowed as a medium of instruction in all
sectors and all levels of the national educational system, even if the policy does not
support this (Dearden 2014, 10). Furthermore, Ambatchew (2010, 204-205) observes
that despite the supportive mother tongue policy, many political elite continue to
send their own children to schools where the medium of instruction is English or
French, and that many families decide to migrate within the country to areas where
the medium of instruction is Amharic as opposed to their own mother tongue. In
general, there is considerable public pressure put on education authorities to use
English as a medium of instruction. One of the reasons for this may be that the many
languages used as media of instruction are not equally adequate for use in education
(Cohen 2007, 64). Additionally, the policy could possibly be ethnically divisive and
cause regional nationalism (Cohen 2007, 64).

There is also an ongoing struggle with financial resources to meet the current
educational goals, which can explain part of the mismatch of language policy and
implementation. Additional resources are being found from two directions, namely
through foreign aid money or investors and local investors. Negash (2016, 9-10)
argues that the foreign aid money allocated to education in Ethiopia serves as an
instrument for political power. To use the money, foreign approval is needed, due to
which certain power relationships continue to exist in the postcolonial world.

8
As far as local investors are concerned, post-millennium education policies
encouraged private investors to open educational institutions nationwide from
kindergarten to institutions of higher education (EFMoE 2002, 67). The government
even provided incentives such as free land for the investors (EFMoE 2002, 67).
There was a rapid increase in the number of private schools, many of which had an
international orientation, such as the two schools examined in this study. English, or
another lingua franca is still commonly used as the medium of instruction in such
schools to attract upper income families as customers. Such schools continue to grow
in number and size, as well as influence (Hayden & Thompson 2008, 12).

Questioning the medium of instruction of international schools may sound

controversial, since part of the very purpose of an international school is to offer
education in a language of wider communication, an international language.
However, it is important to look at what goal the establishment of an international
school is actually serving, in other words, what makes it international.

In the past, international schools have been mainly connected to the processes of
international migration, expatriates and diplomats hoping to offer their children
education compatible to the education they receive in their home countries. Such
schools serve a purpose today, but the need for them is not significantly growing. A
newer increasing trend is the establishment of international schools due to a certain
dissatisfaction with the quality of education in the country, originating from a desire
to foster a global outlook that is not tied to a particular educational system or culture
and a need to prepare students to live and work in an increasingly globalizing world
(Hayden & Thompson 2008, 9).

Unfortunately no accurate data was available, but according to a Google search and
the web pages found for various international schools, there are more than 20
international schools in Addis Ababa alone. While it is difficult to determine which
of the two trends each of these international schools are following, the school
policies as well as the backgrounds and overall diversity of the students may give
some indication. For example, the International Community School of Addis Ababa

9
is known for being one of the main schools where the children of diplomats are
studying. Their student body consists of more than 65 different nationalities (ICS,
2017). According to the school policy, the overall percentage of spaces for children
from the international community should be no less than 90% schoolwide, and in
early childhood and elementary levels the percentage should be a minimum of 95%
of the children (ICS, 2017).

Indeed, those students who attend private schools are known to be considerably
better in English and other subjects (Negash 2006, 40). It is yet unknown, however,
how much of this is due to the education the private schools provide and how much
to the fact that students attending private schools are from well-resourced families
and have far stronger exposure to the English language. It has been noted that most
students around the country have access to school reading books, but very little, if
any, to other reading materials, which correlates with their poor reading levels (Piper
2010, 48). Perhaps it is then safe to assume that students attending private schools do
better in English and other subjects at least partially because of better exposure to the
language and material availability. This phenomenon may wrongfully increase the
already esteemed status of private schools and English as a medium of instruction in
the eyes of the public and attenuate the importance of mother tongue instruction in
learning.

Due to all these multidimensional challenges in implementing mother tongue-based

language policies, the strengthening of the policies and their thorough
implementation on the regional and local levels is becoming one of the primary items
on the agenda of education developers in Ethiopia. Education Sector Development
Programme IV for the years 2010 to 2015 almost completely disregarded such
development goals (EFMoE 2010), focusing mainly on other educational
development matters. However, now huge efforts have already begun in the
development of a national mother tongue curriculum in the seven main languages,
namely Afaan Oromo, Af-Somali, Amharic, Hadiyyisa, Sidaamu Afoo, Tigrinya and
Wolayttatto. Additionally, emphasis is being put on the training of teachers to deliver
this curriculum and the development, production and distribution of related teaching

10
and learning materials (EFMoE 2015, 17). Particular attention is given to early grade
acquisition of foundation skills in mother tongue languages. To support this, the
training of primary school teachers in mother tongue instruction, which began during
the implementation of ESDP IV, will continue (EFMoE 2015, 55-58).

Despite the many challenges in narrowing the gap between policy and
implementation, Ethiopia’s national policy of mother tongue medium schooling is
still one of the best on the continent, as mentioned earlier. It adheres to global
guidelines and promotes sound educational practice (Heugh et al. 2007, 7). The
following chapters explain the theory behind such mother tongue-based language
guidelines and policies.

11
3 THE EFFECTS OF MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

There is solid ground for the direction Ethiopia has taken in its language policies.
The benefits of having the mother tongue as a medium of instruction are many, as are
the challenges brought by using a second language to learn curricular content.
Mother tongue-based policy has been recommended by UNESCO since 1953
(UNESCO 1953), and special attention has been given to African countries
(UNESCO 2010; UNICEF 2016).

In Ethiopia, most children are learning three or more languages, using one at home,
having another nationality language as the regional medium of instruction, having to
learn Amharic as the language of countrywide communication as well as English as
the language of secondary and higher education (FDRE 1994, 23-24). Multilingual
education is, therefore, a topic crucial to the context of Ethiopia, and worth
mentioning in this thesis. There is vast research on the topic, and it has many
practical applications (Garcia, Lin & May 2017; Cenoz & Gorter 2011) that should
be re-examined in the light of the Ethiopian multilingual context and applied
adequately. However, this thesis focuses on the topic of medium of instruction, and
due to this cannot engage in the much wider discussion of multilingual education.
While recognizing and stressing the importance of multilingual education, in the
following paragraphs the topics discussed are the mother tongue as a medium of
instruction and English as a medium of instruction.

3.1 The mother tongue as a medium of instruction

Earlier research confirms that first language learning creates a foundation for all
learning, and that everything is better assimilated if delivered and processed in the
mother tongue of the students (Wilmot 2003; Mwinsheikhe 2003; Alidou et al. 2006;
Shin et al. 2015; Debreli & Oyman 2016). Children are not only more likely to

12
succeed, but also to enrol in school in the first place, if offered mother tongue-based
education (Kosonen 2005).

In the context of Ethiopia, a comparative study of the learning achievements of 8th

grade students across Ethiopia showed that according to the vast majority of
educators, students with stronger mother tongue education performed better in all
subjects, surprisingly even in English (Heugh et al. 2007, 6.). A concurrent study
found that the scores of 8th grade students learning with the mother tongue as the
medium of instruction were up to 11 per cent higher in the subjects of biology,
physics, chemistry, mathematics and English than the scores of those who studied in
a second language (Nekatibeb 2007, 59). Another study conducted in the context of
Ethiopia showed that across the nine regions and two municipal administrative area
of Ethiopia mother tongue instruction has had a positive effect at all levels of
schooling, even leading to an increase of 12 per cent in the number of students
completing six years or more of schooling (Ramachandran 2012, 17). The data of
these studies were drawn from community and government schools, therefore
possibly explaining the apparent controversy of these studies in relation to private
school students doing better in national exams regardless of them learning with a
medium of English (Negash 2006, 40). These studies nevertheless strongly support
the pedagogical effectiveness of mother tongue-based policies in Ethiopia.

Similar comparisons have been done in several other African countries, with several
different languages, and the results have likewise been in favour of mother
tongue-based education. For example, in a study conducted in Botswana by Alidou et
al. (2006, 108), a list of science concepts was taught to two groups, one group in
their mother tongue, Setswana, and the other in their medium of instruction, English.
The results were that the students taught in Setswana had a significantly better
understanding of the concepts. A similar study was carried out in Tanzania by
Mwinsheikhe (2003), in which secondary school students who were taught science
concepts in their mother tongue, Kiswahili, did far better than those who were taught
in English.

13
There are many other side benefits of mother tongue-based education that support
aspects of students’ overall schooling, ranging from stronger identity and motivation
to processes of learning. For example, the parents of such students are more likely to
communicate with teachers and participate in their children’s learning if the medium
of instruction is the student’s mother tongue (Benson 2002). Enabling the
cooperation of parents with teachers and the school is essential, as it significantly
improves the learning outcomes of students (Henderson & Mapp 2002;
Hoover-Dempsey, Walker, Sandler, Whetsel, Green, Wilkins, Closson 2005; Wanat
2010). Most importantly, communication between the teacher and the students is
more fluent, which helps in developing a more open relationship where both parties
are being understood (UNESCO 2010, 28).

Using the local language as a medium of instruction not only supports the overall
learning process and related communication, but also more holistically enhances the
cultural identities of the students and increases appreciation to the many languages
and cultures tied to them (UNESCO 2011b, 6; Wolff 2011, 97). Fluency and literacy
in the mother tongue also create a cognitive and linguistic foundation for learning
other languages, whether local or international (August & Shanahan 2006; UNESCO
2011b, 6; Debreli & Oyman, 2016).

Although mother tongue-based education is advantageous for all children,

disadvantaged groups are specifically known to benefit from it, including children
from rural communities (Hovens 2002), children with learning difficulties (Ortiz
2007) and girls (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2000). Moreover, there is vast
evidence to support its positive impact, not only on the individual level, but also on
the social and economic life of the wider community and nation at large (UNESCO
2010).

Because of the number of languages involved, it is often argued that the

implementation of mother tongue-based education is too costly. However, while
there are additional costs to implementing a mother tongue-based system of
education, there are also areas of saving in costs and a significantly better return to

14
the economy of the wider community. To put preconceptions aside, the costs are not
dependent so much on the policy itself, but rather on the cost reduction strategies and
implementation (Heugh 2006, 138; UNESCO 2011a, 40-42). In the case of Ethiopia,
in the six years following the implementation of the mother tongue-based educational
language policy, the recurrent education expenditure per student declined by around
20 per cent (Ramachandran 2012, 8).

3.2 English as a medium of instruction

The English language is one of the most geographically widely spoken languages in
the world and serves multiple purposes in a rapidly globalizing world. Its wide use
extends from politics and economy to technology, science, media and
communication. Its mastery opens doors to more information than the mastery of any
other language (Crystal, 2003). The importance of English language learning and its
usage as a medium of instruction divides opinions. While some prefer using English
as a medium of instruction as opposed to the mother tongue, others are suspicious of
English language learning from an early age.

Contrary to some misconceptions in regards to language learning, children are indeed

capable of acquiring two or even several languages at an early childhood, as multiple
languages do not compete for “mental space” or confuse children (Lightbown 2008,
8; Crystal 2003, 17). Given an adequate environment for interaction, the
developmental path of multiple language acquisition is in fact much like that
observed in the acquisition of a single language, with some additional cognitive
advantages (Lightbown 2008, 8; Barac & Bialystok 2011; Nicolay & Poncelet 2013).
This is, however, conditional to sufficient motivation, exposure, periods of formal
study and opportunities for practice (UNESCO 2011b, 18).

According to international research students are quick to learn simple conversational

skills in a new language. It takes from one to two years for them to master good basic
communication skills. However, even in well-resourced learning environments, it

15
takes at least six years to learn the abstract academic language skills needed to
assimilate age-appropriate curricular content (Alidou et al. 2006, 7; Cummins 2000).
While second language learning is a time consuming process for anyone, it can be
further complicated or slowed down by other factors, such as family socioeconomic
status, ethnic or gender discrimination, psychological conditions, individual or
motivational differences (UNESCO 2011b, 18).

If children are forced to change their language of schooling too early or abruptly to a
second language, their first language acquisition may even be attenuated or even lost,
and their self-confidence as learners may weaken, leading to lack of motivation,
school failure, and early school leaving (UNESCO 2011b, 6). This, of course, does
not mean that a second language cannot be introduced at an early age, as noted
earlier. In the Ethiopian context, where the language of instruction changes to
English in secondary and university levels, early English language learning and its
mastery before the change to secondary level of schooling is undisputed.

One of the major problems in using English as a medium of instruction in the African
context is that, regardless of academic qualifications, teachers lack the adequate
language proficiency and competence to teach the language (Dearden 2014, 27). In
Ethiopia, this problem was recognized as early as 1983 (Negash 2006, 31), but it is
still today very present in the schools where English is used as a medium of
instruction. Also, the education systems in Africa, and more specifically in Ethiopia,
predominantly use subject content teachers to teach specific subjects. While their
priority is to teach their own subjects, they are also all language teachers,
increasingly so when the medium of instruction is not the mother tongue of the
students. Although many subject content teachers may acknowledge their
responsibility for the teaching of language skills in the subject content classroom,
they lack the training and competence to carry out this duty (Uys, van der Walt, van
den Berg, Botha 2007; EFMoE 2015, 58). This lack of language proficiency and
competence in language teaching, combined with the challenges students face when
learning in a language unfamiliar to them, causes both teachers and students in
African classrooms to face serious communication and learning problems on a daily

16
basis (UNESCO 2010, 28).

When the language of communication is foreign to either or both the teacher and the
students, many important issues become misunderstood or even unrecognized. For
example, teachers can often misinterpret a lack of adequate proficiency in the
language of instruction with lack of intelligence, laziness or an uncooperative
attitude on the part of the students. This can seriously inhibit students, cause anxiety
and further hinder learning. Student may become even more unwilling to participate,
trying to avoid embarrassment in front of their classmates. This attitude is
specifically common among girls in Africa. Girls often take a quiet role during
lessons to avoid speaking in a foreign language of instruction (Alidou et al. 2006, 87,
World Bank 2000). Girls tend to have less exposure to an official language and tend
to stay in school longer as it is, and if taught in a second language, they are even
more likely to become low achievers and repeat grades (UNESCO 2005).

The communication gap between teachers and students can also cause the
misrecognition of special needs. In the case of academic difficulties, studies conclude
that teachers find it challenging to distinguish whether such difficulties are in fact
language-related or whether there are actual learning difficulties or disability
involved, and report not having the adequate tools for special needs identification
(McCardle, Mele-McCarthy, Cutting, Leos, D’Emilio 2005, 2; Ortiz 2007, 281). In
the African context and in Ethiopia more specifically, special needs recognition and
the failure in providing adequate support to all children is already a major concern.
To illustrate the extent of the problem in Ethiopia, in 2015, for example, it was
estimated that only 4 per cent of the children with special needs are enrolled in
primary education (EFMoE 2015). Needless to say, the fact that such problems
overlap with the challenges brought on by a foreign medium of instruction makes the
required solutions more complex and multidimensional.

Although predominantly the biggest challenges in using English as a medium of

instruction relate to the lack of adequate language skills of both the teacher and the
students and the communication gap this causes, there are also problems regarding

17
the availability of support that teachers and students are getting. As mentioned earlier
when discussing the benefits of mother tongue-based education, parent involvement
can slacken and become more difficult if the language of instruction is foreign,
which in turn negatively affects the student’s learning outcomes (Benson 2002;
Henderson & Mapp 2002; Hoover-Dempsey et al. 2005; Wanat 2010). Also, suitable
learning materials for learning subject content, particularly in a second language as
well as the language itself as a foreign language, are scarce. When the medium of
instruction is English, curricula and learning materials are often adopted from other
language and cultural settings, which can make them both inadequate regarding the
language level of the students as well as culturally irrelevant for the local students
(Negash 2006, 33). Additional reading materials, appropriate to the reading level,
that support the student’s learning in and of English are also scarce both in the
classrooms, wider community and the student's family (Negash 2006, 34; Piper 2010,
50).

The poor language and teachings skills of the teachers combined with the lack of
adequate resources can cause educational developers to seize fast but unsuitable
corrective measures. As an example, due to the increase in the number of students,
this happened in Ethiopia when the government introduced televised teaching as a
fast solution in 2004 (Negash 2006, 32). The negative impacts of distance education
can be many. To name but a few, Negash mentions that the pace of the lecture may
be too fast for the students to follow and write notes when the students’ proficiency
level in English is fairly low. The lectures are transmitted once and are often not
repeatable, due to which students missing class can easily fall behind. They are also
dependent on the uninterrupted flow of electric power, which creates problems due to
the frequent power cuts throughout the country. The lectures are often read by people
who are not themselves subject teachers, making it harder to convey the learning
content. A typical distance education teaching room has little ventilation and
contains approximately 90 students, making the learning environment highly
discouraging (Negash 2006, 32-33).

Not only educational developers, but more practically the teachers themselves may

18
also rely on to poor measures in order to give maximum exposure to the English
language. For example, the commonly used only-English policy during classes and
recess has been criticized and should be re-examined in light of the recognized
benefits of mother tongue use in all learning (Debreli & Oyman 2016, 148-149).

When the language of instruction is not the mother tongue of the students, there is so
much additional support needed, not only in learning with a foreign language, but
also in order to retain their mother tongue. According to UNESCO (2011b, 6), they
must have ongoing formal instruction in reading and writing in their first language,
ongoing interaction with their family and wider community in their mother tongue on
increasingly complex topics beyond day-to-day matters, as well as exposure to
positive parental attitudes to maintaining their first language as a marker of cultural
identity and for functional purposes, for example in relation to local economy and
trade.

19
5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The primary purpose of this research is to explore the views of founders of

international schools in Ethiopia about the benefits and challenges of using English
as a medium of instruction as well as the importance of mother tongue learning. It
also explores the educational aims behind establishing an international school in the
first place and further developing it.

The research questions are:

1. What are the benefits of having English as a medium of instruction?
2. What are the challenges of having English as a medium of instruction?
3. What is the importance of mother tongue learning?
4. What are the educational aims behind establishing and developing an international
school?

From a larger perspective, this research aims to give a preliminary background and
an impetus for further research addressing the gap between the increase in
international private schools where the medium of instruction is one other than the
mother tongue of the majority of the students, and the concern of using a non-mother
tongue-based system that does not comply with national policies (FDRE 1994) and
international recommendations (UNESCO 1953; UNESCO 2010; UNICEF 2016).
Although the concerns regarding the choices of medium of instruction are widely
addressed through policy reforms, and the practical challenges in implementation are
being increasingly recognized, the particular gap addressed in this study has been
studied very little if at all. Perhaps the reasons are that the students attending private
schools are in the minority, and that statistically they seem to be achieving better in
comparison to public and community schools (Negash 2006, 40). In other words,
they are currently not the primary concern of educational developers in the country.
They are, however, the concern of the founders of these schools, and therefore it is
important to study the grounds on which these founders chose to establish
international schools with English as a medium of instruction in the first place, and

20
what their views are on the benefits and challenges of this choice and the importance
of the mother tongue.

Because of the high esteem given to private international schools by the public and
their increase in number, size and influence, the choices made by these schools with
regard to the medium of instruction affect an increasing number of students as well
as the attitudes of the wider community (Hayden & Thompson 2008). This
underlines the importance of researching this area and possibly embarking in
preventive measures.

21
6 RESEARCH METHOD

This research aims to explore whether the founders of the international schools in
Addis Ababa are aware of and concerned about the challenges brought by the
medium of instruction used in their schools and the fact that it contradicts national
policies and international recommendations. It also explores the aims behind
establishing international schools, indicating their possible relation to the needs of
the surrounding international community or a certain dissatisfaction towards the
current educational system.

The method chosen for this qualitative research was thematic analysis, a method for
systematically identifying and organising patterns of meaning, in other words
themes, across a dataset, as well as offering insight into them. Thematic analysis was
chosen for its flexibility and easy use in cases such as this, where the data may be
small but contain meaningful commonalities (Braun & Clarke 2012, 2). Mainly
inductive, but also deductive approaches to data coding and analysis were used,
inductive meaning that the themes are derived from the commonalities found in the
content of the data itself, and deductive meaning that the themes or codes used for
interpreting the data are introduced by the researcher (Braun & Clarke 2012, 3), in
this case from earlier background experience and research on the topics presented in
chapters 1 to 4.

6.1 The participants in the study and the collection of data

Four founders of two international schools in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia were included
in this research. These two schools were chosen because both of them use English as
their medium of instruction, while more than 90 percent of their student’s mother
tongue is Amharic. Amharic and French are also taught in both schools. These
schools have been running and evolving for more than 10 years.

22
The founders of these two schools are all in middle adulthood and have notable
educational backgrounds in higher education, however, not in the field of educational
leadership, management or development, or education in general. They all have also
substantial work experience either in their respective fields or business. All the
participants speak and write fluent or good English, due to which the data was
collected completely in English language.

To gain an understanding of the views of the founders on the benefits and challenges
of using English as a medium of instruction and the importance of mother tongue
learning, an open questionnaire was a clear choice. While interviewing would have
been another option for data collection, its practical implementation would have been
challenging due to the distance between the researcher and the participants in the
study, possible technical problems, as well as lack of clarity, which leaves more
room for misinterpretations. Additionally, an open questionnaire through e-mail
correspondence allowed the participants to have more time to reflect on the questions
and their answers.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire used for the data collection was self-designed due to there being
no recorded earlier research on the specific topic and context. A questionnaire
(Appendix 1) was prepared based on the research questions and relevant background
information. It was sent in three parts through e-mail correspondence with the four
participants in the study. All parts consisted of open-ended questions. As regards
answering the questions individually, the participants were asked not to consult with
each other, other persons or to search for information or inspiration from other
external sources either before or when answering the questions.

The first part of the questionnaire consisted of questions inquiring about the
background of the study participants. The participants’ background details have been
kept confidential out of respect for their privacy. The first part of the questionnaire

23
also inquired about the year their school was established, how many of their students
are Ethiopian or speak Amharic and the medium of instruction and other languages
used in the school, as shown in Appendix 1.

The second part of the questionnaire served as a basis for understanding the initial
aspirations and aims of the participants for establishing an international school and
for the education they provide. The questions asked were:
● Why did you decide to establish an international school in the first place?
● What has been your aim in regards to the education you provide? Have your
aims changed since you established the school? Why and how?
● How do students learn best in your opinion? What are the things that need to
be taken into consideration in order to provide adequate education for your
students?
● What are the main things that you hope to further develop in your school?

The third, and the main part of the questionnaire inquired about the apparent benefits
and challenges of having English as a medium of instruction. This was done in the
form of a blank table to be filled in, with benefits and challenges in the columns and
individual student, teacher, school and the wider community on the rows (Appendix
1) to assure the breadth of the perspective of the answers. This question was designed
to explore whether the benefits of using English as a medium of instruction as seen
by the founders are in fact such benefits that are obtained simply by early English
language learning, and whether the challenges of using English as a medium of
instruction as seen by the founders can be overcome by switching to mother tongue
learning or by other measures.

The following questions also were asked:

● What is the importance of mother tongue learning for the individual student?
● What is your understanding about the national guidelines regarding the
medium of instruction, first, second or third language learning?
● Would you change anything in regards to language learning in your school?
What and why?

24
The correspondence involved a few corrective questions by the author due to missing
information. One of the four participants answered only a few questions and was
then out of reach. These answers have been included in the data, but it is important to
note that the majority of the data is from only three participants. The data was
collected during a period of one and a half months.

6.2 Data analysis

According to the six-phase approach to thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke 2012, 5),
in order to familiarize oneself with the data (Phase 1), the first phase of thematic
analysis, the collected data was first read through a few times, the answers of one
participant at a time, and then categorized under each question of the questionnaire to
compare and generate initial codes (Phase 2) in order to thematise the answers of all
three to four participants. Themes were searched for (Phase 3) based on finding
similarities between the answers of the participants, while reflecting them against
earlier research and background information. Several sub-themes were identified
from the written data, after which some essential themes could be drawn from these
sub-themes. Once these were identified and the respective comments highlighted, the
answers were reorganized under the identified themes and revised for validity
(Phases 4 and 5). The process of thematising is further explained in Figure 1. The
figure gives an example of how sub-themes were identified from and further
connected to a main theme.

25
Although the data collection is somewhat inspired by the empirical experiences of
the author in these schools, and the discussion part of this study is certainly
influenced by these experiences, they are excluded from the study itself since they
have not been recorded concurrently. In terms of the reliability of this study, this
personal relationship may have created attitudes and preconceptions that influence
the analysis. However, it is also important to note that a deeper understanding of the
culture and context is likely to help in understanding the underlying issues and the
bigger picture related to this study, thereby contributing positively to its reliability.

Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind the narrow scope of this study and the
conciseness of the data collected. As mentioned earlier, the majority of the data is
only from three participants. This allows little depth in the study, but certainly, as
intended, a new perspective on the important topic of the choice of medium of
instruction, hopefully encouraging future studies of more depth and a wider scope.

27
7 RESULTS

The results of this research are presented here in the order of the four research
questions, starting from the main themes found in relation to the benefits and
challenges of using English as a medium of instruction as viewed by the founders,
after which the views of the founders with regard to the importance of the mother
tongue are discussed. Finally, the results on the educational aims behind establishing
and developing the international schools are laid out.

7.1 The benefits of using English as a medium of instruction

When asked about the benefits of English as a medium of instruction, four main
themes stood out. One of the themes brought up several times by all of the three
participants who answered this part of the questionnaire was ​better accessibility of
English materials as well as the existence of better curricula​. This theme was
considered relevant by the participants from the student’s, teacher’s and the school’s
perspective. It was mentioned that both the students and the teachers have better
resources or references available in the English language, more specifically, they
have access to many books written in English as well as the internet. One of the
participants mentioned YouTube as an example of a teaching aid for classes.
Furthermore, there are better curricula and better teacher’s guides available in
English, according to the participants.

Another theme brought up by all three respondents was ​better job opportunities
and career development if the language of instruction is English. This was mainly
concerning the students. One of the participants, however, described this more
broadly, including the teacher’s and parent’s perspective, saying:

28
 “The teacher can get a good paying job after they leave... (the respective
school). They are more confident in their work.”

“More students will join… (the respective school) because parent wish better
paying jobs for their children.”

Furthermore, two of the respondents related better job opportunities to global society
and the international market.

The third recognized theme was a positive influence on the wider community​. This
was related, for example, to a better workforce and professional materials. One of the
participants mentioned that currently most Ethiopian professionals have difficulties
in writing professional papers or reports in English. The know-how in English was
also related to economic growth, as well as an increase in awareness about the wider
world.

The fourth main theme was ​wider chances for communication​. The use of English
as a medium of instruction was seen to help the students communicate with diverse
people and to make interaction with the international community easy.

One other notable benefit of English as a medium of instruction mentioned by one

participant was that the school attracts more students. This participant further
explained that many parents have more confidence in the school’s ability to provide
quality education, and the wider community is generally more interested in schools
where the medium of instruction is English. Also, the school becomes accessible for
international or diaspora students due to the language of instruction. One of the
respondents also considered that this language policy of the school demonstrates the
ideals of world citizenship.

29
7.2 The challenges of using English as a medium of instruction

In relation to the challenges brought about by using English as a medium of

instruction, the most widely discussed topic among the respondents was ​teachers’
lack of proficiency both in the English language and in teaching in English​. All
three respondents, excluding the one who failed to respond to this part of the
questionnaire, mentioned this issue several times. In relation to the teachers’ lack of
proficiency and skill to teach in English, the respondents also recognized lack of
confidence and even lack of effort to improve. The respondents noted a gap between
the students and the teachers, saying that sometimes the students end up being more
skilled or conversant than the teachers, and that sometimes teachers teach the
students with incorrect pronunciation and grammar, passing this on to the students
who think their teachers are correct. On the other hand, according to another
respondent skilled students sometimes end up having less confidence in their
teacher’s ability to teach. One of the respondents said that there are not many English
native speakers available to teach the language, possibly indicating that this would be
preferable.

Another theme brought up by two respondents was a ​lack of parental involvement​.

One of the respondents notes that some parents may not even speak English.
Furthermore, two participants expressed their concern about the ​loss of the mother
tongue or culture​, not only from the perspective of the student, but also the wider
community. They wrote:

“We have found that the student tends to gravitate towards English and
begins to prefer English over his/her mother tongue. Some parents have
complained that their child is unable to freely converse with grandparents, or
that they switch over the English when they want to talk about more complex
topics.”

30
 “There is a risk of losing the language and culture over time.”

“Cultural gaps being created due to kids’ inclination to take in other ideas
thru the language.”

Some of the respondents mentioned a ​lack of support from the government as a

challenge of having English as medium of instruction, due to the country’s policy
that promotes local languages in the lower grades. One participant mentioned the
lack of useful English resources to teach the language as a challenge of English as a
medium of instruction. The participant who mentioned this also mentioned the extent
of English literature and materials as a benefit. Perhaps this is an indication that
while there are many materials available in the language, there are not many that are
developed specifically for the context and use of second language learners.

Other notable comments by the participant in relation to the challenges of English as

a medium of instruction were:

“English is not spoken outside the classroom. Not easy to develop the skill.”

“A number of other good teachers who do not have a good command of

English, do not get hired”

“Acquiring foreign currency to import the books will be challenging because

there is a shortage of US Dollar of currency in the country”

In conclusion, there were four main themes recognized under the benefits and four
under the challenges of using English as a medium of instruction as viewed by the
founders of the international private schools. These main themes are presented in
Table 1.

31
Table 1. The benefits and challenges of using English as a medium of instruction
as viewed by the founders of two international schools in Ethiopia.

ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

Benefits Challenges

➔ better accessibility of English ➔ teacher’s lack of proficiency

materials as well as existence of both in the English language and
better curricula in teaching in English

➔ better job opportunities and ➔ lack of parental involvement

career development

➔ positive influence on the wider ➔ loss of the mother tongue or

community culture

➔ wider chances for ➔ lack of support from the

communication government

7.3 The importance of the mother tongue

All four respondents recognized the importance of learning the mother tongue as a
basis for all learning and the ​development of identity​. They all also understood
and were ​aware of the national policy of mother tongue instruction through primary
education. Two of the respondents explained the importance of the mother tongue as
follows:

“It is important that the student fully develop language in their mother
tongue. Otherwise you could have a situation where the student is not 100%
comfortable in his/her mother tongue and not 100% comfortable in English.”

“When a student learns with a mother tongue, he/she interacts with

confidence with the environment and peers. The child also develops

32
 self-confidence and acceptance and have a strong identity. In order to
effectively solve local social issues without a mother tongue, it becomes a
difficult task. The students always feels as an outsider.”

Only one, however, would change the language policy of the respective school,
preferring that the students do not begin learning English until the first or third grade.
According to that respondent, this would allow the student to develop a very strong
foundation in their mother tongue and thus also become fluent in English. This
respondent further stated that it would be good for the students to continue learning
one or two subjects in Amharic in addition to learning Amharic as a subject, to
further develop their vocabulary for more complex conversations.

One of the participants explained the reasoning behind the school’s language policy
by stating that they have students from different nationalities. According to the
background information however, these international students make up less than 10
per cent of all the students. Another participant from the same school referred to the
supremacy of the English language as an international language of wider
communication.

Furthermore, one participant criticized the national policy, stating that the change of
medium of instruction is too abrupt after the primary years, and that it would be
preferable to have one medium of instruction throughout a child’s schooling. In this
light, the respondent preferred the language policy of the international school to that
of most of the government schools, where many students are not passing the
mandatory national exams in grades 8, 10 and 12. The respondent showed
confidence in their school’s language policy by stating:

“...private ones don't follow the instruction and we are teaching both
strongly. And we're successful in the National Exams. You won’t find failure
from the private schools.”

In conclusion, the participants more or less recognized that the mother tongue of the

33
student serves as a basis for learning and the development of identity. They are also
all aware of the national mother tongue-based primary education policy.
Nevertheless, only one would change school policy towards a more mother
tongue-based one. The reasons why the other founders prefer English medium of
instruction cannot be explained by lack of awareness of either national education
policies or the importance of the mother tongue.

7.4 The educational aims behind the international schools

All of the respondents mentioned the ​need for international education ​as the initial
inspiration for establishing the schools. One of them further explained the term as
follows:

“So when we used the word international, from my perspective, we wanted to

bring lessons learned and practices from international experiences to
Ethiopia.”

Two respondents, one from each school, mentioned that their ​own children partly
motivated the establishment of the school. One of them said:

“...we had difficulties finding affordable high quality-education for our…

(number) children. At the same time we sought a school which would balance
academic excellence with character education in an international standard
education.”

Additionally, two founders of the same school expressed the importance of ​fostering
the desire in the students to serve humanity​.

When the respondents were asked about understanding of the learning process, with
the question “How do students learn best in your opinion?”, the theme of language
was not brought up by the participants. However, two participants focused in their

34
answers on the importance of ​well-trained and skilled teachers​, although not
specifically in language at this point. It was mentioned that even with poor facilities
and almost no materials, educational goals can be achieved with good teachers. The
characteristics of good teacher that were identified from the answers were:
well-trained, loving, dedicated, concerned, skilled at asking the right questions to
lead the students to discover knowledge and skilled at creating an environment where
students are allowed to ask questions and make mistakes while learning. One of the
respondents considered the training/mentoring of teachers, the establishment of
proper systems and monitoring of the quality of education as some of the
responsibilities of the school. Additionally, some mentioned that the characteristics
of quality education were hands on practice instead of focus on theories alone,
proven curriculum, character education, a loving environment and motivation.

When asked about what the respondents want to further develop in their schools, two
of them mentioned better systems. More specifically one of them explained, that
better systems need to be in place to sustain the school in the first place so as not to
be financially dependent or dependent on its founders alone. Furthermore, in regard
to the quality of education the school provides, it needs systems to monitor the
quality of education, and assist and mentor teachers to reach their full potential.

In conclusion, the main aims behind establishing the international schools according
to the participants were to provide international quality education, to provide quality
education for one’s own children and to foster the desire in the students to serve
humanity. The main aims in regard to further developing the international schools
were to have better trained and skilled teacher as well as to develop better systems.

35
8 DISCUSSION

This research aimed to explore the views of founders of private international schools
in Ethiopia about the benefits and challenges of using English as a medium of
instruction, as well as the importance of mother tongue learning, thus shedding light
on the choice of their school’s language policy and possibly even its international
orientation. The main benefits of English as a medium of instruction identified by the
founders of the two international private school were the better accessibility of
English materials as well as existence of better curricula, a positive influence on the
wider community, wider chances for communication, and better job opportunities
and career development. Furthermore, the main challenges of English as a medium
of instruction mentioned were teachers’ lack of proficiency both in the English
language and in teaching in English, lack of parental involvement, loss of mother
tongue and culture and lack of support by the government.

Interestingly, according to earlier research, most of the challenges of English as a

medium of instruction as viewed by the participants of this study could be overcome
to a great extent if the medium of instruction was the mother tongue of the students.
Teachers would be more comfortable and skilled to teach in their mother tongue as
well as able to communicate with the students (Uys et al. 2007; EFMoE 2015, 58;
UNESCO 2010, 28), parents would be more involved (Benson 2002; Henderson &
Mapp 2002; Hoover-Dempsey et al. 2005; Wanat 2010), and the mother tongue and
culture would be preserved and strengthened (UNESCO 2011b, 6; Wolff 2011, 97).
This would be in line with the encouragement of the government and its mother
tongue-based educational policies.

On the other hand, most of the identified benefits are related to strong second
language learning, not necessarily entailing that the second language would be used
as the medium of instruction. One point that stands out, however, is that there are
better learning materials and curricula available in the English language. However,

36
many of these materials are both inadequate for the expected reading level of the
students, often developed for native speakers, or culturally irrelevant, mostly
obtained from other cultural settings (Negash 2006, 33). It could therefore be
suggested that one of the main things to achieve in order to strengthen mother
tongue-based learning is the development of better and culturally relevant learning
materials and curricula in the students’ mother tongue.

Teacher proficiency

Another area in addition to better materials and curricula that needs to be addressed
is teacher proficiency. The topic most emphasised by the participants was the
importance of good teachers and their training, not only from the language
perspective, but on a more general level. In this particular language context,
however, their lack of proficiency both in English and in teaching it, their lack of
confidence and effort to improve, were discussed.

Regardless of whether English is used as a medium of instruction or taught as a

second language, very often teachers lack the adequate language proficiency and
competence to teach the language (Dearden 2014, 27). International private schools
in particular may then rely on native speakers to teach it. As one of the respondents
mentioned, they are harder to find. But that may not be the only problem. The
question should be raised of whether it is actually preferable to have a native speaker
to teach a foreign language or not. In this particular school context, from the author’s
own experiences both parents and students gave positive comments on the teaching
of English by non-native speakers who nevertheless had a good command of English.
According to the parents and students, they were practically able to take more into
consideration the fact that English is not the students’ mother tongue by, for
example, speaking more slowly and clearly. The parents and students further
complained that natives would speak too fast and use too difficult language for the
students to understand. Some of the teachers also complained about the big
differences in the style of English taught by an American native speaker versus a
British native speaker in one of the schools. It could be said that a native speaker

37
brings a certain cultural colour to their language teaching, possibly even more than
just through the accent or vocabulary they teach, which may be confusing to the
students. A native English-speaking teacher may, therefore. be just as in need of
training in language education than any other teacher.

Regardless of the choice of medium of instruction, there are nearly always students
who do not share their peer’s mother tongue. When the medium of instruction is not
the mother tongue of the student, there are many additional challenges that the
teachers need training to overcome. The challenges are greater the more students
there are whose language of instruction differs from the language they use at home.
For example, it is highly important that teachers are able to adequately strengthen
and support the mother tongue and culture of the students (UNESCO 2011b, 6) as
well as recognize and address the individual needs of the students caused by possible
communication barriers (McCardle et. al 2005, 2; Ortiz 2007, 281). These are just
some of the areas where teachers need training.

It is clearly established that if the medium of instruction is English, there is a greater

load of responsibility on the teachers to improve their language and teaching skills.
According to this study, sometimes the students speak, read and write better than the
teachers themselves. This seems to affect both the students’ lack of confidence in
their teacher’s ability to teach as well as the teacher’s own level of confidence. This
confidence and its effect on teaching, teacher credibility and teacher proficiency is a
theme worth exploring separately in future studies.

Parents’ resistance

According to both earlier research (Ambatchew 2010, 204-205) as well as the results
of this study, parents seem to favour private international education. The availability
of better learning materials and curricula may be part of the reason for this, but there
is likely more to it. According to Cohen (2007, 64), some of the reasons can also be
inequality of the many languages in their adequacy for use in education and possible
ethnic and regional division. Could it also be that there is some kind of culturally

38
prevalent elitism and a chase after status influencing the choice of English as a
medium of instruction? This is a somewhat visible trait in many areas of society, and
could be related to the educational sector as well. As an example, during the author's
stay in one of the schools, one of the founders imparted that some time ago the
school opened its doors to children with lower socioeconomic status through a
scholarship program. The parents with high socioeconomic status were appalled. In
order to keep the customers and the private school running, the founders had no
choice but to cancel the experiment and focus on the paying parents.

Furthermore, it is possible that the parents lack knowledge or have false

preconceptions about language learning in general, the importance of the mother
tongue, as well as about English language learning. While the school benefits and
thrives by attracting families with high socioeconomic status, it is possible that this
attraction may be based on false premises. These would be areas worth examining. In
general, there are more studies about teachers’ perspectives on language learning and
medium of instruction, but the studies about the parents’ perspective are few in
number and more narrow in scope, and no such broader studies have been recorded
in the Ethiopian context.

Re-examining the aims of the international schools

Furthermore, the question of the aims of establishing an international school in the

first place need to be re-examined. As Hayden and Thompson (2008) describe, there
are roughly two trends, one addressing the needs of the children of the surrounding
international community, and another expressing a certain dissatisfaction with the
quality of education in the country. There are indications that the schools in this
study are following the latter trend. Such indications are the low percentage of
international students in these schools as well as the results in regard to the main
aims behind establishing the international schools, which were to provide
international quality education, to provide quality education for one’s own children
and to foster the desire in the students to serve humanity.

39
Further considerations

Both previous studies and the results of this study support the idea that those students
who attend private schools are indeed better in English and other subjects (Negash
2006, 40) and do better in national exams. This can be another reason why parents
may prefer sending their children to private international schools. What is unknown,
however, are the reasons behind this success. It is unlikely that the reason would be
related to the medium of instruction, since a plethora of research strongly supports
the relationship of mother tongue-based learning to relative academic excellence.
One of the indicators that could be further examined is the socioeconomic status of
the parents (UNESCO 2011b, 18), which may relate to the students’ increased
exposure to language and knowledge, and even the parents having more time and
resources to support their children's schooling. In addition, there may be other
contributing factors such as the better resources of private schools, targeted training
for national exams and better pay for the teachers, to name a few. These are again
areas that need further research for a thorough understanding of the relevant factors.

Certainly, in this regard as well as more generally, researching the students’

perspective is as relevant as studying that of the teachers and parents, if not more
relevant. Although the topics in this study are interconnected, the student perspective
was not really emphasised in the answers of the founders specifically. The focus was
certainly more on the teachers and the school. The students’ personal experiences
should not only be explored through research, but also included in decision making
processes within the school. The students should be given a voice on their own
schooling.

Furthermore, comparative studies are encouraged. Regardless of the narrow scope of

this study, there were possible indications that the backgrounds of the respondents
may have influenced the results. If a wider study is to be executed, comparing the
results to the background information of the respondents is strongly suggested. In
addition, it would be useful to compare international private schools to public as well

40
as community schools.

While the results of this study cannot be generalized due to its scope, they
nevertheless highlight an area that can easily be neglected in the wider discussion of
medium of instruction and related developments, and they raise several important
questions to be answered in future studies. The results of this study give due cause to
include the private school perspective and to re-examine the choice of medium of
instruction in private international schools.

Concluding remarks

There is considerable evidence from within the Ethiopian education system that
focusing on investing in teaching and assessing students through the use of English
as a medium of instruction has a very low rate of return to the system (Heugh et al.
2007, 8). While this study, former research and policy give strong evidence in favour
of mother tongue-based learning, it is important to note that there is no consensus
about exactly when and how a second language should be introduced to the students.
There are several ways to implement dual language policy in a school setting, but the
ways should neither be inconsistent or too rigid, and should be carefully chosen to
equally meet the needs of all children in the school (Baker 2011, 225-228), including
those whose mother tongue is neither. In the case of an international school,
therefore, there is nothing against putting a strong emphasis on English language
learning as long as the mother tongue and culture of the students are given their
respective priority, and as long as that they serve as the basis for all learning and are
continually strengthened. To conclude, the due significance of the importance of the
choice of medium of instruction in education is encapsulated in the following
quotation: “Language is not everything in education but without language everything
is nothing in education” (Wolff 2011, 55).

41
42
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APPENDIX

Background information:

How old are you?

What is your educational background?

What kind of work experience do you have?

When was your school established?

How many of the students (%) are Ethiopian/Amharic speakers?

What is the medium of instruction? What other languages are taught in your school? In which grade
and for how many hours is each language taught?

__________________________________________________________________________________

Part 1.

Why did you decide to establish an international school in the first place? What has been your aim in
regards to the education you provide? Have your aims changed since you established the school? Why
and how?

How do students learn best in your opinion? What are the things that need to be taken into
consideration in order to provide adequate education for your students?

What are the main things that you hope to further develop in your school? Why?

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Part 2.

Please fill in the following chart. What are the benefits and challenges of having English as a medium
of instruction? Consider this from the perspectives of the individual student, teacher, school and the
wider community.

Benefits Challenges

Individual student

Teacher

School

Wider community

What is the importance of mother tongue learning for the individual student?

What is your understanding about the national guidelines regarding the medium of instruction, first,
second or third language learning?

Would you change anything in regards to language learning in your school? What and why?

50