FULFIMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DIPLOMA IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

THE KISII NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

PROJECT:

THE CONSTRUCTION OF CLASS C ROAD FROM EXAMS OFFICE TO GATE B.

BY

FREDRICK ORINGO

INDEX NO: 703101 / 1637

SUPERVISOR: MR DAVID NYAKUNDI

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

JULY, 2024

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 DECLARATION
I declare that this project proposal is my original work and it has not been presented by anyone
else before for examination or any award of Diploma in Civil Engineering in any other
institution of higher learning or Kenya national examination Council.

NAME : FREDRICK ORINGO

DATE : …………………….…..…….

SIGNATURE : ………………………………

This project has been submitted for examination to Kenya national examination council with the
approval of:

NAME : MR. DAVID NYAKUNDI

DATE : …………………….………

SIGNATURE : ………………….…………

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 PREFACE
A project is an examinable paper by the Kenya national council to all students undertaking a
diploma course in civil engineering and other courses. As per the curriculum a brief is usually
given to students as early as possible for the project usually takes five six months. This was
given in May and survey work started almost immediately.

This project has been carried out as close as possible to the requirement of brief. Consultations
on various aspects were done and all material has been compiled as simple as possible for easy
understanding and adoption wherever possible.

It is my hope that this complied material will be of vital important to the examiner and the
general public as whole.

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 DEDICATION
First, I dedicate this research work to Almighty God who has brought me this far.

Also, to my family and friends who gave me the moral support throughout my research
works. I do appreciate them for their role of fueling, supporting and persistently
encouraging me into the world of learning and education since my childhood days. I
deeply appreciate their love, devotion, selflessness and foresight.

Finally, I dedicate this research work to all the lecturers who have been there for me throughout
the research process.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For satisfaction sincere gratitude will first go to all the people who stood by me to provide moral,
Spiritual and financial support during the time of writing this project. In the most special way let
me thank the following for their encouragement to complete this project making it a success.
a) My parents for ensuring I had finance for the project and their encouragement.
b) Mr. DAVID NYAKUNDI; My supervisor to his guidance through the project.
c) All lectures of building and civil engineering department for their motivation,
encouragement and training.
Let the lord shower to your blessings abundantly.

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 ABSTRACT
This project is meant to provide the student with knowledge and skills on what to undertake in
future. This proposal gives guidance on what to go through during project writing, in my
proposal I will be able to show the problem to be solved, advantages and disadvantages that will
be incurred by the project statement problem and also significance of the project. The project
will also provide a literature review which will highlight some of the history of road from ancient
times to date. Roads like macadam roads, Telford road and many more will be discussed.
I have also highlight on methodology to be followed in order to achieve the goals of the project
i.e. survey, soil mechanisms and design methods to be undertaken and the place of construction.
Also have briefed about data analysis, conclusion and recommendation of the whole project

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION...............................................................................................................................................i
PREFACE......................................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................1
1.0. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Main Objective.................................................................................................................................1
1.3. Specific Objective..............................................................................................................................1
1.4. Research Question............................................................................................................................1
1.5. Problem statement...........................................................................................................................2
1.6. Significance of the Problem..............................................................................................................2
1.6.1. Advantages................................................................................................................................2
1.6.2. Disadvantages............................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................................3
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................................3
2.1. ROADS..............................................................................................................................................3
2.1.1. Layout........................................................................................................................................3
2.1.2. Vertical Alignment.....................................................................................................................4
2.1.3. Pavement Structure...................................................................................................................4
2.1.4. Cross-section Elements..............................................................................................................4
2.1.5. Drainage Structure.....................................................................................................................5
2.1.6. Road Furniture...........................................................................................................................5
2.2.CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT..........................................................................................5
2.3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROADS............................................................................................5
2.3.1 ROMAN ROADS...........................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 TELFORD ROADS.........................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 MACADAM ROADS......................................................................................................................7

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 2.3.4 MODERN ROADS.........................................................................................................................8
2.4 ROAD CONSTRUCTION.......................................................................................................................9
2.4.1 EARTHWORK...............................................................................................................................9
2.5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF OVERLYING PAVEMENT.....................................................................10
2.6. INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK.....................................................................................12
2.6.1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................12
2.6.2. ACTS OF PARLIAMENT FOR REGULATORS AND STATUATORY APPROVALS IN THE
CONSTRUCTION SECTOR....................................................................................................................13
2.7. PAVEMENTS....................................................................................................................................17
2.7.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS...............................................................................................................17
2.7.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS....................................................................................................................20
2.7.3. PAVEMENT MATERIALS...........................................................................................................21
2.8. PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN......................................................................................................27
2.9. DESIGN METHODS..........................................................................................................................28
2.9.1. Group Index Methods..............................................................................................................28
2.9.2. CBR Design methods................................................................................................................29
2.9.3. Ministry of Works Design Method...........................................................................................30
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................32
3.0. METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................................32
3.1. SURVEY...........................................................................................................................................32
3.1.1. CHAIN SURVEYING...................................................................................................................32
3.1.2. RECONNAISSANCE...................................................................................................................33
3.1.3. EXISTING BOUNDARIES AND SERVICES....................................................................................33
3.1.4. TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR................................................................................................................33
3.1.5. LOCATING OF TEMPORARY BENCHMARKS..............................................................................33
3.1.6. SITE CONDITION.......................................................................................................................34
3.1.7. DETAILED SURVEYING..............................................................................................................34
3.1.8 TAKING OF LEVELS....................................................................................................................34
3.1.9. DESCRIPTION SURVEY..............................................................................................................35
3.2. SOIL MECHANICS............................................................................................................................35
3.2.1. SOIL TESTING...........................................................................................................................35
3.2.2. BEARING CAPACITY TESTS (CBR)..............................................................................................35

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CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................38
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................38
4.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................38
4.2 QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN RATE.......................................................................................................38
4.2.3 SUMMARY OF FINDING............................................................................................................40
4.3 CONSTRUCTION OF CLASS C. ROAD.................................................................................................40
4.4 AVAILABILITY OF LAND FOR CONSTRUCTION OF CLASS C. ROAD PROJECT AT KISII NATIONAL
POLYTECHNIC........................................................................................................................................40
4.5 STUDENT ENROLLMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CLASS C. ROAD PROJECT AT KISII NATIONAL
POLTECHNIC..........................................................................................................................................41
4.6 FINANCIAL RESOURCES AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CLASS C. ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECT AT
KISII NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC...............................................................................................................41
4.7 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................................42
4.8. RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................................43
SYMBOLS...............................................................................................................................................44
REFERENCE / BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................45

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1BACKGROUND INFORMATION

In Kisii National Polytechnic there is a growing in population and traffic hence congestion of in
the college. I have decided to come up with this project to help reduce congestion of students,
staff and traffic within the college by designing a class C road which starts from the exams office
to gate B. I will be able to accomplish this project through knowledge gained from survey,
measurements, costing and estimation, construction material, transportation and generally
construction.

1.2. Main Objective

To facilitate easy movement of students, staff and traffic

1.3. Specific Objective

1. To provide easy access of students to various classes in the college
2. To provide easy transport within the polytechnic
3. To improve the aesthetic view of the college

1.4. Research Question

1. How to provide easy access of students to various classes in the college?
2. How to provide easy transport within the polytechnic?
3. How to improve the aesthetic view of the college?

1.5. Problem statement

The proposed design and construction of Class C Road from Exams Office to Gate B is to
improve easy movement of student, staff and traffic within the college. This problem will be
solved by the construction of this kind of road hence I came up with an idea to solve this
problem.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. ROADS
. 2.1.1. Layout

This is a representation of the road in plan form showing alignment in the horizontal plane in
addition to associated features like drains, culverts, bridges, footways, cycle ways, adjacent
structures like buildings etc. In the horizontal plane a road will show the tangent sections,
horizontal curves, alignment and widths of lanes, and layout of junctions and intersections.
Curves can be simple, compound, parabolic, transitional etc. Carriageway widths can be as
narrow as 4.5m (i.e. 2 lanes) and can be as wide as 15m (i.e. 5 lanes). Junctions and major
intersections constitute a major component in layout alignment of a road especially in terms of
design, In a ranking order there will be T-junctions, Y-junctions, staggered-junctions, cross-
roads, roundabouts, traffic-signal controlled junctions, separated I grade intersections and
sometimes a combination of some of these. Quite often inadequately designed intersections are a
source of road traffic-accidents,

2.1.2. Vertical Alignment.

This is the alignment form of a road in a vertical plane giving gradients downhill or uphill or
level gradient. There are also vertical curves that are involved in connecting the different
adjacent vertical grades. Vertical curves can be simple or parabolic.

2.1.3. Pavement Structure

The pavement structure is a major road element which is designed to ensure that the vehicle
running on the carriageway does not sink into the pavement. This requires the knowledge of the
strength of road construction materials to be used, the required combination of these construction
materials, in addition to the strength of the natural ground (sub grade) upon, which the pavement
structure is to be built. Thus occurrence of cracks, distortions, potholes and other distress
features on road pavements indicate inadequacy of pavement structures.

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2.1.4. Cross-section Elements
Cross-section elements of a road are seen when a vertical section is taken across a road reserve
showing the road and its associated elements. Such elements include:-

• Carriageway with the lanes

• The Krebs and channels marking the edges of a carriageway
• The footpaths adjacent to the roadway
• The verges planted with grass and flowers.
• The Median for dual carriageway configuration
• Side drains which could be earth drain ditches, concrete channels and Pipes,
• Extent of road reserve
• Side service roads if provided
• Cycle track if provided
• Pavement make up

2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT

• Are relatively cheap
• Are convenient
• Are used by busses, trucks, and cycles
• Road construction and maintenance i.e. requires less instruments compared to
other means.
• One is able to change lanes.
• It is cheaper for short distances.

2.7. PAVEMENTS

2.7.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

A road pavement is a structure consisting of super-imposed of selected and processed materials.

The two types of pavements recognized are flexible and rigid pavements.

Flexible pavements consists of a layered system of materials which distribute the wheel loads to
the foundation layer.

Pressure is transmitted through the lateral distribution of the applied loads with depth

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  Sub-grade

This is the layer of natural soil prepared to receive other layers of the pavement. The loads of the
pavements are ultimately supported by the sub-grade and disposed to the earth mass below. The
sub-grade is close to formation level.

Formation Level

This is the surface of then ground in its final shape upon which the pavement structures are
constructed.

 Improved sub-grade

This is the layer of selected field materials, placed on the top of the formation level. It is placed
where the natural ground is not strong enough.

The sub-grade should possess the following properties;-

- Good drainage
- Ease of compaction
- Strong
- Permanency of compaction.
 Sub-base

This is the layer of granular soil, stabilized soils, gravel or broken stones.in the design of the sub-
base economy is an essential retirement, hence as far as possible locally available materials
should be used.

Functions of Sub-Base

1. To increase the structural support of the base and surfacing course.

2. To improve drainage.
3. To prevent the base and the surfacing course from the ill effects of poor quality of the ill
effects of poor quality of the underlying layers.
4. To improve the building of relatively strong pavements at a low cost.

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  Surfacing Course

This is the uppermost layer of a flexible pavement.

Functions

- Provide a safe and controllable driving surface for traffic

- It protects the layers beneath from the effect of natural elements as well as from dis-
integration effect caused by vehicle skidding and braking.

Surfacing Material

The type of material used depends on the quality of surface required on the road. These materials
vary from, loose mixture of earth and gravel to the very highest type of bituminous mixtures.

2.7.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid Pavements are constructed using either reinforced or jointed unreinforced concrete and
comprise of surfacing, concrete base and sub base.
The use of sub base layer may be avoided depending on construction method and quality of
subgrade and alignment soils.
The thickness of the concrete base depends on quality of subgrade and expected traffic loading.

2.7.2.1. Traffic Loading On Flexible Pavements.

General

The primary contributor to pavement distress is the traffic on the pavement which includes
commercial vehicles and the pedestrians. Pavement design is basically concerned with the
protection of the subgrade from the effects of pressures emanating from this traffic loading. The
pavement properties including; Layer thickness, Pavement materials, Environmental conditions
and Operating conditions will influence the level of damage caused by heavy axles.

2.7.3. PAVEMENT MATERIALS.

All highways have to be founded on the natural soil and all require efficient usage of locally
available materials, for maximum economic benefits. The materials used in the construction of

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highways are of interest to the highway engineer particularly with regard to their properties an
engineering characteristic. This requires not only a thorough understanding of the soil and
aggregate properties which affect pavement stability and durability but also the properties of the
binding materials which may be added to improve natural materials.

2.7.3.1. Subgrade.
According to Road Design Manual Part III, the most important characteristics of sub grade is its
elastic modulus. It has been proved that there is good correlation between the CBR and elastic
modulus of Kenyan soils.

Since CBR test is fairly easy and widely used test, it has been decided to retain it as the
quantitative means of evaluating the sub grade bearing strength.

2.7.3.2. Sub base Materials.

A number of many different types of materials are usually used as sub base. Several tests have
been carried out on materials under different loadings conditions and under different climatic
conditions. In Kenya, Road Design Manual Part III gives a variety of materials which can be
used for the sub base design on which the suitability depends on the traffic class/traffic loading.
It further gives the requirements which must be followed in order to achieve a satisfactory
strength which can last for the design life of the pavement. Different materials have different
requirements and guidelines which must be followed during the construction process. The
following materials are commonly used:

i. Natural gravels
ii. Clay and silt sands
iii. Cement and lime improved materials
iv. Graded crushed stone
v. Soft stone.

Again for economic design, the selection of any of the materials listed above will depend on the
availability of the material in the project locality and in enough quality and quantity to certify the
design.

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2.7.3.3. Base Materials.
The road base being the main structure layer of the pavement, a number of materials have been
selected worldwide to be used as road basseting Kenya the studies which were carried and
compiled in Road Design Manual Part III gives a variety of material which can be used as road
bases. Further the Materials must also certify the standards and specifications for their. Charts
have also been developed outlining the traffic under which any of the materials chosen is most
suitable and all the requirements as pertains the construction and maintenance. Materials
commonly used in Kenya are;

 Natural gravel
 Cement and lime improved materials
 Cement stabilized materials
 Graded crushed stone
 Sand bitumen mixes
 Dense bitumen macadam
 Dense emulsion macadam
 Lean concrete

2.7.3.4. Surfacing Materials.

The choice of type of surfacing will be governed by the structural requirements, road safety
requirements, materials availability and cost considerations. For heavy and very heavy
traffic ,asphalt concrete type 1 surfacing is normally recommended owing to its high resistance
to deformation, compared to type II which is of relatively lower resistance to deformation.
Asphalt concrete should generally offer better riding surface, better water proofing, better
structural strength and better skid resistance than surface dressing, which is a combination of
layers of various single size aggregates bound with bituminous binder such that the upper layer is
of small enough aggregates to fill up spaces between the relatively coarse aggregates of the
lower layer.

2.9. DESIGN METHODS.

Analytical methods are essentially based on mathematical modeling techniques requiring the
use of proprietary computer software. The accuracy is dependent on the input of specific road

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building materials properties, which are most often no readily available. Being computer
generated, the process of arriving at specific pavement structure is not transparent and therefore
not readily appreciated by most engineers.

Empirical methods are very familiar and the process of arriving at a pavement structure is
easily followed by a simple progression through a series of tables and design graphs.

2.9.1. Group Index Methods

This is an empirical design method developed at the USA, is based on the particle distribution
and plasticity of the subgrade materials. This is an inverse measure of the supporting strength of
the sub grade. The higher the group index the lower is the soil strength. It rudimentarily
considers traffic loading under three groups:.

The basic consideration in developing this method was that as long as pavement layers above
subgrade are adequately compacted, their thickness may only be influenced by the strength of the
subgrade which depends on moisture content and internal structure of the soil.

2.9.2. CBR Design methods

This was developed by California State Highway Department, involves the determination of the
CBR value of the subgrade as well as that of the sub base and base materials. Pavement layer
thicknesses are then selected from the charts on the basis of the relevant design wheel load. This
method has since undergone modifications over the years to accommodate varying traffic
loading patterns, as well as different environmental conditions.

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.CHAPTER THREE

3.0. METHODOLOGY

3.1. SURVEY.
This is an art of determining relative position of points on above or below the ground level by
direct measurement of distance and elevation. The presentation of this information can either be
graphically or numerically or on maps bars and sections using suitable scale. The survey was
made up of the following elements.

i. Traversing of benchmarks to site so as to establish TBM

ii. Chain surveying.

The survey done on site was divided into the following;

i. Reconnaissance survey
ii. Detailed survey.

3.1.1. CHAIN SURVEYING.

The main reasonable as to why chain surveying is carried out is to obtain the centerline of the
proposed exams office – gated b Road. This will assist to locate the offsets and distance of the
other features. The center was located either sides of 8 meters from either sides of the road and a
change taken at 20Metre interval up to 320 meters.

3.1.2. RECONNAISSANCE.
This was done at the proposed exams office- gate B. Road prior to commencing of surveying.
We toured the site as a group on September to see the permanent and temporally feature. The site
is fairly level and hilly in some areas. It has trees, flowers and permanent buildings etc. The
surveying was conducted to:

i. Determine/identify the existing services.

ii. To know the type of soil in the area by visual investigation.
iii. To know the boundaries.
iv. To know the obstacles that may hinder the progress of the work.

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 v. To find out the difficulties in the area of construction.
vi. To plan for the location of the site.
vii. To monitor the traffic and select best method of survey.
viii. Locating survey marks.

3.1.4. TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR.

The traffic count was given to be 100 light good vehicles per day. This was taken during
morning and evening hours but there is a constant flow of vehicle in nearly every minute. To be
able to work on the road, a letter of introduction was issued to me by the ministry of roads,
public works and housing through the Kisii National Polytechnic civil and building Engineering
Department.

3.1.6. SITE CONDITION.

During the visit to the proposed project site we come across some obstacles such as permanent
building. The area hard no potholes which indicates that good compaction was conducted this
means that well water drainage was conducted. Because the identification of soil was not easy
the soil had to be tested in the lab.

3.1.7. DETAILED SURVEYING.

This was done after reconnaissance survey mainly to:

i. Mark the center line and edges of proposed road.

ii. Establish the best location of centerline on plan and elevation.
iii. To find out the reduced level of all points along the alignment.
iv. Establishing the survey stations.
v. Establishing the boundary stations.

Also leveling was conducted under detailed survey.

3.1.8 TAKING OF LEVELS.

Levels were taken using a dumpy level, tripod stand and adjustable staff where readings were
taken after 20 Meters interval. The exercise had adequate precision to bring out an accurate

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profile of the existing topographical ground. The levels were taken along the center line and
edges of existing road which began at transferred temporary benchmark.

Objectives of Leveling.

i. To be able to prepare the working drawings

ii. To estimate the earthworks.
iii. To be able to investigate the behavior of the road with respect to the benchmark.
iv. To be able to design drawing for the road.

3.1.9. DESCRIPTION SURVEY.

The proposed exams office – gate B. Road is located at Kisii National Polytechnic. It is fairly
flat and sharp corner over stream.

3.2. SOIL MECHANICS

3.2.1. SOIL TESTING

Purpose of Soil Tests

 To provide with the necessary data in order to come up with a structurally safe and
economical structure
 To come up with the best construction methods
 To be able to predict any possibilities of challenges and how to deal with them
 To be able to classify soil according to their appearance and physical characteristics

3.2.2. BEARING CAPACITY TESTS (CBR)

It involves penetration of a molded soil sample with a cylindrical plunger at a constant 1mm/min.
The force corresponding to penetration of 2.5mm and 5.0mm are used to determine the strength
and stability of the soil.

MDD and OMC that were obtained in proctor test are used to calculate mass of the wet soil and
mass of the dry soil and water content required.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

4.2 QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN RATE.

The study sampled 51 respondents from a total of 62 potential participants categorized into
group members and key informants. 66 group members were issued with self-administered
questionnaires and 43 dully filled questionnaires were returned denoting a 84.3% response rate.
(Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003) acknowledges that a response rate of at least 70% is sufficient
for social science research analysis. Hence the response rate was found to be adequate for the
study. The high response rate was attained because the researcher made follow ups with the
selected respondents and allowed them adequate time to fill in the questionnaires. Moreover,
the interviews were arranged at the convenience of the key informants and call backs made in
cases where the respondents were not available at the first attempt. Table 4.1 below indicates
questionnaire return rate

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