The Comprehensive Digital Photography Course - The Beginner's Guide To Getting Creative
The Comprehensive Digital Photography Course - The Beginner's Guide To Getting Creative
ERIC ANDERSON
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Copyright © 2020 Eric Anderson
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PART 1: BASICS OF IMAGE DESIGN
CHAPTER 1
THE LIGHT
Why is Light so Important for Photography?
The Effect of Light
Direct Light and Reflected Light
Photography is Painting with Light
Light is not the Same as Flash
Light Has a Color or the Function of White Balance
Strong Reflections Affect the Color of the Light
Light from Highly Concentrated To Diffuse
Atmospheric Landscapes
The Direction of Light
Incident
The Camera Flash and Flash Units
Natural Light, Available Light
Back Light
Grazing Light
Special Lighting Situations
Outdoor Portrait and Object Photography
CHAPTER 2
THE COLOR
Color is a Defining Design Element in Color Photos
Less Is Often More
Moods and the Automatic White Balance
Exact Color Rendering
Monochrome Color Photos
Simplicity of Colors
Vineyards in Autumn
Foreground Colors and Background Colors
Yellow is Also one of the Foreground Colors
CHAPTER 3
IMAGE SECTION
Enhance the Effect of an Image with the Image Detail
The Effect of Diagonals
The Middle is Not Always Correct
The Golden Ratio and the Aspect Ratio 4/3
The 4: 3 Image Axes
The Golden Cut
Balance in Image Design
Specify the Image Section Later
Image Statement and Image Section
Image Sections Never With the Original
Choosing the Right Format
Find the Image Section
Image Section Using a Practical Example
Find the Image Section
Angle of View and Recording Location
CHAPTER 4
DEPTH OF FIELD
The Depth of Field and the Level of Focus
Depth of Field and Size of the Sensor Surface
The Advantage of the Larger Format
Controlling Depth of Field
The aperture
The Focus Level
With The Choice of the Focus Level Influence the Focus
The Focal Length
Portrait Lenses
CHAPTER 5
FOCAL LENGTH
Use the Focal Length of a Lens as a Design Tool
What is the Focal Length?
The Focal Length of the Lens has Several Properties
The APS Sensor and the Angle of View
Portraits and the APS Sensor
The Depth of Field and the APS Sensor
Format Factor
Exposure Time and Telephoto Lenses
Use the Different Focal Lengths for the Image Design
The properties of the Focal Lengths Depend on the Angle of View
Use the Focal Length for the Design
Portrait Lens
Characteristics of the Different Focal Lengths
Wide Angle Lenses
Depth Graduation
Depth of Field
Angle of View Rejuvenation
Falling Lines
Barrel Distortion
The Standard Focal Length
Best Sharpness and Light Intensity
Sharpness and Depth of Field
Use the Advantages of the Standard Focal Length for Image Design
Telephoto Lenses
The Optical Properties of Telephoto Lenses
Depth of Field
Distortion
Angle of View rejuvenation
Light Intensity
Exposure Time
Distant Objects
Portraits
Shallow Depth of Field Means Being Careful
Focal Length and Distance Setting
CHAPTER 6
EXPOSURE TIME
Exposure Time as the Basic Camera Setting for Sharp Photos
Keep the Camera Still
Breathing Rhythm
The Camera
The Lens Used or the Zoom Level Set
Photos from a Vehicle or Plane
Long Exposure from a Tripod with SLR Cameras
Mirror Lock-Up
Remote Release
Image Stabilizer
The Exposure Time as a Creative Design Element
Freeze Movements
Freeze Movements in the Studio
Make Movements Visible
Blurred Background
Light Trails at Night
Photography is not simply an image of reality, it has never been, but like the
painting in its statement, it depends on many influences, which you as a
photographer usually have in your hand as well as the painter with the brush
has in hand.
The most important thing when taking pictures is light. Photography and
painting have a lot in common. Photography is painting with light.
The light and the appropriate exposure are the most important design
elements of photography. The two flowers above were both photographed
against the light. In the upper photo, almost total backlight from the afternoon
sun, the camera was almost in line with the sun, while in the lower photo, the
camera focused on the flowers at approximately right angles to the sun. By
the way, the background in the photo above is white! Outside wall of a house,
which was already in the shade. In the upper area, a window formed the
background of this photo. It appears black in relation to the white wall. The
short exposure makes the flowers shine. In the lower photo of the flowers, the
bed is the background.
The selected image section is another important element of the image design,
that's what the next chapter is about.
The Image Detail Determines the Effect of a Photo
The image section is just as important, except perhaps in panorama
photography, where the attractive location is more important. With the right
image section, you can significantly increase the effect of a photo.
Image Detail, Diagonals, Dynamics and the Golden Ratio
The selected focal length not only determines the image section, i.e. from a
lot of background with a wide-angle lens to very little background with a
telephoto lens, but also has a significant design function due to its specific
optical properties. This is the topic of the next chapter.
The Focal Length of the Lens as a Design Tool
Focal lengths have absolute properties, especially depth of field and
properties that depend on the angle of view. The size of the angle of view of a
focal length depends on the size of the sensor or the film format.
Cameras with APS sensors use the actual properties of a certain focal length
on the one hand, and on the other hand, because their sensors only have 2
thirds of the area of a full-frame camera, they have a smaller usable angle of
view. Because apart from the few lenses that were specially developed for the
APS format are used on cameras with APS sensor lenses for the full format,
which corresponds to the analog model 35mm format. A separate chapter is
therefore assigned to this problem. The smaller picture angle does not change
the optical properties of the lenses used.
Although zoom lenses are constructed differently from fixed focal lengths,
most of the statements made in the focal lengths chapter apply to both zoom
lenses and fixed focal lengths. However, good focal lengths are still superior
to a zoom lens in terms of imaging performance and light intensity.
Wide angle lenses pull everything far apart, a narrow river suddenly appears
like a huge body of water, tends to be barrel-shaped distortions and
everything is oversized in the foreground. Short focal lengths have an
enormous depth of field, which is why they are always in demand when it
comes to the largest possible area the depth of field goes.
Telephoto lenses have the opposite effect, shortening the angle of view
considerably but not distorting it and pushing the background and foreground
together. With increasing focal length, telephoto lenses have an increasingly
shallow depth of field, which is why they are also the ideal lenses for
portraits.
In between, the standard lens with 50 mm focal length stands for the 35 mm
format corresponding to the full digital format. With this focal length,
maximum light intensities and the best sharpness are achieved. In terms of its
optical properties (depth of field, distortion), the normal lens is closer to
wide-angle lenses than to telephoto lenses.
Apparently, this focal length also corresponds to our perception, but this only
applies to the depth gradation (size of objects in the foreground in relation to
objects in the background). Because we have a viewing angle of
approximately 180 °, but we only see about 7% of it with full focus. So there
is no agreement with our own perception with regard to the angle of view of a
normal lens.
The absolute optical properties of the focal lengths, like the properties that
depend on the angle of view, are essential design elements in photography.
Understand the focal length and use it for image creation
An essential property of the focal length is the depth of field, which is an
independent element of photographic image design. Together with the focus
level (which was focused on), it becomes an important element of image
design.
Use Depth of Field and Sharpness Level for the Image Design
The depth of field and the selected level of sharpness should not be
underestimated for the image effect.
THE LIGHT
The determination of the color temperature, which was also inevitable for the
demanding amateur in the past because errors in the recording could not be
corrected afterwards in the slide film, is almost a thing of the past with digital
photography, at least to emphasize it again when you look at it basically only
saves in raw data format and only occasionally uses this function for cameras
that save both in raw data format and simultaneously as JPEG. Saving it as a
JPEG has at least the advantage that you can then view the images on your
computer without a program that can read raw data. There is not much more
than JPEG format as storage format. It is a disaster for post-processing.
I use this function always, for example, when I'm visiting friends, my friends
don't have Photoshop or Adobe Bridge. The images are also saved in raw
data format for subsequent editing at home. The JPEGs are deleted at home.
The simultaneous saving in both formats is also useful if you take photos of
models and then want to give the models the photos that have not yet been
edited. Pay attention not only to the light color itself, but also to reflection
surfaces such as snow or a green meadow, which can change the colors in the
picture considerably.
There is strongly concentrated light in the blazing midday sun or in the studio
when using a spotlight. Highly focused light is rather undesirable for most
shooting situations. In the studio, the spotlight is practically never used as the
main light, but rather to set gloss effects on a model's hair.
The more the light is focused, the more it hits an object, the harder the
shadows. Especially since a digital camera does not reach the contrast range
of a fine-grain slide film and the lights appear even more worn out and the
shadows even deeper. So, if possible, do not take pictures in the blazing
midday sun. The light in the morning or afternoon is much softer.
The opposite light is in light fog:
Atmospheric Landscapes
But the most atmospheric landscapes are often created in a slightly cloudy
sky with moving clouds. Here, it is the contrast between the areas darkened
by the shadow of the clouds and the glow of the areas directly illuminated by
the sun that can turn a normal landscape photo into a special picture.
Instead of moving clouds, as in these photos, it can simply be forest and
clearing that set the tone.
Back Light
Backlighting poses special challenges for the photographer as well as the
technology. Backlight comes in principle from any angle behind the object.
Backlighting emphasizes the outer contours.
Automatic camera control is usually overwhelmed with backlighting. Either
in the middle of the measurement, the exposure is adjusted to the object, but
the sky outshines it, so that even the contours in the overexposed area
dissolve or vice versa, the automatic exposure control captures the bright sky
and the object disappears in the deep shadow, only its contours are clear.
If you do not have a manual exposure meter available, then it is best to use
spot metering and measure different parts of the image individually. Then
choose an average value from the exposure values determined in this way and
try it out.
You can as well take some test photos with different exposure settings as in
the example above and feel your way towards the optimal result. Finally, the
display allows immediate control and subsequent correction of the exposure.
You can also take a series of exposures with at least three photos each, which
deviate from the optimal value up and down in a full aperture setting. With
the HDR function of Photoshop or a specialized computer program, you can
then have these images offset against each other and thus often get an
impressive result.
Grazing Light
Sidelight lets something light up properly. This does not only apply to the
blossom in the picture above, it also applies in particular to architecture,
where you can really bring out the beauty of a facade with grazing light.
Grazing light is light that comes from almost 90 degrees from the side. This
situation occurs in nature in the early evening when the sun is already close
above the horizon and the object is at an almost 90 degrees angle to the sun.
Contours are highlighted with grazing light. It can be demonstrated
particularly clearly with these photos.
The facade of the building gets all the evening grazing light particularly
good. For comparison, a picture taken in the afternoon, then the light comes
to a certain extent from the side, but the grazing light is only available shortly
before sunset. Grazing light emphasizes contours particularly vividly. The
afternoon photo below would look even more boring compared to the photo
above if it hadn't been spiced up in Photoshop.
Grazing light is also important for documenting, for example, accident
damage, damage to a building facade and many other documentation,
because the grazing light only really shows the damage. The camera flash is
often fatal, with such photos can one the real one damage at best
foreshadows, really immediately understandable for every viewer without
further explanation, photos of for example, body damage, dents in a body and
the like are usually only possible through the targeted use of grazing light.
I have a lot of experience with photographic documentation for experts and
as evidence in court. The more impressively a damage is demonstrated in a
photo, the greater the likelihood that the judges will follow their own
reasoning and classify the damage as significant as you do.
Special Lighting Situations
The castle below, which is of course one of the favorite photo motifs, comes
best in the evening light, which as a light grazing light with its high red
component literally lights up the sandstone walls.
During the day, the castle looks rather boring from a distance, the local
sandstone almost merges in color with the forested background and the castle
can hardly be seen. A direct comparison: The photo above was not post-
processed in Photoshop, but in order to be able to see anything of the lock
against the background with which it almost merges, the color dynamics of
the raw data file in Adobe Bridge have already been increased by 20%. Next,
you see this picture again with a post-processing in Photoshop, which
highlights the castle a little, even if the effect of the evening light cannot be
achieved with any sophisticated tricks in Photoshop.
During the post-processing, the dark parts in the image were selected via
Selection> Color range> Depths, provided with a soft edge of 80 pixels, the
selection was duplicated with "Layer as copy" on a new layer, with the
original layer with "multiply negatively" and 50% opacity charged. This
level was duplicated again and offset with "soft light" also with 50% opacity
with the second level. As a result, the castle and the trees in the foreground
come into their own with the bright foliage of spring. But you can fool
around with this photo as much as you want, but it won't be a good photo. It
is simply not the right light for the castle. The photo taken from the opposite
side of the castle just before sunset is quite different.
In the photos taken during the day, the contrast in Photoshop has been
increased considerably to make the lock visible at all against the background.
THE COLOR
In the photo above, there are too many colors for my taste. The blue at the
bottom right is particularly annoying. The eyes, whose blue is intensified by
the neighboring blue at the bottom right, are almost aggressive.
In black and white, here with a sepia tint, the disturbing colors disappear. The
aggressive effect of the colored original has disappeared; nothing distracts the
gaze from the face, which suddenly appears more melancholic.
Colors reflect moods. Cool colors appear distant, warm colors homely. With
rare exceptions, photos become effective if only one color dominates the
picture. It doesn't have to be completely monochrome.
This also applies to the following photo, which was taken with a slightly
longer exposure time from a TEE that was traveling at approximately 160
km/h. The trees directly on the embankment provide the colored wiping
effect; the trees on the horizon are completely sharp.
Vineyards in Autumn
The fascinating autumn colors of the vineyards, which range from yellow to
red depending on the grape variety, are not simply colorful. The structure of
the lines creates an additional visual appeal.
This photo of tulips that have almost faded is certainly not a work of art, but
shows the depth gradation through the red foreground and the blue that runs
in the depths of the photo.
By choosing the right colors, you can extremely stagger images in depth. Red
is a typical foreground color, blue is a typical background color. This effect
was often used for church windows in Gothic style, the red foreground stands
out plastically from the background and the window no longer appears two-
dimensional, but three-dimensional, but this effect is already quite clear in the
photo above, the peony stands out clearly from the background.
Green is also a background color, red has a particularly plastic effect on dark
blue-green, because here it is not only the foreground and background colors
that lead to the plastic effect, but also the complementary colors that
significantly enhance the effect.
IMAGE SECTION
By choosing the right image section, we not only leave out superfluous parts
of the image and limit ourselves to the essentials, but can also influence two
other important influencing options for the effect of an image, namely the
diagonals in the image as well as the dynamics. By making the image the
most important, move part out of the middle.
Take the two photos of the Bugatti as an example. In the photo above, there is
a clear ascending diagonal. The car seems to be driving towards us, even
though it is stationary.
In contrast, the same Bugatti photographed slightly from above and from the
other side. This time, a falling diagonal and thus the rather static effect. A
still beautiful object and car, but the tremendous dynamic of the shape is
somewhat lost due to the falling diagonal.
There are two diagonals in the photo below. The falling diagonal from hand
to face automatically leads the eye to the face. This, in turn, is on a rising
diagonal with the rest of the body. The viewer's gaze always follows the
direction of the eyes, i.e. the outstretched hand or something behind it, but
always returns to the face.
In a portrait, there are often three elements that are almost equally important,
namely both eyes and the mouth. In the case of a larger building, there is
often no important element at all within the motif, since it is the entire
building.
The red crosshair is the middle, the yellow crosshair is the upper left 4: 3
axis. Of the 4 coordinates, only the two axes that are essential for the face
were drawn in, so that there is only one intersection instead of the possible 4
intersections.
In this intuitively chosen image section, the nose root lies almost exactly on
the left 4: 3 axis. The nostril plays an important role when I look for an
effective image detail in a portrait in which both eyes are approximately
equally important elements.
However, the 4: 3 coordinates play almost no role in the horizontal image
division or maybe they do, because exactly at the intersection of the two
coordinates is the border between face and hair. Another border between hair
and shoulder is almost exactly in the middle.
I was quite surprised by these proportions when I drew in the coordinates,
since I hadn't planned it, I was simply looking for the most effective image
detail.
These division ratios result from the mathematical definition of the golden
ratio. 0.382 + 0.618 = 1, i.e. the entire width or height of a photo. With these
division ratios, the coordinates for the golden ratio can be quickly determined
without cumbersome calculations. The total width multiplied by 0.618 results
in the vertical axis. (You can of course also take 0.382 times instead). The
same calculation for the horizontal axis with the image height. Only the two
coordinates of the golden section which are important for the face, were
drawn.
The right eye, which is more emphasized by the photo, lies exactly on the
vertical coordinate of the golden section. The mouth, actually the most
important single element in the photo, lies on the horizontal axis of the
golden section. Perhaps this creates the strong connection between the right
eye and the mouth in this detail of the picture, which is not present in the
original, where the eyes and the mouth are isolated picture elements.
The consequence of the aesthetic principles for the composition of the
picture
First of all, we should be aware that while photography and painting have a
lot in common, they also have striking differences. A painted picture can be
planned from the start according to the aesthetic principles. In photography,
at least in the most important areas of photography for amateurs, the total
arrangement of a photo is rather the exception.
This snapshot, taken during a traffic light stop, is alive due to its staggered
highs. With many photos, I leave out the sky altogether if it does not itself
have an essential image statement. But in the photo above, it would be
indispensable because the gradation of the heights with the right amount of
sky above gives the photo a certain charm beyond the snapshot. It also means
experimenting with different parts of the picture and especially the proportion
of the sky in the picture until you have found the right solution.
Original
The two photos clearly show how a telephoto lens narrows the angle and
reduces the spacing in the depth graduation. From the beginning of the
picture below until the canal, garden loses itself in the darkness of the photo
(it makes, no longer visible, a sharp curve to the right, the course of the
stream can still be guessed if one observes the just indicated white bridge on
the right in the background) it several hundred meters. This is not even
foreseeable in the photos, one thinks that the bridge is at most 50-60m away.
The narrowing of the stream in angle of view is also very moderate with the
Tele. With a shorter focal length, the stream would taper to a narrow line in
the background. Focal length 200 mm, because of the crop factor corresponds
to the angle of view of an apparent focal length of 300 mm in full 35 mm
format.
If you are working with an image editing program that has a cropping tool
similar to Photoshop, you can already see the greatly changed effect by
darkening all parts of the image outside the section while you are looking for
the right section.
A neutral, black background has an advantage for changing the image section
afterwards, which no other background provides. If you have placed the
photo model in the wrong corner or too far in the middle when taking
pictures, it is very difficult to correct it later, except for a completely
monochrome background, which is usually only achieved with deep black.
But with a black background, I only have to roughly remove the model in the
picture, create a new background layer in the same black and can move the
model to any position in the picture on this black background. With fast
sequences of pictures in action photography, it can happen that you don't get
the right image section straight away.
The photo above was taken during winter: Two sections from the photo with
different picture statements.
Here, the walker approaches something. This is clear from the goal as well as
from its placement in the photo. The longer route is still ahead of him.
DEPTH OF FIELD
In this graphic, you can perhaps understand the dependence of the focal
length on the sensor size. The image angle in this example is 69 °, which
corresponds to a light wide-angle lens and remains the same for all sensor
sizes. The larger the sensor, the greater the focal length (the distance from the
optical center to the sensor) for this angle of view. The lens is of course much
too large in relation to the sensor formats and would be a very fast lens even
for the large sensor.
Since short focal lengths have a very large depth of field regardless of the
angle of view, it may also be understandable why digital cameras with small
sensors still have a very large depth of field even in the telephoto range and
draw everything sharply from front to back.
In the case of very large recording formats in analog medium format and
especially large format photography, focal lengths are already required for
the exemplary angle of view of a wide-angle lens, which correspond to a
telephoto lens on a digital full-format camera and the depth of field is
correspondingly small.
The tiny sensor format of the pocket cameras and cell phones requires short
focal lengths, even in the telephoto range of the lens, and therefore an
enormous depth of field that extends to infinite distances, even for portrait
distances, i.e. a face and the background are equally sharp.
In creative photography, however, it is extremely important to emphasize the
most important part with its sharpness. You can only work effectively with
depth of field and depth of focus on cameras that have a sufficiently large
sensor and therefore, no longer draw from 1 m to infinitely sharp, as is the
case with small sensors.
The best way to control the depth of field is to use an SLR camera. Many
SLR cameras offer a dimmer button, with which you can precisely control the
depth of field for the set aperture (dimming in contrast to the open aperture
with which you can look through the viewfinder) before taking the picture.
The dimmer button is required to assess the depth of field for the aperture set.
If you look through the viewfinder or at cameras where the subject is instead
aimed at via the display, you will always see the image with the aperture
open, i.e. with the least sharpness and depth of field that the lens offers. The
aperture button closes the aperture to the preset value and you can see the
subject with the actual focus and depth of field. This of course, also makes
the viewfinder image much darker. For this reason, the aperture is normally
open, because with aperture 22, for example, the viewfinder image would be
so dark that almost nothing can be seen on it.
You have to know that the depth of field of the photo will not correspond to
what you see in the viewfinder, unless you are shooting with the aperture
open, if you want to use the depth of field for design purposes. Otherwise, the
photo would be a random result and not exactly wanted. However, the image
design is about mastering the individual factors that lead to a good photo as
much as possible and not leaving it to chance.
Aperture 4
Aperture 5.6
Aperture 8
Aperture 11
If you want to consistently use the depth of the archipelago by choosing the
aperture, you have several options. You can use the aperture priority
(automatic timer), in this case, the camera selects the associated exposure
time and sensor sensitivity (ISO value) independently, you can also fix the
ISO value beforehand, then the automatic timer only chooses the appropriate
exposure time or you make all settings in manual mode itself.
If you close the aperture by a full step as in the image examples above, you
have to double the exposure time for each full aperture step so that the
exposure remains the same. Since many digital cameras offer finer gradations
than the full aperture, you should memorize the full aperture, otherwise, you
just can't see through:
2.8 4 5.6 8th 11 16 22
32 64 128
Apertures smaller than aperture 22 generally do not exist in full-format
cameras; the apertures from aperture 32 are used in medium format and large
format photography.
The Focus Level
The depth of field is not only influenced by the aperture, but also by the
choice of the level of focus. So what the lens was focused on. The following
photos clearly show this using the tape measure as an example:
In this photo, the focus is practically directly on the tape measure. The blur
increases dramatically towards the front.
In this portrait, the level of the sheep is wrong, namely on the costume
jewelry on the wrist. If the photo was taken for a client who is concerned
with fashion jewelry, the focus would be spot on. The depth of field is pretty
shallow with an 80mm lens with an open aperture, so you have to be careful
where the maximum focus should go.
The autofocus can easily lead to incorrect focusing because the autofocus is
based on contrast edges in the middle of the image. The contrast edges in
costume jewelry are much more pronounced than in the mouth, where the
focus level should be, so the autofocus adjusts to the stronger contrast edges -
another example of not blindly relying on the automatic functions of the
camera.
In the second picture, it lies on the tea bowl on the right and it creates an
entirely different picture impression.
Portrait Lenses
Especially for portraits, there is a light telephoto lens with an 80 mm focal
length in the 35 mm area. This focal length has the advantage that everything
that is close to the camera is no longer oversized, i.e. to emphasize a nose like
a huge mountain over the rest of the face, as would be the case even with the
normal focal length of 50 mm. Another advantage is that; the depth of field
already decreases significantly compared to a lens with a shorter focal length.
The same naturally applies to zoom lenses, although these are technically
completely different from lenses with fixed focal lengths. Compared to even
stronger telephoto lenses, which register even less and whose depth of field is
even less, typical portrait lenses have the advantage that they can also be used
in the studio because you don't need a huge distance to the model to even put
your face on it to get. There are also special versions of the portrait lens with
a built-in, adjustable blur, which was particularly popular in the 1970s and
1980s when David Hamilton's photos were very fashionable.
However, the photo below was not taken with such a lens, but with a normal
zoom lens, which was initially fogged on the front lens due to the extreme
cold and therefore, automatically softened. A similar effect can be achieved,
albeit hardly controllable, by breathing on the front lens and releasing it at the
moment when the right soft focus effect is achieved.
To summarize the depth of field, it can be influenced by the size of the
sensor, so here the digital SLR camera has a clear advantage over a pocket
camera, the focal length, the aperture and the focus level.
CHAPTER 5
FOCAL LENGTH
The focal length of a lens can be used as a direct design tool. The beginner
usually doesn't understand anything more than that you can change the image
section with a zoom lens. But apart from the fact that you can zoom into a
subject (focal length is extended) or zoom out (focal length is shortened) to
make it larger or smaller, the different focal lengths have certain optical
properties that can be used for image composition.
The selected focal length from wide-angle to telephoto has a significant
impact on the depth of field, angle of view distortions and spatial depth
grading. The focal length is one of the specific photo-technical means of
image design.
For image design in photography, there are both photo-technical aspects,
such as the focal lengths discussed here, the aperture, which is important for
the design of the depth of field and the overall focus, and the exposure time,
which is important for the representation of movements, as well as general
design rules, such as colors, image detail with the special features of the
diagonals and the golden ratio, which are not specific to photography. Light
occupies a central position since it is both a basic photo-technical condition
and an important means of design.
The focal length is probably the most difficult area of photographic imaging
for a beginner because the different focal lengths bring both absolute
properties that are independent of the angle of view of the focal length and
properties that relate to the angle of view of the lens. But now step by step.
― Focal length 18 mm
― Full frame sensor
(24 x 36 mm)
Two different sensor sizes with the same focal length 18 mm are shown here
as examples. One is a sensor in full format with 24 x 36 mm and the typical
sensor size of a somewhat better pocket or bridge camera with 7.2 x 5.3 mm.
On the full-frame camera, 18 mm is already an extreme wide-angle lens, with
the smaller sensor; the same focal length becomes a light telephoto lens.
― Focal length 35 mm
― Full frame sensor
(24 x 36 mm)
The second graphic shows the same thing with a 35 mm focal length. For the
full format, this focal length would be a moderate wide angle. On the smaller
sensor, it becomes a strong telephoto lens, the focal length of which is the
equivalent of approximately 180 mm.
With the smaller sensor, even in the strong telephoto range, you still have a
wide-angle lens with regard to its depth of field. However, since the focal
length and depth of field are inseparable, the properties of the different focal
lengths are discussed in more detail.
Format Factor
Exposure Time and Telephoto Lenses
The converted focal length is important for setting the exposure times. There
is a rule of thumb for this, which relates exclusively to the actually used angle
of view and not to the actual focal length. The rule of thumb is that you
should not use a longer exposure time than half the focal length.
This rule of thumb refers to the focal lengths of 35 mm lenses. For cameras
with a smaller or larger sensor, the focal length must be converted in order to
use the rule of thumb because this rule of thumb is not about the absolute
properties of a focal length, but about the angle of view. The smaller the
angle of view, the more even the slightest vibrations of the camera becomes
noticeable as blurring. This can be avoided with sufficiently short exposure
times.
Many bridge cameras and mirrorless system cameras have two different focal
lengths on the lens, the actual focal length and the focal lengths converted to
the 35 mm format. The actual focal length is important for the optical
properties of the lens, for example, the depth of field, the focal length
converted for the 35 mm format denotes the angle of view of the lens in order
to be able to use the rule of thumb.
This means that with a focal length converted to 35 mm format, for example,
200 mm, the longest exposure time, which still leads to sharp photos with a
free hand, is 1/100 seconds or for cameras with the previously used full
gradations, 1/125 seconds. In the case of the widely used zoom lenses with a
focal length of 80-200 mm, in the case of an APS sensor and a focal length of
200 mm, this means the shortest possible exposure time of 1/150 seconds or
for cameras with full exposure time levels, the next shorter exposure time, i.e.
1/250 seconds because the conversion gives an apparent focal length of 300
mm.
A tripod should be used for all longer focal lengths. By the way, the rule of
thumb only applies to someone who has a steady hand and whose camera is
well in hand. Otherwise, you should choose an even shorter exposure time for
safety reasons.
With an image stabilizer, significantly longer exposure times can be achieved
without the photo becoming blurred due to motion blur (camera shake). But
especially in the field of stronger telephoto lenses, even with an image
stabilizer, you should heed the rule of thumb to avoid experiencing bitter
disappointment. It's best to try it out yourself because the longest possible
exposure time for a telephoto lens depends of course on the calm of your own
hands.
But now finally to the image design with the different focal lengths, again, all
the information given here refers to the full digital format or the analog
model, the 35 mm format. The peculiarities of other sensor formats, in
particular, the problems with the APS sensor, are no longer discussed
afterwards.
Focal length 180 mm, image angle corresponds to 270 mm in full format.
Let's stick to the exemplary portrait. The large depth of field of the wide-
angle lens does not already lift the face in the foreground from the
background due to the contrast between sharpness and blur, rather the face in
the foreground becomes an equal part of the entire photo. The view is not so
much drawn or distracted by the face that it is actually about, but by the white
house in the background on the right.
Also desirable for reports, the events in the background, for example the
destruction caused by war or natural forces, should be clearly on the picture.
Rather the exception in portrait photography. Because it is often confusing
for the viewer of a photo if the important object in the foreground is as sharp
as the background. The eye wanders back and forth helplessly in the photo
and finds no resting point. You shouldn't take portraits like this.
Since a lot of the background comes into the photo with the wide-angle lens,
the objects in the background become very small in relation to the foreground
and appear to be very far away. It looks much better in this example with 80
mm focal length, but the background still distracts from the face.
A beautiful portrait can only be created with such a troubled background with
a much stronger telephoto lens, because nothing will distract the viewer's
gaze from the face. Due to the narrow angle of view of the telephoto lens,
objects in the background become very large and at the same time appear to
be much closer to the foreground, the distances in the depth graduation are
significantly shortened.
With the 3 image examples above, you should not pay attention to the
converted apparent focal length, but the actual focal length. This is especially
true for the top photo with a 28 mm focal length. Because these examples are
not about the angle of view through conversion (this only makes the image
section smaller than with full format), but about depth of field and depth
gradation. Neither has anything to do with the conversion, but with the actual
focal length.
Portrait Lens
A typical portrait lens with a focal length of approximately 80 mm is not
often used for portraits because of the smaller angle of view compared to a
normal lens, but because of the depth of field, which is already significantly
lower than that of a normal lens. On the other hand, the focal length is not yet
so large that you need a distance of several meters for a format-filling portrait
and you would therefore need a rather large studio.
Depth Graduation
The larger picture angle means that the distances in the depth graduation
between the individual picture objects increase considerably. For example,
the pretty narrow Neckar, when photographing an old town and castle from
the opposite bank of the Neckar, can look like a broad river with a strong
wide-angle lens. The castle seems far from the shore and the old town, but in
fact it is located on a natural terrace with slopes that slope steeply to the old
town, just above the old town.
The larger angle of view and the staggering in depth also means that
everything that is in the foreground is displayed oversized. So the rather
narrow Neckar suddenly becomes an ocean. For this reason, unless you want
exactly that as an effect, wide-angle lenses are generally forbidden in portrait
and nude photography, because a nose would be enlarged very
disadvantageously, for example.
With wide-angle lenses, however, you can photograph a sports car
particularly dynamically if you choose the angle of view so that the grille and
bonnet appear particularly bulky (diagonally from the front and the camera
lower than the bumper). So the optical properties of short focal lengths can be
used very specifically for image formation.
Depth of Field
Wide-angle lenses have a large depth of field. Extreme wide-angle lenses
with angles of view above 100 ° therefore do not even have a distance setting
anymore, they always draw everything sharply from back to front- the
smaller the focal length, the greater the depth of focus.
Falling Lines
The larger the angle of view and thus the shorter the focal length, the more
noticeable lines are noticeable because falling lines are actually only a special
case of angle view rejuvenation. If the camera is oriented obliquely upwards,
more and more background is added to the photo with increasing distance,
the actual image motif has to make room for this background in the photo to a
certain extent and therefore becomes narrower with increasing distance from
the camera location. Falling lines can be largely avoided with a shift lens.
Barrel Distortion
The stronger a wide-angle lens is, the more pronounced barrel distortions
become. This is one of the reasons why you don't take wide-angle lenses for
portrait and nude.
The Standard Focal Length
The standard focal length of 50 mm is said to correspond to our perception,
as the camera industry has suggested for decades. The fact that 50 mm focal
length became the standard focal length has technical reasons, which are due
in particular to the minimum required depth for a 35mm SLR camera. I don't
want to go into these technical reasons any further, if you are interested, there
is a lot in the FAQ and in the chapter: Focal Length. In fact, we have a
completely different visual perception. We have a field of view of
approximately 180 °, but only 7% of it is sharp.
Telephoto Lenses
One speaks of a telephoto lens with focal lengths from approximately 80 mm.
Telephoto lenses have a much smaller angle of view than a standard lens. The
picture angle of a standard lens with 50 mm focal length is 40 °, the picture
angle of a telephoto lens ranges from about 25 ° to the extreme telephoto
range with less than 2 °. The gradation between a telephoto lens and a
standard lens is of course, only when using fixed focal lengths with a zoom
lens focal length and thus, the angle of view is continuously changed.
Depth of Field
Depth of field is a property that depends on the absolute focal length of a lens
and not on the angle of view used. If you use lenses on a digital SLR camera
with a sensor smaller than the full format, which were developed for the
35mm format or full size, the actual focal length is decisive for the optical
properties of the lens and not the focal length converted with the crop factor.
Another important property of telephoto lenses is the spatial depth grading.
The stronger a telephoto lens, the more the foreground and the background
are spatially pushed together and the objects in the background become larger
in relation to the objects in the foreground.
Since telephoto lenses correspond to binoculars, details become visible in the
photos that we cannot see with the naked eye. This is important if there are
disturbing objects in the background, which is naturally, sharply defined
when the distance is set, such as a distant power line that we cannot see with
the naked eye because of its great distance.
Distortion
In contrast to a wide angle lens, telephoto lenses are practically non-existent.
Therefore, they are not only used for portraits, but for all motifs where
distortion is not desired and from which one can step back far enough to still
be able to photograph them in full format despite the longer focal length,
preferably if the shallow depth of field of the telephoto lens is still sufficient
for the subject.
Angle of View rejuvenation
The larger the angle of view, the stronger the angle of view taper and vice
versa, this now applies to telephoto lenses, the smaller the angle of view, the
less the perspective taper.
Light Intensity
The longer the focal length becomes, the lower the light intensity of the lens.
Light telephoto lenses up to about 100 mm focal length can almost match the
standard lens in terms of light intensity, medium telephoto lenses up to about
150 mm focal length can still score with a high light intensity with high-
quality construction, but at the latest with focal lengths from 250 mm
upwards, the light intensity decreases significantly , that also applies to zoom
lenses.
This becomes particularly clear in the extreme telephoto range. Telephoto
lenses with a focal length of more than 500 mm rarely achieve a better light
intensity than aperture eight. At the same time, this means that the sharpness
can only be increased minimally by stopping down compared to the lowest
sharpness when the aperture is open.
Exposure Time
As already mentioned in the previous table, a rule of thumb applies to
telephoto lenses, the longest possible exposure time should be at least half the
focal length. So, converted focal length eg 200 mm, longest possible
exposure time 1/125 seconds, focal length 500 mm longest possible exposure
time 1/250 seconds. If the light is sufficient, better set shorter exposure times.
In this case, the converted focal length applies, not the actual focal length of
the lens because this rule of thumb is about the angle of view. Even this rule
of thumb can still lead to blurred photos, i.e. shorter exposure times (focal
length or even twice the focal length than the longest possible exposure time),
or better use a stable tripod. Because even the smallest vibrations lead to
clearly visible blurs with the small angle of view.
Sufficient light is of course required for short exposure times. If the light is
not sufficient, you have to set a higher ISO value and accept the resulting
image noise. With extreme telephoto lenses and if the subject allows it, i.e.
not especially with shy wild animals, you should even work with the mirror
lock-up to avoid any camera shake. By the way, this should only be
mentioned in passing, you should switch off an image stabilizer when the
camera is placed on a tripod. Image stabilizer and tripods do not get along
very well and can lead to undesirable results.
Distant Objects
Of course, telephoto lenses are also the best when it comes to being able to
photograph distant objects to fill the format. That's what they were originally
developed for. Whether it is a photo of castle, taken from an opposite
mountain or shy animals in the wild, strong telephoto lenses are ideal.
Even for such motifs, even the smaller sensor of a digital SLR camera in the
consumer class can be of advantage over the full format because the focal
length is extended by 50% without losing the light intensity.
Of course, this only applies to the angle of view, but this is mainly when you
want to take pictures of distant objects. Because you not only gain a 50%
longer focal length, but you also eliminate another problem, namely the
typical edge blurring, which is actually always more or less strong except for
very high-quality lenses. Conversely, the full format is the format of choice if
you want to take full advantage of the wide-angle range because in this case,
the focal length extension by 50% is very disruptive.
Portraits
Focal lengths in the range between 75 and 120 mm are predestined for
portrait photography. This now refers specifically to the actual and not to the
converted focal length. With these focal lengths, you still have a good light
intensity, excellent sharpness with a medium aperture, at least if the lens is
good, and a much smaller depth of field than with shorter focal lengths. So
you can photograph a model in all its beauty and still stand out from the
background due to the contrast between sharpness and blur.
The further advantage of these typical portrait focal lengths is that they can
also be used in smaller studios in contrast to even longer focal lengths,
because you don't need a huge distance to the model to even get your face
completely on it.
For portraits, I like to use an older fixed focal length with a focal length of
135 mm, but in my almost 80 m² studio, I also have enough space to get the
necessary distance. The advantage of this lens is that it is very bright and has
excellent sharpness, but also the typically shallow depth of field of this focal
length, which leads to optimal portraits.
Especially in the macro position, the autofocus has to struggle with the
slightest movements because the depth of field is only a few millimeters. The
bee is constantly moving, the flower does not keep still, except when there is
no wind and the photographer is not frozen to the salt column. A tripod
would still be counterproductive, because before this is even halfway set, the
bee is already in another bloom. For this photos, only the middle measuring
point for the autofocus was activated, the exposure was set manually.
Lenses not only have an infinity setting but also a close-up limit that must not
be undercut for sharp photos. Only with macro lenses can this limit be
exceeded without further aids.
With intermediate rings or a bellows device, the focal length of each lens can
be significantly extended for close-ups, but with simultaneous loss of light.
The exposure must be adjusted accordingly. Even with close-up lenses that
are screwed onto the lens like a filter, the focal length for the close-up range
is apparently extended; the latter without loss of light but with a loss in the
quality of the optical system.
CHAPTER 6
EXPOSURE TIME
Breathing Rhythm
Breathing is very important, especially with slightly longer exposure times
that can just be managed without a tripod. If you are still wheezing because
of a previous effort, you should first wait until you get a calm breathing
rhythm. The same goes for any stress you just had. Adrenaline is the opposite
of calm. Only when you breathe calmly again, put the camera to your eye and
press the trigger when you have just exhaled. Monopods that are also a
walking stick have proven themselves on strenuous hikes or mountain tours.
The Camera
Of course, the camera itself also plays an important role for non-blurred
photos. A heavy but not too heavy camera is easier to hold still than a
lightweight. If you aim at the subject with the viewfinder, you can control
longer exposure times without a tripod than when using the display.
Most importantly, your camera is in your hand. You can only try this out
before making a purchase decision, ideally, if you have several cameras for
comparison. Our hands are not standard size. A camera for delicate women's
hands will not do well in large men's hands and vice versa. The camera
should be comfortable and safe to hold in both portrait and landscape format.
Mirror Lock-Up
If you want to safely avoid vibrations caused by the flip-up mirror, the mirror
must have been flipped up before the shutter was released. This process is
referred to photographically as mirror activation. Perhaps you are looking in
vain for the mirror trigger in your operating instructions. This does not
necessarily mean that your camera has no such function. It is then only
labeled differently. With Pentax, it is a special setting of the self-timer that
folds up the mirror when the shutter is pressed but does not open the shutter
until 2 seconds later. In some other cameras, it is called a mirror lock or lock.
It is only important that the mirror is not folded up for long exposures until
the shutter releases.
Remote Release
For long exposures, keep your hands away from the camera while the shutter
is open. There are remote triggers for this, because the pressure on the trigger
would shake the camera even slightly if it were concreted. Even the best
tripod cannot prevent the shock from being pressed by the trigger.
For the slightly better cameras, there is the dial setting "B". The B comes
from Ball, the previously used mechanical remote release. With the "B"
setting, the shutter is opened the first time the remote control is pressed and
remains open until the remote control is pressed a second time.
When using a remote release, the camera usually has to be prepared for this.
Either you will find the Remote Shutter setting under the settings for the
shutter, with which you can also make the various settings for the self-timer
or a little more complicated in the menu. For photos outside the usual areas of
application, you should always prepare yourself with the camera operating
instructions at home, otherwise, you will sometimes even look in vain for the
menu items for camera settings on site. Operating manuals are not necessarily
written in an understandable way. It is often easier to briefly research the
internet by specifying the camera model and the problem solution you are
looking for.
Image Stabilizer
With some cameras, an image stabilizer is already built into the camera, with
other manufacturers, there are lenses with built-in image stabilizers instead.
The image stabilizer enables up to three times longer exposure times by hand.
Example: Without an image stabilizer, the 1/30 seconds would be the longest
possible exposure time that can still be achieved without blurring. In
principle, 1/4 seconds is possible with the image stabilizer (1/15 seconds first
stage, 1/8 seconds second stage, 1/4 seconds third stage). In principle,
because you don't need very steady hands for such a long exposure time
without a tripod, but either yourself or that support the camera somewhere.
The image stabilizer must be switched off when the camera is placed on a
tripod. Tripods and image stabilizers are not compatible. This completes the
photo-technical requirements for longer exposure times.
Freeze Movements
Movements can be frozen with the appropriate exposure time. The exposure
time must be short enough according to the speed and direction of the
movement to be able to freeze it statically. Movements that take place across
the image (camera location) require significantly shorter exposure times than
movements that approach the camera or move away from it.
For a leisurely stroller who approaches the camera, a 1/30 seconds exposure
time is usually sufficient, for a jet fighter photographed with a strong
telephoto format, even a thousandth of a second is still too long, because in
the thousandth of a second, he puts on Mach1 still 27 cm back.
For butterflies in flight, especially for a hummingbird, you also need
extremely short exposure times if the wings are not just supposed to be a
wiping effect. For short exposure times, you need a lot of light even with the
aperture open, unless you accept image noise and set high ISO values.
Blurred Background
If you want to photograph a car, motorcycle or other object moving across
the picture with a blurred, blurred background, then you need to pull the
camera with you before releasing the shutter. This often works much better
than a static, frozen movement on which the background is completely sharp
and gives the impression of high speed due to the blurred background.
How long the exposure time must be for a blurred background depends on the
speed. On a country road with speeds around 100 km/h exposure times exist
between 1/30 and 1/100 seconds, depending on how badly the background
should be blurred.
Exposure times are much shorter on the straight of a formula 1 racetrack.
Medium telephoto lenses with focal lengths between 100 mm and 150 mm
are well suited. This way, you stay far enough from the road and still get the
vehicle full format.
This technique has to be practiced with different exposure times, it is
important that the camera follows the movement of the vehicle before the
shutter release button is pressed fully and the camera is pulled along evenly
during the exposure.
For the first exercises, you look for a dirt road, a driveway or a similar
camera location with an unobstructed view of the street. When you see a car
coming, you take a look at it with the camera, follow the movement and
finally press the trigger. Particularly great shots of motorcycles take in a
curve if you can stand a little lower than the road.
Portrait and nude photography are among the most attractive tasks in
photography. The challenge is not only the beauty of a face and the human
body, but also the diverse expressions of both facial expressions and body
language. The photographic challenge encompasses all areas of image
design.
Most importantly, of course, the lighting also for portrait and nude
photography- there are practically no limits to your imagination. Image detail,
exposure and depth of field, diagonals and dynamics are equally important.
Just like the colors, of course or black and white instead.
The design tools of photography play an even greater role in portrait and
nude photography than in technically very demanding object photography
because with the design means, the mood of a picture is clearly emphasized.
The design tools, which are often only carried out retrospectively in a good
image editing program, include contrast, color saturation, possibly soft
drawing and of course, the final image section.
Light Forms
Differences in brightness let us recognize shapes first; otherwise, we would
only perceive colored areas. The art of guiding light in the studio as well as
outdoors with reflective foils is among other things, shaping the light and
letting it light up a little without making the differences in brightness too
great. If highlights are overexposed because they are too strong in relation to
the main light, then instead of attractive light guidance, you only have white,
overexposed areas without tracing in the image.
Either you lower the power of the second light responsible for the highlights
or you take a half to one aperture more, then the highlights are no longer
worn out, but the overall impression becomes darker. The latter can be
corrected much more easily in retrospect than blown out lights because you
won't be able to add a drawing to a part of the picture that has been eaten out.
A thin layer of sweat on the skin makes it even more difficult to handle
highlights because then the skin in these areas shines particularly strongly.
Either change the lighting or take a break from shooting so that the model can
freshen up in the bathroom. The elegant case of fabrics in sophisticated
dresses needs some shade, otherwise, we won't notice it. Avoid overly
directed light, drop shadows and confused shadows in both portrait and nude
photography.
Flash System
With a flash system, you either need a manual flash exposure meter or you
feel for the correct aperture value in all standard situations as well as for the
correct setting of the flash system (full output or reduced output, depending
on your flash unit). You should approach it as a dry exercise and not only
when a model is in front of the camera.
With a flash system, you can only influence the exposure on the camera via
the aperture and the ISO value, but not through the exposure time. Because
even if your camera offers several exposure times for flash synchronization,
the flash has a much shorter duration than the shortest exposure time that is
possible for flash synchronization.
The flash duration of a flash system is between 1/100 and 1/2500 seconds
depending on the manufacturer, model and setting. The camera shutter must
already be fully open when the flashes fire. With very powerful flash
systems, you have to reduce the output enormously in the small studio
because otherwise, even with the smallest aperture, everything would be
completely overexposed.
As an example: 1500 watt seconds of power, normal reflector, exposure at a
distance of 2 m and ISO 100 with aperture 64. Only that we have no aperture
64 with a digital SLR camera. With most lenses for the 35 mm format and
thus also digital SLR cameras, aperture 22 is the end, the shutter cannot be
closed any further. In order to be able to work with aperture 22, the flash
head must be reduced by 2 aperture steps in this case. For the optimal
sharpness of the lens at aperture 11, the power must be reduced by 4 aperture
steps. The situation is different when the flash head sits in a hazard light or
softbox with 1500 watt seconds. They swallow some light. The larger the
softbox, the stronger the flash head must be.
With small, low-power flash systems, you quickly reach the limits of what is
possible. The reasonable lowest limit is 300 watt seconds per flash head.
Everything that delivers even less power is actually intended for the passport
photo studio.
Background Cardboard
Background cardboard comes in three different widths, 1.35 m, 2.72 m and
3.55 m. The narrowest width is just enough for portraits, but the camera has
to stand on a tripod, which does not exactly ensure vivid portraits. This is the
typical equipment for a passport photo studio. At 2.72 m, you are on the safe
side for most shooting situations. The largest selection of colors is available
for the two standard widths of 1.35 m and 2.72.
Background cardboard does not cost the world, a roll with a width of 2.72 m
and a length of 11 m costs between $70 and $90 plus transport costs,
depending on the provider. For a background box, you need a sensible
suspension. Background cardboard is relatively sensitive to dirt and tearing
from the side. The latter can be prevented with a little effort by hemming it
on all edges with parcel tape.
Background cardboard and sharp-edged heels of women's shoes are not
compatible at all. You immediately have holes in the background cardboard.
Therefore, if the model is not being photographed from head to toe anyway,
take off your shoes before stepping on the background cardboard. With holes
through shoes in the front area of the background carton, you will consume a
penalty roll very quickly. And after the first photos, you have to touch up in
Photoshop because then the first holes are already in the background
cardboard.
Stage Molton
Stage molton in the heavy quality that you need when it comes to an endless
background on which the photo model is standing, has a width of 3 m and is
available in different colors. The prices are around $15 for the running meter,
you need at least 5 m. What is too much in width can be gathered on one side.
As a black background, there is nothing better than stage molton, because
stage molton absorbs the light almost completely in contrast to a matt
background cardboard. Stage molton is not the first choice for light colors,
because stage molton can almost never be suspended completely smooth and
the folds in the fabric cast shadows that can be clearly seen in the photo.
Stage molton can easily be temporarily or permanently installed on an
existing curtain rod. It can be easily kept clean with a vacuum cleaner.
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY
It is often only a few steps that enable the correct image section. The photo
above is rather factual. The photo below is completely different from the
same field. I just had to walk a few steps to take the photo below.
Landscape photos require high overall sharpness. Ideally, you take landscape
photos with aperture 8 or 11. With these apertures, the overall sharpness is
strongest with most lenses. Landscape photos usually have no problems with
depth of field, almost regardless of the lens used because mostly the distance
for landscape photos is set to infinite anyway.
In a good image editing program, you can still bring life to these areas by
selecting/lights or using selection/depths by darkening the lights and
brightening the depths, but if you should have a tripod with you, then make
an exposure series with at least one aperture difference each, whereby you
should not change the aperture value, but instead the exposure time.
Otherwise, you would have photos with different overall sharpness and depth
of field, which are then difficult to compare with each other.
Landscape photos do not necessarily need the sky, sometimes it is beneficial
to have the sky completely out of the picture. This can also be done
afterwards by selecting the image section. But try to find the right image
section as soon as possible, because with every enlargement you will later
lose pixels.
Otherwise, there are no magic recipes for good landscape photos. The image
section naturally plays a major role. When we are outside, we finally have a
360 ° landscape around us. The art of landscape photography is among other
things, to choose the most effective image section from it. This also includes
the optimal dynamics in a photo. If the chapel were in the middle, the photo
would be pretty boring.
The same applies to landscape photography as to all other areas of
photography, it is not simply a matter of souvenir photos, but of a beautiful
landscape bathed in a spectacularly beautiful light. That also means being
patient until the right light is there. In contrast to studio photography, we
cannot influence the light of a landscape shot.
Just like any other form of photography, landscape photography thrives on
the division of the image, on the dynamics enhanced by the golden ratio or
another aspect ratio, on diagonals in the image and an exposure that conveys
exactly the impression that you want to convey with the photo. If you want
something to light up, then it is important that there are darker areas of the
image that enhance the glow.
In addition, it is first of all necessary to compensate for the weaknesses of a
digital camera in image processing. Not only the significantly lower contrast
range compared to the human eye, but also the other weaknesses. Subsequent
sharpening of the image is often in vogue. Nik Sharpener, a classic among
Photoshop plugins, works better than with Photoshop plug-ins, with which
one can not only fine-tune the resharpening in its newer versions but with the
brushes can even limit the effect to individual parts of the picture.
Some digital cameras exaggerate the colors and even pale colors become
almost kitschy bright colors, other cameras turn the colors to be too pale, but
this can be easily and sensitively corrected afterwards, even lighter than the
opposite too bright colors.
Especially in landscape photography, the polarization filter often plays a
major role. When I am on the go, the polarizing filter is already screwed on to
all lenses and is ready for immediate use. Then all you have to do is find the
correct turning position. The latter is of course, pure experimentation.
Especially in spring and autumn, when either the fresh leaves of the trees
shine or the autumn leaves shimmer in all possible colors, a light that
emphasizes this play of colors and lights also plays a very important role in
outstanding photos. On the other hand, the peace of a landscape can be
enormously emphasized by the even light of the overcast sky.
Ground fog that clears here and there can result in particularly attractive
motifs for landscape photography. In landscape photography, it is even more
important than with all other photographic subjects that you simply develop
an eye with which you can recognize and implement the special in light and
landscape.
WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY
ARCHITECTURE PHOTOGRAPHY
Falling Lines
First of all, avoid falling lines. Falling lines always occur when the camera is
not aligned completely parallel to the object plane. In architecture
photography, this is the rule when you stand in front of a building and have to
point the camera upwards so that you cannot just take pictures of the ground
floor.
How strong the falling lines are depending largely on the focal length used.
The shorter the focal length, the stronger the wide angle, the greater the
distortion, especially the falling lines.
From this simple illustration, you may be able to see how falling lines are
created. The distance of the building from the camera increases continuously
upwards. The farther away a vertical edge is from the camera, the more it is
inclined inwards, especially with wide-angle lenses, because after all, with
increasing distance, more and more sky or a neighboring building comes
along with it. This effect occurs with all focal lengths, but it is particularly
strong with wide-angle lenses. In other words, the further you can step back
from the object, i.e. the building and the longer the focal length for a format-
filling photo can become, the less falling lines are noticeable in the image.
The only way to avoid falling lines with a normal digital camera and a normal
lens is to have your shooting location exactly half the height of the building.
For example, you can take a picture from the window of an opposite building.
You will normally see a building from the street, take pictures from exactly
the same situation as described above, which necessarily leads to falling
lines, which become stronger, the smaller the focal length and the larger the
angle of view.
Panoramic freedom only applies if you take photos from the street. In a
judgment, the Federal Court of Justice ruled that photography from an
opposite building should be assessed as well as photography with any tools
that can be used to detach yourself from the normal angle of view of the
street. So at least in the commercial sector, not without the permission of the
architect or in this case, the artist, insofar as there is still copyright.
Avoiding falling lines when shooting is only possible with shift lenses, which
are wide-angle lenses where the lens can be swiveled slightly out of the
optical axis or with a large format camera.
Here's how to do it with a large format camera. When shooting, the film and
lens levels are aligned parallel to the object, instead of swiveling the camera
upwards, only the lens level is pushed up so that the building is finally
completely captured. Here is an excerpt from this illustration, which may
make the principle a little clearer. In order to compensate for lateral
distortion, the lens plane and film plane can also be swiveled sideways.
Due to the parallel alignment of the film plane and the lens plane to the
subject, the beam path inside the camera is reversed, the beam path outside
the camera lengthened or shortened. The result is that all parts of the building
for the film level are equidistant.
A shift lens works on the same principle, which was shown here using a large
format camera as an example. The camera with the shift lens is aligned
absolutely parallel to the front of the building on the tripod, i.e. generally
vertically. The upward angle is achieved by moving the shift lens out of its
optical axis.
Shift lenses are very expensive, for the occasional use in architectural
photography, the purchase should hardly be worthwhile. However, there are
also sensible alternatives to purchase, you can borrow shift/tilt lenses.
However, this only makes sense together with a full-frame camera, because
the smaller APS sensor has an apparent focal length that is 50% longer so
that the wide-angle shift lens cannot really be used. The matching full-frame
camera can of course, also be borrowed from these companies. Even well-
known professional photographers in my circle of acquaintances do not buy
these lenses themselves but borrow them from one of these companies if
necessary.
Only photographers who specialize in architectural photography have the
appropriate equipment. If you need the equipment practically every day, the
purchase is of course cheaper than renting it.
There is another alternative to purchasing a real shift/tilt lens, namely a
tilt/shift adapter, which is available for digital SLR cameras from Canon,
Nikon and Pentax. It makes sense not to use the wide-angle lenses developed
for these cameras on this adapter, but rather the Pentax lenses developed for
the small analog medium format 4.5 x 6 cm.
Because the image circle of a normal 35 mm wide-angle lens is too small to
be able to shift or tilt and there would be vignetting. With the significantly
larger image circle of the medium format lenses, however, it is not a problem.
Corresponding adapters are available.
Since the topic has already been addressed with the tilt/shift lenses in this
context, let's briefly explain the tilt function. With the tilt function, you can
also apply the golden ratio rule to a digital SLR camera, which was
previously only possible with large format cameras. In principle, this is also
an area of application for architectural photography, for example, when it
comes to sharply imaging an elongated wall or a high church tower at an
angle to the camera from front to back. On the other hand, since wide-angle
lenses have a very large depth of field, this area of application in
architectural photography is more useful for large-format cameras since the
depth of field is relatively small even in the wide-angle range.
Overall Sharpness
Especially in architectural photography, the highest possible overall
sharpness is important. It is not so much the number of pixels that is
responsible for the sharpness, but rather the size of the sensor and the quality
of the lens. The larger the sensor and the better the lens, the better the overall
sharpness in the image. Of course, there is a clear difference between a sensor
as was common in the early days of digital SLR cameras with 6-8 megapixels
and a sensor with 16, 20 or even 50 megapixels, which you can only see
when the original image is displayed at least one hundred percent the
significantly reduced representation for the web, it plays a negligible role.
A 35 mm lens achieves its highest imaging performance at an aperture of
eight to eleven, making them the ideal apertures for architectural
photography. If the aperture is stopped down even more due to the depth of
field, there is already a loss of overall sharpness at aperture 16 due to the
diffraction of light at the then very small aperture. Especially in the area of
architectural photography, you should generally not choose the fully
automatic mode of the camera, but either expose it completely manually or at
least work with the aperture preselection.
The sensor achieves its maximum sharpness only with its native sensitivity. If
you already have a tripod with you for architectural photos, you should
specify the ISO value even in poor lighting conditions and not leave it to the
automatic system because higher ISO values not only lead to more or less
perceptible image noise, but also to a slight loss of sharpness.
A clear increase in sharpness is achieved with current, high-quality digital
SLR cameras by not using the low-pass filter. The waiver is only possible
because resolutions of 16 megapixels and more have now been achieved. The
low pass filter was indispensable at lower resolutions to avoid moire.
Since there is usually no movement in the picture with architectural photos,
you should also use the mirror lock-up for exposure times longer than 1/30
second and use a remote shutter release to avoid any vibration of the camera
during the recording.
Depth of Field
You don't usually have to worry about depth of field in architectural
photography because you are often so far away from the object anyway, for
example, a complete building that you set the distance to infinite.
OBJECT PHOTOGRAPHY
Reflective Surfaces
Reflective surfaces such as glass, place the highest demands on lighting, after
all, the whole studio or room should not be reflected in the glass. This photo
of a glass reflects the whole room or home studio at the time. The Chinese
blackboards on the left side of the studio are reflected twice in the glass.
Reflections on glossy surfaces always occur when the studio or the room in
which the photos are taken has reflective surfaces nearby. Therefore, the
large professional rental studios and film studios are often several 100 m² in
size, so you can avoid that there is reflected scattered light in the picture.
But what to do if you don't have such a large space for photos? Go outside?
Outside, you already have the lighting under control three times and outside
everything is uniformly bright, so the entire street will be reflected in the
glass or the high-gloss varnish. But of course you could set up the whole
thing somewhere outside at night, where you have a power connection and it
is otherwise completely pitch dark, also nothing nearby that could reflect.
In the studio, however, you have to find out where the reflection comes from
and then try to eliminate the source. In the next photo, it worked much better.
A black background was set up against the main light, close to the small
coffee table on which the glass for the photo was located and in which the
base is reflected in the glass plate.
If you look closely, you can see in the reflection both the round background
and surprisingly narrow the black stage molten on the rear wall and otherwise
the white walls of the room. The photo is therefore, still far from a perfect
photo from a glass. But compared to the first photo, it is an enormous
improvement which was simply achieved by placing a black background
close to the glass.
In that photo, many unwanted reflections are already dampened by the orange
juice in the glass, although hardly any changes have been made to the
lighting in relation to the photo above. Now you can see the dust on the glass.
Glasses are mirrors all around. Especially with glasses, watches and jewelry,
not only the light sources play a significant role but also the shading of
unwanted reflections. To do this, you can place small matt black boards (e.g.
black cardboard) around the glass or jewelry, so that you gradually eliminate
all unwanted reflections. There are no panaceas for this, as in many areas of
photography, patient experimentation is the order of the day.
If you have a little patience, digital photography invites you to experiment.
Because you can see the result immediately on the display and especially in
the studio, you can either connect the camera directly to a PC and even
control it via the PC or at least look at the pictures on the PC immediately
after a series of photos with slightly different settings.
This makes it easy to find out which effect affects which setting. On the large
screen, you can see the small details that you cannot see on the display. But
especially in the field of object photography, it is often tiny little things such
as a little dust on the glass or an undesirable reflex that impair the effect of a
photo.
At the latest on the screen, you will also notice fingerprints or light soiling,
which is particularly unpleasant for reflecting or illuminated objects.
This photo was taken with the same lighting as the two photos of the glasses.
So with just one lamp which shines as an almost backlight at an
approximately 45 ° angle from behind on the object, the reflection was
created by the glass plate of the coffee table on which this Chinese tea bowl
made of wafer-thin porcelain stood. The better the preparation for object
photography, the better the results.
PANORAMIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Panoramic photos in the narrower sense are 360 ° panoramic images. So you
place the camera on a tripod in a suitable place and take enough partially
overlapping photos to then assemble a panorama photo. Every image
processing program with which the panorama photo is later to be combined
needs something in each individual partial photo, which also occurs in the
next partial photo in order to be able to recognize how the panoramic photo
must be composed.
But partial panorama images that do not offer a 360 ° panoramic view are
also panoramic photos. You will probably use the latter much more
frequently, namely whenever you want to add more to the picture than would
be possible even with a strong wide-angle lens. In this way, you can also
avoid the strong distortions caused by a strong wide-angle lens.
Panoramic photography requires careful preparation. After all, the individual
photos should later be put together seamlessly with a suitable program to
form an overall picture, which one must not see because it consists of several
individual pictures. So there must be no abrupt transitions, perceptible
differences in exposure, different levels of sharpness or anything else
disturbing in the panorama photo that will be put together later.
As expected, the original panorama picture was quite pale and only correctly
exposed on the right side with the forest, otherwise slightly overexposed.
However, the color of the sky is uniform across the entire image.
In the next step, the entire bright area of the sky was selected via
selection/color range/lights, provided with a soft edge of 80 pixels, a new
layer was created with the selection from the context menu "Layer as copy"
and with 100% opacity with the original multiplied level. The difference in
the sky can be seen clearly, even the brightest parts of the landscape show
significantly more drawing.
In this step, the contrast was increased by copying the background layer and
calculating it against the original layer using soft light. But there is still far
too little drawing in the bright areas on the left. This is fixed in the last step.
In the original background layer, a new selection is created again via the
color range, this time selection "Depths" and then the selection reversed.
Again a soft edge with 80 pixels which is multiplied again by the background
layer.
Partial Panoramas
You do not necessarily need a tripod for a partial panorama, although the
tripod is always an advantage in the preparation of both panoramic photos
and HDR photos. These examples were all taken without a tripod. When I
took the photos, I was by no means sure that I would ever make a panorama
photo out of them.
An analog camera without automatic functions only has three setting options:
exposure time, aperture and distance setting. Exposure time and aperture
must be set to match the film material used, which corresponds to a manually
selected ISO sensitivity of the camera.
Incidentally, if lenses from a time before the development of the automatic
functions are used on a digital SLR camera, we have the same situation. All
three parameters that are important for the image result must be determined
manually and set manually.
The comparison with the human eyes is perhaps the clearest illustration of
what is important when taking pictures. Because a camera has many
similarities to the human eye, the human eye and the camera differ in some
essential points.
CAMERA SETTINGS
Metering
ISO sensitivity
White balance
Camera Settings, Which Are Usually Only Made Once
Autofocus Problem
The autofocus works on a similar principle as the slice range finder for high-
quality cameras. Both cannot focus on a surface but require edges in the
image motif to focus. So much for the commonality.
ISO Sensitivity
You need the manual ISO setting when it comes to the highest quality, poor
lighting conditions require a higher value than that specified by the automatic
system or the exposure setting is carried out manually.
With the ISO setting, you determine the light sensitivity of the sensor.
Anyone who has photographed in analog times knows that a film always has
a very specific sensitivity to light, this also applies to the sensor of a digital
camera.
All ISO settings that are above or below the real light sensitivity of the sensor
are achieved electronically and lead to more or less noticeable quality losses.
The image noise at very high ISO values is already known to many.
If you use your camera with the preset factory settings, the ISO setting is
made automatically. For this, the manufacturer chooses an area that still
works without massive image noise. The size of this area depends on your
camera. In this case, the camera selects the ISO value itself, depending on the
available light. The less light, the higher the ISO value.
You have to switch this automatic off if you either need a higher ISO value in
very poor lighting conditions, for example at night or inside a building and
accept the image noise that increases with higher ISO values or if you set the
exposure manually.
With some camera models, the automatic adjustment of the light sensitivity
of the sensor is automatically switched off as soon as you turn the dial to the
M position, with all other cameras; you have to remember this yourself. You
can easily find out yourself how your camera behaves.
Set your camera to fully automatic (dial P). Set the ISO setting to AUTO in
the menu. Now turn the dial to M. Then go back to setting the ISO value. Is
AUTO still there? Then you definitely have to set the ISO value yourself or is
there now an ISO value specified? Then adapt it to your needs or leave it in
the basic setting (usually ISO 100) if the light is sufficient.
My camera is always manually set to ISO 100, the actual light sensitivity of
this sensor. This is how I achieve the maximum quality. The setting is only
changed temporarily if the available light is insufficient.
White Balance
The manual white balance must always be done when the automatic white
balance leads to wrong colors, either with one of the presets of your camera
or completely manually. The white balance is usually done automatically,
which usually works well. Manual intervention is rarely required. Now and
then, you have to adjust the white balance manually. Most cameras offer
various presets for this, which more or less fit. For example, incandescent
light, daylight, cloudy sky and a few more. You can also manually adjust the
white balance on all slightly better cameras.
For many camera models, the white balance is just as easy to reach as the
ISO settings and is not hidden somewhere in the menu because these are
basic and important recording settings. Especially if the photos are not saved
as a raw data file (in this case the white balance can also be carried out
retrospectively) but as a JPEG, the white balance for light sources whose
light color differs greatly from pure white must either be done with one of the
presets or manually, if the automatic fails. The automatic function fails,
especially when there is a larger, apparently white surface in the subject,
which the camera interprets as pure white, even though it is a tinted white.
Color Space
Some camera models offer multiple settings for the color space. The two
most important settings are Adobe RBG and sRBG. Adobe RBG is the
industry standard that can be processed by any newer image editing program,
even if it is not from Adobe. This color space can also be easily converted for
the usual CMYK model in printing.
sRBG is the standard used for the web. If your camera offers Adobe RBG,
you should make use of it, even if you later want to publish the photos on a
website that is preset to sRBG, because any slightly better image editing
program can also save edited photos in the sRBG color space. There
are differences between the two models, particularly in terms of contrast.
CHAPTER 15
Integral Measurement
The integral measurement is factory-set for most cameras. With these
cameras, it is the standard measurement of the exposure situation. For the
integral measurement, all measuring points distributed over the sensor are
treated equally and an average value is calculated from the different exposure
values. This measurement method is really only suitable for low-contrast
subjects. Landscape photos, for example, are relatively poor in contrast when
the sky is overcast and are therefore suitable for integral measurement.
However, when the sun is shining and there are also distinct image areas in
the deep shadow, the integral measurement is not the yellow of the egg,
because taking the shadow areas into account would lead to overexposure of
the sunlit areas. The larger the areas in the deep shadow, the more the bright
areas of the image are overexposed with this measurement method.
This measurement method is also completely unsuitable if the actual image
motif, for example, a portrait or a flower is in front of a relatively darker or
lighter background, because in this case too, the integral measurement would
determine an average value, which extremely leads to nothing is properly
exposed at all. The flower would be much too light on a dark background and
the background itself would still be too dark. Conversely, on a light
background, the flower would be far too dark.
After all, the camera cannot know what is really important to us with this
subject and simply makes an average calculation. However, since the
background of these motifs usually takes up a much larger area, it is much
more important for the automatic average calculation than the actual image
motif. Because this is the case, there are other measurement methods.
Exposure time
Aperture
Sensor sensitivity (ISO values)
All 3 settings are interdependent. Exposure time and aperture regulate the
amount of light, the ISO value the light sensitivity of the sensor. In
combination, they result in the right exposure. If one of the 3 values is
changed manually, this affects the exposure if one of the other two settings is
not adjusted at the same time.
Priorities or Compromises
Photography is always about priorities. I purposely say priorities and not
compromises because when considering which settings to make on the
camera, it is always a question of which of these settings have priority and
which properties have to take priority over this priority because every change
of a setting affects all other properties of the photo.
Aperture 2.8
Aperture 4
Aperture 5.6
Aperture 8
Aperture 11
Aperture 16
Aperture 22
The smallest aperture is usually aperture 22 for 35 mm lenses. Since lens 16
for lenses for the 35 mm format already shows diffraction phenomena that
significantly impair the sharpness of the lens, even smaller apertures make no
sense for lenses for the 35 mm format. In medium format and large format
photography, there are even smaller apertures (aperture 32, 64, 128) due to
the larger focal lengths for a comparable image angle because the number
with which an aperture is set is the divisor in a fractional calculation. The
actual focal length is the denominator, the aperture of the divider. The set
aperture thus denotes the opening of the aperture in relation to the focal
length used (not the converted one).
Optimal Exposure
The optimal exposure is not necessarily the right exposure. As already
explained with the automatic functions, it depends on the measuring method,
what is understood as the correct exposure. Mostly it is about the optimal
exposure. However, the optimal exposure depends largely on the subject, the
background and our personal ideas.
If you want to make something shine, exposure is often a little bit scarcer
because a motif in bright colors, for example, a flower, shines particularly
well against a darker background when the picture is tinted a bit darker
overall.
In artistic nude photography too, exposure is often deliberately short
(lowkey). Conversely, in highkey photography, an image is intentionally
made a little lighter than it would correspond to the correct exposure.
Photography is not an exact science in the creative field but depends on the
ideas and preferences of the photographer. This is another reason why there is
no correct exposure for the image design, but instead an optimal exposure. Of
course, this depends optimally on both the motif and the intended image
statement.
Photography is not an image of reality, but the representation of reality from
the photographer's perspective and what is important to him. Whenever the
automatic functions either do not lead to the desired result or finer automatic
functions such as spot metering are relatively difficult to use, the exposure is
instead set manually.
THE CAMERA
APS Sensor
The APS sensor is the rule in the class of SLR cameras for amateurs. The
APS sensor is still used in many semi-professional cameras. The APS sensor
has some disadvantages compared to the full format but also advantages.
The Display
With a camera with an optical viewfinder, the display is not as important as
with a mirrorless system camera. However, it is still important to check the
exposure immediately after taking the picture. The focus can only be checked
if you look into it Picture zooms in. Therefore, it applies to the display that it
should be large enough and should not reflect if possible. It should also be
easy to use by easily zooming in on a photo and moving the crop.
A fold-out display like some newer models like the video cameras is helpful
if the camera also offers Lifeview and you can take photos for which you
would otherwise need an angle finder. For example, photos from floor level
or over the heads of others. Sighting on the display also has serious
disadvantages in bright ambient light. If the sun hits the display directly, you
won't see anything at all on the display.
Practically, all cameras now meet the minimum criteria for a display.
However, there are still big differences in the operation, because you can tell
whether a camera was developed together with practitioners or only by
engineers.
Mirror Lock-up
A single-lens reflex camera, with which you also want to take pictures at
dusk and at night, must be equipped with a mirror lock-up because even with
long exposures, the smallest vibrations of the camera are noticeable as
blurring. That is why good SLR cameras offer mirror lock-up.
With the mirror trigger, the mirror is folded up a few seconds before the
picture is taken or manually, so that the camera no longer shakes at the
moment of the picture. Some cameras have a mirror lock-up which is named
differently. If the mirror can be fixed or locked beforehand or if the self-timer
can be set up before the picture is taken, the mirror is also triggered.
Image Stabilizer
An image stabilizer has undisputed advantages in all situations in which a
short exposure time or a tripod would actually be required. With the image
stabilizer, the exposure time can be extended by up to 3 aperture stops
without the photos being blurred. Thanks to the image stabilizer, exposure
times up to a quarter of a second are possible for me. I rarely carry a tripod
with me.
Anyone who likes to take photos in the telephoto area will also be grateful for
an image stabilizer because the small angle of view requires short exposure
times in order not to blur the photos. A three times longer exposure time,
thanks to a good image stabilizer significantly extends the use of even strong
telephoto lenses even in poor lighting conditions.
If the image stabilizer is already built into the camera, you don't have to buy
expensive lenses with a built-in image stabilizer. In addition, you can also use
older lenses from the analog times with a camera with built-in image
stabilizer and still have the image stabilizer available. The image stabilizer
should be easy to switch off because it is not compatible with the camera on
the tripod.
Exposure Programs
For an amateur, motivational programs may help. It remains to be seen
whether they really help because like any software, even a motif program
requires a certain amount of familiarization in order to be able to use it
successfully.
Regardless of the motif programs, all cameras above cheap pocket cameras
offer at least two different measuring methods and in addition to the fully
automatic exposure control and the automatic shutter.
It seems to me much more important whether all automatic functions can be
deactivated without long searches in the camera menu in order to be able to
control the settings manually. Because sooner or later, you will want to
manually intervene in the exposure for better image results or night shots.
Then that should also be possible without any problems.
In this area, many bridge cameras and some mirrorless system cameras are
almost a disaster because if manual adjustments are possible at all, they are
only discovered after a long search in the camera menu.
Types of Cameras
There are cameras with a built-in lens and system cameras. The sensor size is
essential for creative photography because only with a sufficiently large
sensor can the important design element be influenced (depth of field).
Pocket Cameras
These cameras are good if you always want to have a camera with you and
you want more options than a cell phone can offer. A pocket camera is
completely sufficient for simple documentation and souvenir photos for
motifs with balanced contrast ratios or with the aid of the built-in flash.
However, you shouldn't expect more than that because firstly, the sensor is
too small for creative photography which is why the important image design
element cannot be used for depth of field and secondly, the manual
intervention in exposure and focusing are usually not possible sufficient to be
able to work creatively.
Bridge Cameras
A bridge camera offers a lot more options than a pocket camera but still has
certain limitations compared to a system camera. Bridge cameras are
available with sensors of different sizes. A bridge camera with a very small
sensor usually has a much better lens than a pocket camera and extends in the
telephoto range for some models to the extreme telephoto range which would
correspond to a very strong telephoto lens with a focal length of more than
500 mm for a 35 mm lens.
Nevertheless, the sensor size of the bridge camera also plays a decisive role
in the image design with the depth of field. In addition, the sensor size also
plays an important role for the image resolution and the maximum sensor
sensitivity without disturbing image noise.
Bridge cameras with sensors that are hardly larger than the sensor of a pocket
camera are closer in terms of image design and take pictures in poor light
without flash than a pocket camera and a system camera. However, there are
also bridge cameras with APS sensors or at least sensors that are only slightly
smaller than an APS sensor. With these bridge cameras, you can already
work creatively with certain restrictions, while a bridge camera with a very
small sensor is actually just a slightly better pocket camera.
System Cameras, Cameras with Interchangeable Lenses
The sensor size also plays a decisive role in the design options and image
quality of the system camera.
LENSES
There is a huge range of lenses for digital SLR cameras. The beginner is
usually overwhelmed and often enough buys a zoom lens with a large focal
length range that extends from the strong, wide angle to the strong telephoto
range. However, this is not the best choice, so this is about lenses. Before you
buy a lens, you should look for test reports and user experiences on the
internet. There are a number of internet forums that deal with digital cameras
and lenses. When purchasing the camera, the question arises whether you
should buy the camera with the kit lens or better without the kit lens.
Two Zoom Lenses for the Most Important Focal Length Range
With two zoom lenses, one can cover the entire focal length range from the
moderate wide angle to the medium-strong telephoto range without having to
compromise on image quality. That would be for example, a focal length
range from 28 mm to about 80-110 mm for the moderate wide-angle and
telephoto range as well as another zoom lens for the pronounced telephoto
range which starts at around 80 mm and ranges up to 200 or 300 mm focal
length depending on the lens.
Sharpness Performance
There are good and there are bad lenses. Accordingly, there are also lenses
with excellent sharpness and lenses that only achieve moderate sharpness at
medium aperture levels. The sharpness of a lens is becoming increasingly
important in digital photography.
In analog times and the early days of digital photography, film was the
weakest link in the 35 mm format and sensor in the digital camera. Every
reasonably good lens had a much better imaging performance than it could be
processed by the 35 mm film or sensor.
With the high resolutions of current sensors with 50 megapixels already
achieved with a full-frame camera, the relationship is reversed. Suddenly, the
lens becomes the weakest link in the chain. There are only a few, really high-
quality lenses that can keep up with the high resolution and show no
weaknesses even on such a camera.
Therefore, especially if you want to buy a full-frame camera with more than
20 megapixels, you have to include the range of available, high-quality lenses
for the preferred focal length range in the purchase decision; otherwise, the
whole thing will be disappointing. But also with digital SLR cameras with
lower resolution, for example, 16 megapixels with a camera with APS sensor,
the focus performance plays a significant role.
Basically, it applies to all lenses that they should have a very good focus even
with the aperture open which can be increased significantly with regard to the
overall focus as well as the depth of field by stopping down.
Lens Material
You can no longer expect a good lens to be made entirely of solid metal.
Plastic has long established itself in the middle price segment, at least for the
outer area that you can touch. Of course, with a good lens, the lenses are still
made of high-quality optical glasses, at least the bayonet made of metal. So
far, there are no plastics that can compete with high-quality optical glass with
their optical properties.
Used Lenses
Interchangeable lenses for cameras have been around for more than 50 years.
The range of used lenses is correspondingly huge. Of course, the question
arises whether you can also buy used lenses? Of course you can, but with
certain restrictions.
Canon and Nikon have developed new types of connectors for digital SLR
cameras that do not allow the direct use of older lenses developed for analog
35 mm cameras. If at all, then only with a special adapter. This also applies to
Olympus to a limited extent.
Older lenses can only be used without restriction with Pentax cameras,
provided they have the K-mount that has been used since 1975. Pentax is the
only camera manufacturer that has received full backward compatibility.
Prime Lenses
The development of prime lenses has actually been completed for decades.
Even lenses that are more than 30 years old are apart from the lack of
automatic functions, practically equivalent to modern lenses with a fixed
focal length. Sometimes even higher quality, because in recent decades,
lenses with high light intensity have rarely been developed. Already in the
1970s, there were legendary lenses with the almost unimaginable light
intensity of 1: 1.2. Since these lenses were not exactly mass-produced at that
time, you will hardly be able to purchase them used.
Special Lenses
In principle, all lenses that have only been developed for very special tasks
are called special lenses.
Shift Lenses
These lenses were primarily developed for architectural photography. They
are also occasionally used in product photography. With these lenses, you can
slide the lens out of the optical axis and thereby avoid falling lines in
architectural photography or even intensify it for special effects. This opens
up areas of photography for 35 mm cameras and digital SLR cameras that
were previously reserved for large format cameras. This also applies to the
next lens type, the tilt lenses.
Tilt Lenses
A tilt lens can be tilted in relation to the optical axis. This means, for
example, that golden ratio rule can also be used with a digital SLR camera.
Tilt/Shift Lenses
Tilt/Shift lenses are a combination of a shift lens and a tilt lens. The optical
axis can be moved as well as tilted.
All three lens types are very expensive and are practically never used outside
of architecture and product photography. If you have the right camera, you
can borrow these lenses from specialist retailers. Depending on the Foto-Rent
provider, these lenses are either only for Canon or only for Nikon.
There are companies that have developed tilt/shift adapters instead. It is
advisable not to connect 35 mm lenses to this adapter, instead they are
available for lenses of analog medium format cameras because this is the only
way to ensure with an adapter that the image circle is large enough to prevent
vignetting in the photo even with heavy tilting or shifting.
Macro Lenses
You need macro lenses if you want to take close-up pictures of a flower, for
example. With a macro lens, you can of course not only take close-up
pictures, they are also high-quality, normal zoom lenses or prime lenses.
Macro lenses are available both as wide-angle lenses and as telephoto lenses.
Both types have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of a
telephoto lens as a macro lens is that you do not have to move a small object
on the skin but can keep a larger distance. This is an undeniable advantage in
studio photography too because you can illuminate the object as usual. For a
wide-angle macro lens, you need a ring flash instead.
Fisheye Lenses
Fisheye lenses are the exact opposite of extremely powerful telephoto lenses.
A fisheye lens has an angle of view of 180 ° or even a little more. Fisheye
lenses have an extreme barrel distortion; all straight lines in the photo become
an arc.
A fisheye lens only makes sense on a full-frame camera because the 50%
longer apparent focal length on a camera with APS sensor would only have a
very strong wide-angle lens with extreme distortion but no 180 ° angle of
view. By the way, if you want to try it out, you can also borrow fisheye
lenses from specialist retailers.
CHAPTER 19
FILTER
Skylight Filter
Skylight filters have had their day since the invention of digital photography.
The light pink filter was used to compensate for a bluish cast in cloudy skies,
many amateur photographers kept it on the lens as lens protection. However,
this has never been recommended because even high-quality filters do not
have the optical qualities of a good lens and therefore reduce the image
quality. Today, this is done using white balance. There is no longer a need for
the skylight filter in digital photography.
UV Filter
UV filters have also had their day for several years. This in turn has nothing
to do with digital photography but rather with the development of
remuneration for lenses that filter out the high UV content of light, especially
in the high mountains from the start.
Polarizing Filter
Polarization filters are the only filters that also play an important role in
digital photography. You can't even polarize the light afterwards in
Photoshop.
Infrared Filter
In digital photography too, photography with invisible infrared light has lost
none of its charms. An infrared filter largely blocks out the visible light. Most
infrared filters generally block out visible light with less than 720 nm. Only
the much longer-wave infrared radiation is not absorbed by these filters.
Instead of visible light, use an infrared filter in front of the camera to
photograph the infrared wave spectrum of light that we cannot perceive with
our eyes. This type of photography is also known as false color photography.
Before buying an infrared filter, however, pay attention to the technical data
of your camera because some digital cameras have an inverted infrared filter
installed in front of the sensor which generally filters out the infrared part of
the wave spectrum. You cannot take infrared photos with such a camera.
However, there are many instructions on the web for removing the reversed
infrared filter from the camera. I don't know if you can guess because there is
a reason why the engineers put an inverted infrared filter in front of the
sensor.
When using infrared filters, make sure that the autofocus of the camera is no
longer working reliably because the distance setting must be slightly
corrected for infrared filters. Most older lenses have a second focus point for
infrared photography.
Effect Filter
In analog amateur photography, effect filters still played a certain role
because only with extreme darkroom work could you conjure up all the
effects that are already possible today with a simple image editing program
such as the free Irfan View. I personally have never been a big fan of
showmanship, although it would be a lot easier in Photoshop today.
Photoshop has thousands of effect filters, many of which are free and most of
them completely superfluous, unless you enjoy turning bad photos into
temporary eye-catchers through some strange effects.
Effect filters are completely unnecessary, thanks to countless plugins which
were originally all developed for Photoshop but which also work with many
other image editing programs.
Graduated Filters
Some digital photography websites still recommend using gradient filters, for
example, to enhance the blue of the sky. When working with filters, be aware
that the image information that has been corrupted by a filter is finally in the
file and therefore in your photo. If you subsequently find that you have
exaggerated, the photo can no longer be saved.
Instead of gradient filters, it is better to use a settings layer in Photoshop.
With a setting level, you can later overlay any course over an image and
adjust its opacity as desired. In this way, you do not permanently spoil your
image but can delete the settings levels later or adjust their opacity as you
wish, just as you can change the course itself. When it comes to the intense
blue of the sky, the polarizing filter is the better solution anyway. Of course,
you shouldn't overdo it.
Gray Filter
You will rarely need a gray filter once. These filters in neutral gray reduce
the incident light without changing colors or contrasts. Gray filters come in
different densities. This allows the amount of light to be reduced by one or
more aperture steps.
In natural light situations, you will rarely need a gray filter, even if you want
to take pictures with the aperture open in bright sunshine to have the shallow
depth of field, you can shorten the exposure time accordingly. You can only
achieve this with a gray filter if you want to have a relatively long exposure
time in very bright light to make movement visible and at the same time,
reduce the depth of field by opening the aperture.
I occasionally use the gray filter in cooperation with the flash system when I
want to open the aperture further because of the depth of field than would be
possible even with the flash system's output reduced to a minimum.
Gray filters are also available as variable gray filters. In principle, however,
these are not gray filters but 2 polar filters placed one behind the other. The
front, rotatable polarizing filter only allows one vibration level of light to
pass through which with the polarizing filter placed behind it, depending on
the rotational position of the front polarizing filter, allows less and less light
to pass through. Since high-quality polarizing filters are very expensive, a
high-quality variable gray filter is also very expensive. After all, 2 high-
quality polarizing filters are required. We cannot recommend this type of
gray filter with a clear conscience because after all it is only a matter of
reducing the amount of light without any color and contrast influences and
not polarizing the light. This solution can be made significantly cheaper by
placing two polarizing filters, one behind the other on the lens and varying
the rotational position of the two filters relative to one another.
With 2-3 gray filters of different densities, you are better served. This is still
cheaper than a good variable gray filter. Even traders are of the opinion,
although they would earn more with the variable filters.
Soft Focus
Do you still need them? After all, you can also use Photoshop or similarly
good image editing programs such as the free Gimp to blur an image
afterwards with all the finesse that a sophisticated image editing program and
various plugins offer. For example, you can deliberately blur only individual
areas of a photo.
But the soft focus in front of the lens also affects the lights. If you want to do
that occasionally, you can experiment with the blur. However, one should be
clear that the deliberate blurring caused by a superior blur can no longer be
corrected. So only use it if you really want it.
How strong the blurring effect is, depends on the aperture used. The wider
the aperture is opened, the more the filter softens. With very small apertures
(aperture 11 or even more closed), the soft focus is hardly noticeable.
Instead, you can also buy a lens with a built-in, variable soft focus. With
these lenses too, soft focus is only possible with apertures between the open
aperture and aperture 5.6. If the aperture is closed further, the blur is canceled
again.
Some don't just want to take pictures outdoors but want to be independent of
the weather, light outside and set up their own small studio.
The Lighting
The question of the right lighting is almost more difficult to answer than the
question of the right background.
Video Lights
The next level is video lights. Video lights also have a very hard light but a
significantly higher luminous efficacy than lamps from the hardware store. A
video light has 500W, 1000 W, 1250 W or twice 500 - 1250 W. At least the
older video lights which are available in abundance on eBay, have a normal
photo tripod thread and no device for attaching reflex or transmitted light
screens. You have to build any makeshift solutions yourself as shown in this
image example.
Video lights develop extreme heat and should never be used for longer than
about 10 minutes. Otherwise, there is a risk that the plastic casing of the
lamps will deform. Therefore, make sure that there is sufficient distance from
flammable materials.
Studio Lamps
The pronounced studio lamps are actually not made for photos but for
professional videos, film and television studios. Therefore, they are new and
accordingly expensive. But occasionally, studio lamps are offered on eBay
and with a little luck, you can make a bargain. The really powerful studio
spotlights used in film and television can no longer be operated on a domestic
electrical system. That is why television stations have their own generators
on flatbed trucks so that they can generate the electricity they need on site.
Studio spotlights are a compromise in photography. Headlights that can still
be operated on a domestic network have too little light output for faster
model movements. Even with relatively high ISO values (ISO 400, ISO
800), exposure times shorter than 1/125 second can rarely be achieved. The
advantage over a good studio flash system is the purchase price itself
compared to flash systems also offered on eBay. The other advantage is the
constantly available light with which you can even use the serial image
function of your digital camera.
Flash Systems
If you only take photos and not shoot videos at the same time, a flash system
is of course best served, since you have neither problems with the domestic
power grid nor problems with the color temperature of the light.
Since a good flash system is also quite expensive when used, I have only
gradually bought my flash system since 2011. Until then, I got along with the
studio headlights but it was just the shoot with the young a model, which
ultimately led me to purchase a flash system. Because many photos that were
taken during this shoot had to be deleted due to motion blur. When buying a
flash system, there are some criteria that basically apply to all flash systems,
regardless of the intended use.
Robustness and Longevity
Flash systems are simply too expensive to dispose of after just a few years.
Flash systems from brand manufacturers for equipping professional studios
still do their job even after 40 years. If you save at the wrong end here, you
quickly pay more than a good flash system. In everyday studio life, especially
when models are photographed, a flash system is not necessarily the same as
a raw egg. So it also has to be robust like everything that is used in everyday
studio life.
A mobile flash system with 300-500 watt seconds per flash head should be
sufficient for most home studio applications. You don't always need that
much power, but firstly it is good to have some reserve and secondly, the
flash heads do not overheat so quickly if you can mainly work with reduced
power.
However, apart from a few professional solutions, compact flash systems are
not intended for action photography because with short flash sequences, they
can overheat very quickly so quickly that the capacitors explode and thereby
destroy the entire flash head. Separate flash generators are better but they also
cost significantly more.
This is a flash generator. It is the Pulso 2 with 1600 watt seconds which can
be synchronously distributed to a maximum of four flash heads. The flash
generator has its fixed place on the base of the column tripod for the
Hazylight. However, it is light enough to be able to take it with you to a
photo opportunity when needed.
You see the large column tripod with the Hazylight and the Pulso 2 against a
background of black stage molton. The scene is not only illuminated by the
Hazylight but also by a flash head with a BeautyLight reflector and another
flash head which sits in a stepped lens headlight, usually referred to as a
spotlight. The spotlight also illuminates the flash generator.
Since I mainly do portrait photography, the flash generator is set to minimum
output despite the fact that there are currently three connected flash heads to
which the power is distributed. Otherwise, I would have to close the aperture
too far.
If I were to photograph a large organ in a church instead, of course, I
shouldn't be reducing performance. In addition to the normal reflectors which
are now rarely used, I also have the Hazylight, a beauty dish and the spotlight
available.
The flash is controlled by the camera via cable, radio remote control or (only
conditionally recommended) an infrared flash that controls the photocells of
the individual components.
I can only recommend infrared flash conditionally for the following reason:
the photocell of the receiver (regardless of whether it is a central generator or
compact flash units) must be in the radiation angle of the infrared flash unit.
At best, bright backgrounds could still be sufficient to reach the photocell
through their reflection.
If your digital camera does not have an accessory shoe for attaching external
flash units, you can only trigger a flash system via the camera flash. Please
note that most digital cameras with built-in flash units emit a short pre-flash
to measure and avoid red eyes. The pre-flash would trigger the flash system
but then the shutter is still closed. When the shutter opens, the flash from the
external flash system has already extinguished, the photo would be drastically
underexposed. As far as your camera offers the possibility to switch off the
pre-flash in the settings, you should definitely do this if you want to trigger
the flash system via the camera flash.
Daylight Lamps
There are real daylight lamps that are increasingly used in television studios
and concert halls. These lamps actually have the same color spectrum as
daylight and despite their very cool character compared to incandescent light,
are perceived as pleasant. Our brains are calibrated for daylight. But the
alleged daylight lamps offered by eBay and typical mail order dealers for the
equipment of photo amateurs simply have nothing in common with daylight.
These are large-area energy-saving lamps. Energy-saving lamps have a cool
light character because the color spectrum completely lacks red. This light
has a similarly cool character to daylight but the lack of red does not produce
daylight, instead it creates color distortions. These alleged daylight flash light
are misleading consumers; therefore, my very clear advice, stay away.
Digital technology has reached high levels of quality and the electronic
storage of medical information is more common every day. The quick access
and easy handling of this information make a digital archive of patient
images necessary for the daily medical practice of the plastic surgeon. This
technology has been used for many years. However, the high costs of
photographic equipment until now limited the use of this type of
photography. Today, ideal digital photographic equipment is cheaper and
computers offer hard drives capable of storing and organizing hundreds of
thousands of photos.
In Plastic Surgery, the most used digital equipment continues to be compact
digital cameras. With the decrease in costs in the last 10 years of advanced
cameras, such as SLRs, it is very important that plastic surgeons take the big
step and invest in equipment of higher quality and versatility for their
consultations.
We need a basic knowledge of photography to obtain optimal images and
digitally standardize the evolution of the patient through the taking of
photographs. By acquiring good photographic equipment and installing a
suitable studio, we obtain not only a superior quality of the images we take,
but also the patient will notice the seriousness, quality of care and service that
the doctor will be providing.
APPENDIX
A
analog photography 54, 59, 76, 117, 135, 157, 204, 207, 213, 218, 219, 228, 256, 264
angle of view 2, 3, 4, 51, 57, 59, 61, 68, 69, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91,
92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 138, 140, 142, 150, 173, 174, 181, 182, 199, 223, 224, 225, 226,
232, 253, 255, 294, 295
aperture 4, 5, 6, 20, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 87, 88, 95, 96, 98, 99,
100, 102, 107, 108, 109, 123, 125, 131, 146, 164, 165, 172, 176, 177, 179, 180, 183, 189, 191, 198,
199, 200, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 223, 232, 244, 245, 246, 249, 251, 255, 260, 261, 264,
265, 266, 279, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293
APS format 2, 76, 81, 294
APS sensor 2, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 93, 104, 138, 144, 199, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229,
233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 246, 253, 255, 294
APS sensors 2, 79, 223, 225, 229, 237
architectural photography 6, 140, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 253
Architectural photography 140
artificial light 122, 148, 159, 186, 194, 195, 217, 257, 258, 271
autofocus 67, 100, 101, 103, 176, 181, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 202, 234, 235, 239, 249, 250,
259, 261, 263
B
background 2, 3, 25, 26, 35, 36, 37, 51, 52, 61, 70, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 97, 99, 109, 114,
119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 132, 139, 154, 161, 168, 169, 181, 182, 190, 201, 209, 227, 234,
267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 279, 284
Backlighting 19
barrel distortions 93
binoculars 87, 97
C
camera flash 10, 16, 18, 23, 139, 279
camera shutter 125
color channels 30, 195, 196, 219, 257, 296
color temperature 11, 12, 158, 168, 193, 194, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 257, 258,
271, 274, 296
complementary color 11, 264
contrast motifs 190, 202
cropping tool 51, 56, 168
D
depth gradation 3, 35, 75, 79, 90, 94, 96
depth of field 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81,
85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 113, 119, 123, 131, 145, 146, 147, 151, 177, 183,
189, 198, 199, 222, 223, 225, 229, 236, 237, 245, 246, 264, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295
design elements 1, 4, 6, 108
diffuse light 14, 36
digital camera 13, 29, 60, 78, 108, 133, 142, 149, 157, 158, 180, 184, 190, 192, 195, 201, 207,
213, 235, 246, 248, 258, 271, 274, 279, 293, 295
digital SLR cameras 60, 69, 76, 102, 125, 145, 146, 157, 184, 189, 198, 200, 208, 235, 238,
239, 242, 246, 249, 253, 284, 290, 292
E
exposure time 5, 17, 33, 64, 74, 84, 85, 87, 98, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 125,
131, 151, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 189, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 232, 255,
260, 261, 264, 281, 289, 290
F
falling diagonal 39, 40
falling lines 92, 140, 141, 142, 145, 253
flash synchronization 125, 281
flash unit 16, 18, 19, 125, 170, 218, 279, 280
focal length 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 51, 57, 59, 60, 62, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81,
84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 119, 123, 127, 129, 138,
141, 142, 144, 167, 171, 177, 182, 189, 199, 208, 223, 224, 225, 226, 237, 238, 242, 243, 244, 245,
246, 250, 251, 253, 255, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295
foreground 3, 26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 75, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 123, 124, 132, 182, 190, 234
G
golden ratio 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 54, 56, 57, 60, 74, 132, 133, 145, 202, 253
grazing light 21, 22, 23, 25, 148
H
Hazylight 19, 115, 122, 152, 277, 279, 280, 284
I
image editing program 11, 39, 51, 54, 113, 131, 140, 146, 149, 158, 167, 171, 172, 177, 194,
197, 263, 265, 271, 298
image section 2, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 73, 90, 96, 113, 129, 130, 131,
133, 185, 188, 189, 191, 203, 238
image stabilizer 85, 99, 104, 106, 107, 108, 199, 232
incandescent light 11, 158, 159, 193, 214, 257, 271, 283
ISO sensitivity 178, 179, 187, 290
ISO value 64, 98, 102, 125, 146, 186, 192, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 206, 210, 290
L
landscape photography 132, 133, 134, 135, 148
light spectrum 8
lighting effects 9, 114, 121, 269, 280
M
manual white balance 11, 30, 193, 214, 215, 216
Maximum sharpness 6
N
natural light 11, 114, 120, 121, 128, 193, 217, 264
O
Object photography 150, 151
overall sharpness 6, 7, 59, 62, 70, 80, 95, 131, 146, 183, 199, 288, 289, 292
P
photographic subjects 134
Photography and painting 1
Photoshop plugins 134
polarizing filter 93, 134, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264
R
reportage photography 16, 55
S
shift lens 92, 144, 152, 254
shutter release button 109, 187, 189
souvenir photos 16, 133, 139, 197, 219, 222, 223, 237, 240
spotlights 9, 121, 158, 273, 274
T
Telephoto lenses 3, 96, 98
tripod 27, 85, 87, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 121, 122, 125, 131, 135,
144, 146, 156, 158, 160, 163, 167, 168, 170, 171, 189, 199, 229, 232, 254, 272, 276, 277, 279, 284,
288
W
Wide angle lenses 3
wide-angle lenses 3, 5, 70, 75, 79, 91, 93, 96, 140, 141, 142, 145, 225, 226, 251, 254, 291
Z
zoom lens 3, 6, 71, 73, 75, 76, 94, 97, 129, 138, 167, 242, 243, 244, 245, 250, 288, 291, 292
zoom lenses 2, 71, 75, 85, 94, 98, 208, 243, 244, 245, 250, 251, 254, 287, 288