COMPUTER AWARENESS

Introduction of Computer: Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient
form for processing. The form will depend on the processing
A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, machine.
calculations and operations based on instructions provided by a Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data
software or hardware program. It is designed to execute in a more useful form.
applications and provides a variety of solutions by combining
Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step
integrated hardware and software components.
is collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the
In general, a machine which has capability to store large data value use of the data.
in its memory. It works using input (like keyboard) and output (like
Full form of computer: COMPUTER stands for Common Operating
printer) devices. ... It allows us to make changes in the already
Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational
stored data as well as store new data.
Research.
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or
instructions in a formalized manner, which should be suitable for History of Computer
communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine. The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They
used sticks, stones and bones as counting tools. As human mind and
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets technology improved with time more computing devices were
(A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+, -, /, *, <, >, = etc.) developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the
Information is organized or classified data, which has some first to recent ones are described below
meaningful values for the receiver. Information is the processed Abacus:
data on which decisions and actions are based.
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is
believed to be the first computer. It is said that Chinese invented
Data Information Abacus around 4,000 years ago. It was a wooden rack which has
The collection of raw facts The processed form of data is metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by
and figures is called called information/output the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
Data/input. calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia
Data is an input for computer. Information is an output from and Japan
computer.
Data is independent. Information is dependent on
data.
When data is lost, it can't be When information is lost, it can
reproduced. reproduced from data
Data is meaningless and Information is meaningful and
valueless. valuable

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify

for the following characteristics:
Timely − Information should be available when required.
Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
Completeness − Information should be complete.

Napier's Bones:
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented
by John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool,
he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to
multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones.
It was also the first machine to use the decimal point

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Analytical Engine:
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in
1830. It was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input.
It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing
Pascaline:
information as a permanent memory.
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine.
It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-
philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first
mechanical and automatic calculator. It could only perform addition
and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and
wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the
neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals.

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel:

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried
Tabulating Machine:
Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop
this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American
the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It
drums. could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This
machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company which later became
International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Difference Engine:
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known
as "Father of Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer
which could perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven
calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like
logarithm tables.

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Differential Analyzer: Hardware:

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States The hardware used in the first generation of computers were:
in 1930. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This ☞ Vacuum Tubes
machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform ☞ Punch Cards.
calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.
Features:
Following are the features of first generation computers –
☞ It supported machine language.
☞ It had slow performance
☞ It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
☞ It had a poor storage capacity.
☞ It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
Memory:
The memory was of 4000 bits.
Data Input:
The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the
computer, mostly through punched cards and paper tapes.
Examples:
Mark I: The examples of first generation computers are –
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 ☞ ENIAC
when Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that could ☞ UNIVACTBM 701
perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I
☞ IBM-701
computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It
was the first programmable digital computer. ☞ IBM-650
Second Generation (1956-1963):

Generation of Computer
First Generation (1940-1956):

Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the

development of second generation computers. Following are
various changes in features and components of second generation
computers –
Hardware:
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:
☞ Transistors
☞ Magnetic Tapes
Features
It had features like –
☞ Batch operating system
☞ Faster and smaller in size
☞ Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
☞ Less costly than the previous generation

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Memory Fourth generation computers have the following components and

The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits. features

Data Input Hardware

The input was provided through punched cards. The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were –
☞ ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
Examples
☞ Semiconductor memory
The examples of second generation computers are –
☞ Magnetic tapes and Floppy
☞ Honeywell 400
☞ CDC 1604 Features
☞ IBM 7030 It supports features like –
Third Generation (1964-1971): ☞ Multiprocessing & distributed OS
☞ Object-oriented high level programs supported
☞ Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
☞ No external cooling required & affordable
☞ This generation saw the development of networks and the
internet
☞ It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices,
keyboard and mouse.
Following are the various components and features of the third Examples
generation computers
The examples of fourth generation computers are –
Hardware: ☞ Apple II
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were ☞ VAX 9000
☞ Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials ☞ CRAY 1 (super computers)
☞ Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes ☞ CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)
Features
Fifth Generation (2010-Present):
The features of the third generation computers are –
☞ Supports time-sharing OS
☞ Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous
generations
☞ Easy to access Memory The capacity of the memory was
128,000 bits. Data Input The input was provided through
keyboards and monitors.
Examples
The examples of third generation computers are –
☞ IBM 360/370
☞ CDC 6600
☞ PDP 8/11
Fourth Generation (1972-2010):

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes

in the components and operations have made fifth generation
computers handy and more reliable than the previous generations.
Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are –
☞ Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology
☞ Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
☞ Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

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Features Four types of system software are the following.

It supports features like – ☞ Operating System
☞ Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use. ☞ Utility Programs
☞ Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super ☞ Device drivers
Large Scale Integrated Circuits. ☞ Language translators.
☞ Rapid software development is possible.
Operating System
Memory
Operating system (OS) is the program that acts as an interface
The capacity of the memory is unlimited. between the user and computer hardware and application software.
Data Input After the boot program, OS manages all the other programs in a
computer. Examples - Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows XP etc.
The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch
and voice sensitive input devices. Utility Programs
Examples Utility Programs help to manage, maintain and control computer
The examples of fifth generation computers are – resources. They are also known as service programs. Examples of
utility programs are antivirus software, backup software, disk
☞ IBM
defragment, backup, disk clean etc.
☞ Pentium
☞ PARAM Device Drivers
A device driver is designed to enable interaction with hardware
Computer Hardware and Software devices. It controls a device that is attached to your computer.
Printers, Displays, CDROM readers, Disk drives etc are the examples
Hardware: of the device driver.
Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer Language Translator
system. This includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and
mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such Language Translator translates the high-level language program
as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others. (input) into an equivalent machine language program (output). It
also detects and reports the error during translation. Assembler,
Motherboard: Compiler, Interpreter are types of a Language Translator.
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the ☞ Assembler
parts of a computer together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard It converts assembly language program into machine language.
drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and ☞ Compiler
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the It converts the program in a high-level language into low-level
backbone of a computer. language and reports all the errors of the program along with
the line numbers. C, C++ use compilers.
☞ Interpreter
It converts the programs in a high-level language to low-level
language. It translates line by line and reports the error once
after completing the translation process. It gives better error
diagnostics than a compiler. Python, BASIC, and Ruby use
interpreters.

Application Software:
Applications software is a set of programs designed to perform a
specific task. It does not control or coordinate the working of
Software: computer. A computer can run without application software.
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as
computers and execute specific tasks. Opposite of hardware, which required.
describes the physical aspects of a computer, software is a generic Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop and any other software like
term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on payroll software or income tax software are application software.
a device. Software is of two types: system software and application
software. Hardware Software
Physical parts of the computer A set of instructions given to
System Software: are called hardware. the computer is called software
System software is the main software that runs the computer. When You can touch, see and feel You cannot touch and feel
you turn on the computer it activates the hardware and controls and hardware software
coordinates their functioning. The application programs are also Hardware is constructed using Software is developed by
controlled by system software. It is also known as background physical materials or writing instructions in
software. components. programming language

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Computer is hardware, which The operations of computer are RAM categorized into following types.
operates under the control of a controlled through software
1. DRAM- Dynamic memory must be constantly refreshed, or it
software.
loses its contents. This type of memory is more economical.
If hardware is damaged, it is If software is damaged or
2. SRAM- SRAM is faster and less volatile than DRAM but requires
replaced with new one corrupted, its backup copy can
more power and is more expensive. It does not need to be
be reinstalled
refreshed like a DRAM.
Hardware is not affected by Software is affected by
3. SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory) - A
computer viruses computer viruses
type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds.
Hardware cannot be Software can be transferred
transferred from one place to from one place to another Read Only Memory (ROM):
another electronically through electronically through network
It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or
network
programs that are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a
User cannot make new User can make many new
permanent memory that contains all important data and
duplicate copies of the duplicate copies of the
hardware software instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot
process.

Computer Memory ROM memory has several models such names are
following.
Memory is the best essential element of a computer because
computer can’t perform simple tasks. The performance of computer 1. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains
mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is internal storage large storage media but can’t offer the erase features in ROM.
media of computer that has several names such as majorly This type of RO maintains PROM chips to write data once and
categorized into two types, read many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM
☞ Main memory/ Primary Memory can’t be erased by other programs.
☞ Secondary Memory 2. EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed
for recover the problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete
Primary Memory: the data of EPROM thorough pass on ultraviolet light and it
Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or computer erases chip is reprogrammed.
accesses first or directly. It allows a processor to access running 3. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
execution applications and services that are temporarily stored in a Memory similar to the EPROM but it uses electrical beam for
specific memory location. Primary memory is also known as primary erase the data of ROM.
storage or main memory
Some other memories are
☞ RAM (Volatile Memory).
☞ ROM (Non-Volatile Memory) ☞ Register Memory:
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a
Random Access Memory (RAM):
computer. It is located in the CPU in the form of registers. A
register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions
and memory address that can be quickly accessed by the CPU.
☞ Cache Memory:
It is small in size but faster than the main memory. The CPU can
access it more quickly than the primary memory. It holds the
data and programs frequently used by the CPU. So if the CPU
finds the required data or instructions in cache memory it
doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, it
speeds up the system performance.
☞ Semi-volatile memory:
A third category of memory is "semi-volatile". The term is used
to describe a memory which has some limited non-volatile
duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately
lost. A typical goal when using a semi volatile memory is to
provide high performance/durability/etc. associated with
It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or volatile memories, while providing some benefits of a true non-
instructions permanently. It is read/write memory which stores data volatile memory.
till the machine is working. When you switch on the computer and
☞ Virtual memory:
perform some task the data and instructions from the hard disk are
Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is
stored in RAM.
controlled by the operating system. When a program needs
CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you memory, it requests it from the operating system. The operating
shut down the computer the RAM loses all the data. system then decides in what physical location to place the
program's code and data.

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☞ Protected memory:
Protected memory is a system where each program is given an Primary memory Secondary memory
area of memory to use and is not permitted to go outside that The primary memory is The secondary memory is
range. Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the categorized as volatile & always a nonvolatile memory.
reliability and security of a computer system. nonvolatile memories.
☞ Secondary Memory: These memories are also called Secondary memory is known as
The storage devices in the computer or connected to the internal memory. a Backup memory or Additional
computer are known as secondary memory of the computer. It memory or Auxiliary memory.
is non-volatile in nature so permanently stores the data even Data is directly accessed by the Data cannot be accessed
when the computer is turned off. The CPU can't directly access processing unit. directly by the processor. It is
the secondary memory. First the secondary memory data is first copied from secondary
transferred to primary memory then CPU can access it. Common memory to primary memory.
secondary storage devices are the hard disk and optical disks. Only then CPU can access it.
The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main It holds data or information It stores a substantial amount
memory. that is currently being used by of data and information.
There are three main types of secondary storage in a the processing unit. Capacity is Capacity is generally from
computer system: usually in 16 to 32 GB 200GB to terabytes.
Primary memory can be Secondary memory is accessed
☞ Solid state storage devices (such as USB memory sticks): accessed by the data bus. by I/O channels.
Solid state storage is also faster than traditional hard disk drives Primary memory is costlier Secondary memory is cheaper
because the data is stored electrically in silicon chips called cells. than secondary memory. than primary memory.
Within the cells, the binary data is stored by holding an electrical
current in a transistor with an on / off mode.
☞ Optical storage devices (such as CD, DVD and Blue-ray discs): Memory unit
Optical devices use a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disc Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage
made from metal and plastic. The disc surface is divided into unit. This storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
tracks, with each track containing many flat areas and hollows.
The flat areas are known as lands and the hollows as pits. Unit Description
☞ Magnetic storage devices (such as hard disk drives): Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a
Magnetic devices such as hard disk drives use magnetic fields to passive or an active state of a component in an
magnetize tiny individual sections of a metal spinning disk. Each electric circuit.
tiny section represents one bit. A magnetized section represents Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
a binary '1' and a demagnetized section represents a binary '0'. Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the
☞ Hard drive: smallest unit, which can represent a data item
It is a non-removable storage device containing magnetic disks or a character
or platters rotating at high speeds. The hard drives store data in Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
segments of concentric circles. It may spin at 5,400 to 15,000 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
RPM.
GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
☞ Optical disk:
TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and
PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
read using a low-powered laser beam.
Exa Byte 1 EB = 1024 PB
☞ CD-ROM:
Zetta Byte 1 ZB = 1024 EB
"Read Only" (used for distribution of commercial software, for
Yotta Byte 1 YB = 1024 ZB
example) Standard storage capacity is 640MB.
☞ CD-R (or CD-WORM): "Write Once, Read Many" times
☞ CD-RW: rewritable multiple times
Types of Computer
☞ DVD: similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity
(4.7GB) Write once read many (WORM) describes a data storage We can categorize computer by three ways:
device in which information, once written, cannot be modified
☞ Based on data handling capabilities
☞ Floppy Disk:
☞ Based on size.
Floppy disk is composed of a thin, flexible magnetic disk sealed
☞ Based on Utility
in a square plastic carrier. Floppy disks were widely used to
distribute software, transfer files, and create backup copies of On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three
data. To read and write data from a floppy disk, a computer types:
system must have a floppy disk drive (FDD).
☞ Analogue Computer
☞ Magnetic Tape:
☞ Digital Computer
Magnetic tape used in recording sound, pictures, or computer
data. ☞ Hybrid Computer
☞ Flash memory:
a kind of memory that retains data in the absence of a power
supply

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Analogue Computer Supercomputer:

Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue data. Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are
Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously and designed to process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can
cannot have discrete values such as speed, temperature, pressure process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
and current. The analogue computers measure the continuous interconnected processors. Supercomputers are particularly used in
changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting,
reading on a dial or scale. scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. First
supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring
device without first converting it into numbers and codes. Some other computers are:
Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
☞ Miniframe:
computers.
computer It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of
Digital Computer two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and
operations at high speed. It accepts the raw data as digits or departments for the tasks such as billing, accounting and
numbers and processes it with programs stored in its memory to inventory management.
produce output. All modern computers like laptops and desktops ☞ Workstation:
that we use at home or office are digital computers. Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for
technical or scientific applications. It has faster microprocessor,
Hybrid Computer
large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital generally performs a specific job with great expertise;
computers. It is fast like analogue computer and has memory and accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics
accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and workstation, music workstation and engineering design
discrete data. So it is widely used in specialized applications where workstation.
both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a
processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements On the basis of Utility, the computer can be of two types:
of fuel flow into quantity and price. ☞ General Purpose Computer:
On the basis of size, the computer can be of four types: A general purpose computer can perform an extensive variety
of operations. It can store and execute different programs in its
☞ Microcomputer internal storage. All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop
☞ Mini Computer computers, smartphones and tablets are general-purpose
☞ Mainframe computer devices.
☞ Supercomputer ☞ Special Purpose Computer:
Microcomputer: Special purpose computers are designed to solve specific
problems. The instructions are pre-programmed permanently in
Microcomputer is also known as personal computer. It is a general
the computer. It completely controlled by automated
purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a
manufacturing processes. Example – Aircraft control system,
microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area,
Electronic voting machines etc.
input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are
examples of microcomputers.
☞ Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer
Input and Output device
sufficient to fit on a desk.
Input device:
☞ Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an
integrated screen and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size An input device is a piece of computer hardware equipment used to
than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer. provide data and control signals to an information processing
☞ Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand- system such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of
sized computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras,
serves both as an input and output device. joysticks, and microphones.
Mini Computer: Following are some of the important input devices which are used
Minicomputers possess most of the features and capabilities of a in a computer –
large computer but are smaller in physical size. They are used as Keyboard:
small or midrange operating business and scientific applications.
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a
Mainframe computer: computer or any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and functions.
thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different device for wireless communication.
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows
sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data and Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows –

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Keys Description Digitizer:

Typing These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually
Keys keys (09) which generally give the same layout as comes with a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics
that of typewriters. using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil. The images or
Numeric It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or
Keypad movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines and
that are laid out in the same configuration used by can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.
most adding machines and calculators.
Function The twelve function keys are present on the Microphone:
Keys keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the
the keyboard. Each function key has a unique sound. It receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio
meaning and is used for some specific purpose. signals or sends to a recording medium. The audio signals are
Control These keys provide cursor and screen control. It converted into digital data and stored in the computer
keys includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):
also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed
Escape(Esc) with magnetic ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that
Special Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic
Purpose such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Number Lock, Space fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other
Keys bar, Tab, and Print Screen. organizations where security is a major concern.
Optical Character Reader (OCR):
Mouse: OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned
images of handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor
widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and books
or pointer across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat
into electronic files.
surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel
between them. Bar Code Readers:
Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in
lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in
finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld
features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons. scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner
Common types of the mouse: Optical Mark Reader (OMR):
☞ Trackball Mouse o Mechanical Mouse OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type
☞ Optical Mouse o Cordless or Wireless Mouse of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few
alternatives is to be selected and marked.
Scanner:
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the Output Devices:
picture or a document. The scanned picture or document then The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data
converted into a digital format or file and is displayed on the screen that is entered in the computer through an input device. There are
as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to a number of output devices that display output in different ways
convert images into digital ones.
such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video. An output
Some of the common types of scanners are as follows: device is any piece of computer hardware equipment which
converts information into human-readable form
☞ Flatbed Scanner
☞ Handheld Scanner Following are some of the important output devices used
☞ Sheet fed Scanner in a computer.
☞ Drum Scanner ☞ Monitors
☞ Photo Scanner
☞ Graphic Plotter
Joystick: ☞ Printer
A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up ☞ Projector
of a stick with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that Monitor:
allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick controls
the cursor or pointer on the screen. Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the
main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots,
Light Pen: called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness
A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
of the light pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its light
sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding ☞ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
signals to the CPU. ☞ Flat-Panel Display

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Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor: 1. Impact Printers: They are of two types:
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. ☞ Character Printers
The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It ✓ Dot Matrix printers
takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, ✓ Daisy Wheel printers
such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
☞ Line printers
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. ✓ Drum printers
The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed ✓ Chain printers
location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data 2. Non-impact printers:
horizontally and 25 lines vertically. They are of two types:
There are some disadvantages of CRT – ☞ Laser printers
☞ Large in Size ☞ Inkjet printers
☞ High power consumption Impact Printer:
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the
character or images onto the paper. The hammer or print head
strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters
and images.
Impact printers are further divided into two types.

☞ Character Printers
☞ Line printers
Character Printers:
Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single
Flat-Panel Display Monitor: stroke of the print head or hammer. It does not print one line at a
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are character
reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to printers.
the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Dot Matrix Printer:
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images

printed by it are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced
by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head.
The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories – paper to form the individual characters. The speed of Dot Matrix
☞ Emissive Displays: Emissive displays are devices that convert printers is around 200-500 characters per second.
electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED
Daisy Wheel Printer:
(Light-Emitting Diodes).
☞ Non-Emissive Displays: Non-emissive displays use optical
effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into
graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printer:
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the
user, to print images, text or any other information onto the paper.
Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types:
Impact Printers and Non-Impact Printers.

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It consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks

like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of
extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a
character, the printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired
character is on the print location the hammer hits disk and the
extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the
impression. The speed is very low around 25-50 characters per
second
Line Printers:
Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time.
It is a high-speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per
minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples of line printers.
Inkjet Printer:
Drum Printer:
The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and
characters by spraying fine, ionized drops of ink. The print head has
tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head moves back and forth
and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through
the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides
the ink onto the paper to print correct images and characters.

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print

characters. The drum has circular bands of characters on its surface.
It has a separate hammer for each band of characters. When you
print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes
under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the
paper to print characters.
Chain Printer:
Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print
characters. The characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. Projector:
The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for each A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the
print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of output onto a large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be
hammers is equal to the total number of print positions. connected to a computer and similar devices to project their output
onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts,
images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give
presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Computer architecture and Components

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and
perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input
data into information useful to their users.

Non-Impact Printer:
They print characters and images without direct physical contact
between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can
print a complete page at a time, so they are also known as page
printers. The common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer
and Inkjet printer
Laser Printer:
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print
the characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a
photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering
electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the
charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then
printed on the paper using heat and pressure.

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☞ It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and

S.No. Operation Description instructions among other units of a computer.
1 Take Input The process of entering data and ☞ It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
instructions into the computer system. ☞ It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them,
2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they and directs the operation of the computer.
are available for processing as and when ☞ It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data
required. or results from storage.
3 Processing Performing arithmetic, and logical ☞ It does not process or store data.
Data operations on data in order to convert
them into useful information ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
4 Output The process of producing useful This unit consists of two subsections namely,
Information information or results for the user, such ☞ Arithmetic Section
as a printed report or visual display. ☞ Logic Section
5 Control the Directs the manner and sequence in
workflow which all of the above operations are Arithmetic Section
performed. Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex
operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
Input Unit
operations.
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into
Logic Section
the computer. This unit creates a link between the user and the
computer. The input devices translate the information into a form Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as
understandable by the computer. comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.

CPU (Central Processing Unit) Output Unit

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the
types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate information from the computer. This unit is a link between the
results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's
parts of the computer. output into a form understandable by the users.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features –
Types of Operating system and its functions
☞ CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
☞ CPU performs all types of data processing operations. An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user
☞ It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which
☞ It controls the operation of all parts of the computer. performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and
CPU itself has the following three components – controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Some
☞ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System,
☞ Memory Unit Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
☞ Control Unit Structure of a Computer System:
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This
unit supplies information to other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory
or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM). Its size
affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and
secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer.
Functions of the memory unit are –
It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

☞ It stores intermediate results of processing.

☞ It stores the final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
☞ All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main
memory.
Functions of operating system:
Control Unit
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but
does not carry out any actual data processing operations. Functions ☞ Memory Management
of this unit are – ☞ Processor Management

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☞ Device Management ☞ Security − By means of password and similar other techniques,

☞ File Management it prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
☞ Security ☞ Control over system performance − Recording delays between
☞ Control over system performance request for a service and response from the system.
☞ Job accounting ☞ Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by
☞ Error detecting aids various jobs and users.
☞ Coordination between other software and users ☞ Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
Memory Management: ☞ Coordination between other softwares and users −
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters,
Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes assemblers and other software to the various users of the
where each word or byte has its own address. Main memory computer systems.
provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For
Types of Operating System:
a program to be executed, it must in the main memory.
An Operating System does the following activities for memory Batch operating system:
management – The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the
computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device
☞ Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use
like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed
by whom, what part are not in use.
up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run
☞ In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get
as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
memory when and how much.
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements
☞ Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so. into batches.
☞ De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or
has been terminated. Time-sharing operating systems:
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at
Processor Management:
various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
activities for processor management –
☞ Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program
Multiprogramming Operating System:
responsible for this task is known as traffic controller. Multiprogramming is an extension to the batch processing where
☞ Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process. the CPU is kept always busy. Each process needs two types of system
☞ De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required. time: CPU time and IO time. In multiprogramming environment, for
the time a process does its I/O, The CPU can start the execution of
Device Management: other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the
An Operating System manages device communication via their efficiency of the system.
respective drivers. It does the following activities for device
Multiprocessing Operating System:
management –
☞ Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is In Multiprocessing, parallel computing is achieved. There are more
known as the I/O controller. than one processors present in the system which can execute more
than one process at the same time. This will increase the throughput
☞ Decides which process gets the device when and for how much
of the system.
time.
☞ Allocates the device in the efficient way. Distributed operating System:
☞ De-allocates devices. Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve
File Management: multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing
jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly. The
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy
processors communicate with one another through various
navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other
communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines).
directions. An Operating System does the following activities for file
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
management –
systems.
☞ Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The
collective facilities are often known as file system. Network operating System:
☞ Decides who gets the resources. Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server
☞ Allocates the resources. the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications,
☞ De-allocates the resources. and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the
network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
Other Important Activities
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
System performs –

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Real Time operating System: Firmware:

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which Firmware is a software program that is written to a hardware
the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so device. It allows the hardware to be updated. The contents are saved
small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the system when a hardware device is turned off or loses its external power
to respond to an input and display of required updated information source.
is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time
Middleware:
is very less as compared to online processing.
Middleware is a software layer situated between applications and
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
operating systems. It enables communication and data management
☞ Hard real-time systems: Hard real-time systems guarantee that for distributed applications.
critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in Logic gates and Boolean operations
ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
☞ Soft real-time systems: Soft real-time systems are less Logic Gates:
restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
The logic gates are the main structural part of a digital system.
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems
☞ Logic Gates are a block of hardware that produces signals of
have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
binary 1 or 0 when input logic requirements are satisfied.
multimedia, virtual realities, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc. ☞ Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be
described by means of algebraic expressions.
Batch processing: ☞ The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System NOR, and XNOR.
collects the programs and data together in a batch before processing ☞ The relationship between the input-output binary variables for
starts each gate can be represented in tabular form by a truth table.
☞ Each gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A
and B and one binary output variable designated by x.
AND GATE:
The AND gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output only
if all its inputs are high. The AND operation is represented by a dot
(.)

Multitasking:
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU
simultaneously by switching between them. Switches occur so
frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is
OR GATE:
running. A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is
commonly referred to as a process. The OR gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output if one
or more of its inputs are high. The operation performed by an OR
Spooling:
gate is represented by a plus (+) sign.
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on
line. Spooling refers to putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer.
This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is
accessible to I/O devices.
Booting:
When the computer starts, the operating system is first loaded (as it
is essential for running all other programs), this process is known as
booting. NOT GATE:
Cold Boot: The NOT gate is an electronic circuit which produces an inverted
Turn ON the computer from an OFF position is called Cold Booting. version of the input at its output. It is also known as an Inverter.

Warm Boot:
A computer system starts up/reset from a complete powerless state
is called Warm Booting.

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NAND GATE: Basics of Combinatorial Components

The NOT-AND (NAND) gate which is equal to an AND gate followed Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different
by a NOT gate. The NAND gate gives a high output if any of the inputs gates in the circuit, for example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and
are low. The NAND gate is represented by a AND gate with a small demultiplexer.
circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two
outputs. The half adder circuit is designed to add two single bit
binary numbers A and B. It is the basic building block for addition of
two single bit numbers. This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.

Full Adder
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder
NOR GATE: circuit. It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c. The full
adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.
The NOT-OR (NOR) gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a
Multiplexers Multiplexer is a special type of combinational circuit.
NOT gate. The NOR gate gives a low output if any of the inputs are
There are n-data inputs, one output and m select inputs with 2m =
high. The NOR gate is represented by an OR gate with a small circle
n. It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data inputs and
on the output. The small circle represents inversion
routes it to the output.

Demultiplexers
A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer i.e.
it receives one input and distributes it over several outputs. It has
only one input, n outputs, m select input.

Decoder

Exclusive-OR/ XOR GATE: A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum
m = 2n outputs. Decoder is identical to a demultiplexer without any
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if one
data input. It performs operations which are exactly opposite to
of its inputs is high but not both of them. The XOR operation is
those of an encoder.
represented by an encircled plus sign
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the
inverse operation of the decoder. An encoder has n number of input
lines and m number of output lines.

Priority Encoder
This is a special type of encoder. Priority is given to the input lines. If
two or more input line are 1 at the same time, then the input line
EXCLUSIVE-NOR/Equivalence GATE: with highest priority will be considered.
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate is a circuit that does the inverse operation Number System
to the XOR gate. It will give a low output if one of its inputs is high
but not both of them. The small circle represents inversion When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them
in numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer
can understand the positional number system where there are only
a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different
values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
☞ The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
The digit
☞ The position of the digit in the number
☞ The base of the number system (where the base is defined as
Boolean algebra: the total number of digits available in the number system)

Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with Decimal Number System:
binary variables and logic operations. Boolean algebraic variables
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal
are designated by letters such as A, B, x, and y. The basic operations
number system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10
performed are AND, OR, and complement. The Boolean algebraic
digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive
functions are mostly expressed with binary variables, logic operation
positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
symbols, parentheses, and equal sign. For a given value of variables,
hundreds, thousands, and so on.
the Boolean function can be either 1 or 0

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S.No. Number System and Description Assembly Language

1 Binary Number System Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1 It is a language of an encoding of machine code that makes simpler
2 Octal Number System Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7 and readable.
3 Hexa Decimal Number System Base 16. Digits used: 0 to
9, Letters used : A- F High Level Language
The high level language is simple and easy to understand and it is
Binary Number System: similar to English language. For example, COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC,
C, C+, Python, etc.
Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows –
☞ Uses two digits, 0 and 1 Database management system
☞ Also called as base 2 number system The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to
☞ Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the retrieve, insert and delete the data efficiently. It is also used to
base (2). Example 20 organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports,
☞ Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the etc. For example: The college Database organizes the data about the
base (2). Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1. admin, staff, students and faculty etc.

Octal Number System: Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the
information.
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows –
☞ Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Database Management System
☞ Also called as base 8 number system Database management system is software which is used to manage
☞ Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the the database. For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular
base (8). Example 80 commercial database which is used in different applications.
☞ Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like
base (8). Example 8x where x represents the last position – 1 database creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table
Hexadecimal Number System: in the database and a lot more. It provides protection and security
to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also maintains data
☞ Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
consistency. DBMS allows users the following tasks:
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
F ☞ Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and
☞ Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, removal of definition that defines the organization of data in the
C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15 database.
☞ Also called as base 16 number system ☞ Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and
☞ Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of deletion of the actual data in the database.
the base (16). Example, 160 ☞ Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database
☞ Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of which can be used by applications for various purposes.
the base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position ☞ User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring
–1 users, maintain data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing
with concurrency control, monitoring performance and
Programming Languages recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.
Characteristics of DBMS
The computer system is simply a machine and hence it cannot
perform any work; therefore, in order to make it functional different ☞ It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and
languages are developed, which are known as programming manage the information.
languages or simply computer languages. ☞ It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that
manipulates data.
Languages comes with its own set of vocabulary and rules, better
☞ DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
known as syntax
☞ It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy
Following are the major categories of Programming Languages state in case of failure.
1. Machine Language ☞ It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
2. Assembly Language ☞ It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
3. High Level Language ☞ It is used to provide security of data.
4. System Language ☞ It can view the database from different viewpoints according to
5. Scripting Language the requirements of the user.
Machine Language or Code Users
This is the language that is written for the computer hardware. Such A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who
language is effected directly by the central processing unit (CPU) of use it for different purposes. Some users retrieve data and some
a computer system. back it up. The users of a DBMS can be broadly categorized as follows
–

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☞ Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are Data Models

responsible for administrating the database. They are
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is
responsible to look after its usage and by whom it should be
modeled. Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce
used. They create access profiles for users and apply limitations
abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is connected to
to maintain isolation and force security. Administrators also look each other and how they are processed and stored inside the
after DBMS resources like system license, required tools, and system.
other software and hardware related maintenance.
Entity-Relationship Model:
☞ Designers − Designers are the group of people who actually
work on the designing part of the database. They keep a close ER Model is based on –
watch on what data should be kept and in what format. They ☞ Entities and their attributes.
identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, ☞ Relationships among entities.
constraints, and views. These concepts are explained below
☞ End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits
of having a DBMS. End users can range from simple viewers who
pay attention to the logs or market rates to sophisticated users
such as business analysts

Entity
An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties
called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of values called
domain.
Relationship
The logical association among entities is called relationship.
Relationships are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping
cardinalities define the number of association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities –
☞ 3-tier Architecture: 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from ☞ One to one
each other based on the complexity of the users and how they ☞ One to many
use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used ☞ Many to one
architecture to design a DBMS.
☞ Many to many
Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is
more scientific a model than others. This model is based on first-
order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.
The main highlights of this model are –
☞ Data is stored in tables called relations.
☞ Relations can be normalized.
☞ Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along ☞ In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
with its query processing languages. We also have the relations ☞ Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
that define the data and their constraints at this level. ☞ Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.
☞ Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application Computer Network
server and the programs that access the database. For a user,
this application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. ☞ Computer Network is a group of computers connected with
End-users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond each other through wires, optical fibres or optical links so that
various devices can interact with each other through a network.
the application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware
of any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the ☞ The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources
among various devices.
application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator
between the end-user and the database. ☞ In the case of computer network technology, there are several
types of networks that vary from simple to complex level.
☞ User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and
they know nothing about any existence of the database beyond Computer Network Architecture:
this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and
provided by the application. All views are generated by logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
applications that reside in the application tier. transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

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The two types of network architectures are used: Components of Computer Network:
☞ Peer-To-Peer network Computer network components are the major parts which are
☞ Client/Server network needed to install the software. Some important network
components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Peer-To-Peer network: Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some
☞ Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers network components can also be removed. For example, the
are linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for wireless network does not require a cable.
processing the data.
☞ Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually
up to 10 computers.
☞ Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
☞ Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing
the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer
with the resource is down.

NIC:
☞ NIC stands for network interface card.
☞ NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with
another computer onto a network
☞ It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
☞ The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network
card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card
uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).
Client/Server Network:
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
☞ Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end
users called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, ☞ Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain
the connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop
etc. from a central computer known as Server.
computer contains the wireless NIC.
☞ The central controller is known as a server while all other
☞ Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard.
computers in the network are called clients.
Cables and connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.
☞ A server performs all the major operations such as security and
☞ Hub: Hub is a central device that splits the network connection
network management.
into multiple devices. When computer requests for information
☞ A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as
from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
files, directories, printer, etc. distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.
☞ All the clients communicate with each other through a server. ☞ Switches: Switch is a networking device that groups all the
For example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then devices over the network to transfer the data to another device.
it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message
server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for
communication with the client 2. which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.
Cables and connectors:
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication
signals. There are three types of cables:
☞ Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the
data over 1Gbps or more.
☞ Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation
cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair cable,
but it provides the high data transmission speed.
☞ Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that
transmits the data using light beams. It provides high data
transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more
expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the
government level.

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 Computer Awareness

Router: PAN (Personal Area Network):

☞ A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN ☞ Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an
with an internet connection. It is used to receive, analyze and individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
forward the incoming packets to another network. ☞ Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer
☞ A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
model. ☞ Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the
☞ A router forwards the packet based on the information available idea of the Personal Area Network.
in the routing table. ☞ Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
☞ It determines the best path from the available paths for the ☞ Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
transmission of the packet. personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.
Modem:
There are two types of Personal Area Network:
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing
telephone line. A modem is not integrated with the computer ☞ Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area
motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on Network is developed by simply using wireless technologies
the motherboard. It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
the digital data into an analog signal over the telephone lines. ☞ Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is
created by using the USB
Some important Uses Of Computer Network:
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
☞ Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources
such as programs, printers, and data among the users on the ☞ A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
network without the requirement of the physical location of the geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a
resource and user. larger network.
☞ Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the ☞ Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
server-client model. A server is a central computer used to store private industries.
the information and maintained by the system administrator. WAN (Wide Area Network):
Clients are the machines used to access the information stored
☞ A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
in the server remotely.
geographical area such as states or countries.
☞ Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a
☞ A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
communication medium among the users. For example, a
☞ A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
company contains more than one computer has an email system
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
which the employees use for daily communication.
fibre optic cable or satellite links.
☞ E-commerce: Computer network is also important in
☞ The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
businesses. We can do the business over the internet. For
☞ A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet,
government, and education.
i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
Internetwork:
Computer Network Types
☞ An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other
LANs or WAN or computer network segments are connected
that enables the computer to communicate with another computer using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
and share their resources, data, and applications. scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
☞ An interconnection between public, private, commercial,
network is mainly of four types: industrial, or government computer networks can also be
☞ LAN(Local Area Network) defined as internetworking.
☞ PAN(Personal Area Network) ☞ An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
☞ MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) ☞ The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
☞ WAN(Wide Area Network) Interconnection(OSI).
LAN (Local Area Network): Types of Internetwork:
☞ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each ☞ Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the
other in a small area such as building, office. internet protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and
☞ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers internet protocol.
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial ☞ Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet
cable, etc. protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet
☞ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as protocol.
hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables. Computer Network Topology
☞ The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network. Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.

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 Computer Awareness

There are six types of topology ☞ In star topology, server is connected to each node individually.
☞ Bus Topology ☞ Server is also called the central node.
☞ Ring Topology ☞ Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place
☞ Star Topology through the server.
☞ Tree topology ☞ It is the most popular topology for information and voice
☞ Mesh topology networks as central node can process data received from source
☞ Hybrid Topology node before sending it to the destination node.
Bus Topology:
Tree Topology:

☞ Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear

bus backbone cable.
☞ Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable,
usually coaxial, to which many network devices and ☞ It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies.
workstations are attached along the length. ☞ Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.
☞ Server is at one end of the bus. When a workstation has to send Mesh topology:
data, it transmits packets with destination address in its header
along the bus.
☞ The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the
destination terminal sees the data, it copies it to the local disk.
Ring Topology

☞ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which

computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
☞ There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer.
☞ In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two ☞ It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer
nodes, giving the network a circular shape. Data travels in only which acts as a central point of communication.
one pre-determined direction.
☞ The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
☞ When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the
neighboring node which transmits it to the next one. Before Hybrid Topology:
further transmission data may be amplified.
☞ In this way, data reverses the network and reaches the
destination node, which removes it from the network. If the
data reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it
later.
Star Topology:

☞ The combination of various different topologies is known as

Hybrid topology.
☞ A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and
nodes to transfer the data.

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 Computer Awareness

☞ When two or more different topologies are combined together Full-duplex mode:
is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are
connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank
and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Transmission modes
The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another
device is known as transmission mode.
The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
☞ Simplex mode
☞ Half-duplex mode ☞ In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e.,
the data flow in both the directions.
☞ Full-duplex mode
☞ Both the stations can send and receive the message
Simplex mode: simultaneously.
☞ Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has
traffic moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic
flowing in the opposite direction.
☞ The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication
between devices.
☞ In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the ☞ The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a
data flow in one direction. telephone network.
☞ A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can
OSI Model
receive the data but cannot send the data.
☞ The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
to the listeners but never allows them to transmit back. that describes how information from a software application in one
☞ Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as computer moves through a physical medium to the software
a keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor application in another computer.
can only be used to display the data on the screen. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
☞ The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
of the communication channel can be utilized during architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
transmission.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
Half-Duplex mode: network function.

☞ In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the

station can transmit and receive the data as well.
☞ Physical layer: It is the first layer that physically connects the
☞ Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time. two systems that need to communicate. It transmits data in bits
☞ The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized and manages simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also
in one direction at a time. manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the
☞ In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error network, like cabling, cable terminators, topography, voltage
detection, and if any error occurs, then the receiver requests the levels, etc.
sender to retransmit the data. ☞ Data link layer: It is the firmware layer of Network Interface
☞ A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. Card. It assembles datagrams into frames and adds start and
stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by
damaged, lost or duplicate frames.

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 Computer Awareness

☞ Network layer: It is concerned with routing, switching and Injection attacks

controlling flow of information between the workstations. It It is the attack in which some data will be injected into a web
also breaks down transport layer datagrams into smaller application to manipulate the application and fetch the required
datagrams. information. Example- SQL Injection, code Injection; log Injection,
☞ Transport layer: Till the session layer, file is in its own form. XML Injection etc.
Transport layer breaks it down into data frames, provides error
checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host from DNS Spoofing
overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper DNS spoofing is a type of computer security hacking. Whereby a data
layers from network hardware. is introduced into a DNS resolver's cache causing the name server to
☞ Session layer: This layer is responsible for establishing a session return an incorrect IP address, diverting traffic to the attacker’s
between two workstations that want to exchange data. computer or any other computer. The DNS spoofing attacks can go
Presentation layer: This layer is concerned with correct on for a long period of time without being detected and can cause
representation of data, i.e. syntax and semantics of information. serious security issues.
It controls file level security and is also responsible for
Session Hijacking
converting data to network standards.
☞ Application layer: It is the topmost layer of the network that is It is a security attack on a user session over a protected network.
responsible for sending application requests by the user to the Web applications create cookies to store the state and user sessions.
lower levels. Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, By stealing the cookies, an attacker can have access to all of the user
remote logon, data entry, etc. data.

☞ TCP/IP: TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Phishing

Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of layered protocols
Phishing is a type of attack which attempts to steal sensitive
used for communication over the Internet. The communication
information like user login credentials and credit card number. It
model of this suite is client-server model. A computer that sends
occurs when an attacker is masquerading as a trustworthy entity in
a request is the client and a computer to which the request is
electronic communication.
sent is the server.
☞ Brute force It is a type of attack which uses a trial and error
☞ FTP: As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily
method. This attack generates a large number of guesses and
to facilitate sharing of files between researchers. And to this day,
validates them to obtain actual data like user password and
file transfer remains one of the most used facilities. The protocol
personal identification number. This attack may be used by
that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.
criminals to crack encrypted data, or by security, analysts to test
☞ PPP: Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol an organization's network security.
that enables transmission of TCP/IP traffic over serial
☞ Denial of Service It is an attack which meant to make a server or
connection, like telephone line.
network resource unavailable to the users. It accomplishes this
by flooding the target with traffic or sending it information that
COMPUTER SECURITY triggers a crash. It uses the single system and single internet
connection to attack a server. It can be classified into the
Computer security, cyber-security or information technology
following-
security (IT security) is the protection of computer systems from the
☞ Volume-based attacks- Its goal is to saturate the bandwidth of
theft of or damage to their hardware, software, or electronic data,
the attacked site, and is measured in bit per second.
as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they
☞ Protocol attacks- It consumes actual server resources, and is
provide.
measured in a packet.
Internet security is a branch of computer security specifically related ☞ Application layer attacks- Its goal is to crash the web server and
to not only Internet, often involving browser security and the World is measured in request per second.
Wide Web. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use
☞ Dictionary attacks This type of attack stored the list of a
against attacks over the Internet. The Internet represents an
commonly used password and validated them to get original
insecure channel for exchanging information, which leads to a high
password.
risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, Trojans,
☞ URL Interpretation It is a type of attack where we can change
worms and more. Many methods are used to protect the transfer of
the certain parts of a URL, and one can make a web server to
data, including encryption and from-the-ground-up engineering.
deliver web pages for which he is not authorized to browse.
Types of attacks: ☞ File Inclusion attacks It is a type of attack that allows an attacker
A cyber-attack is an exploitation of computer systems and networks. to access unauthorized or essential files which is available on the
It uses malicious code to alter computer code, logic or data and lead web server or to execute malicious files on the web server by
to cybercrimes, such as information and identity theft. making use of the include functionality.
Attacks can be classified into the following categories: ☞ Man in the middle attacks It is a type of attack that allows an
attacker to intercepts the connection between client and server
Web-based attacks: and acts as a bridge between them. Due to this, an attacker will
These are the attacks which occur on a website or web applications. be able to read, insert and modify the data in the intercepted
Some of the important web-based attacks are as follows- connection.

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 Computer Awareness

System-based attacks 4. Malware:

These are the attacks which are intended to compromise a computer Short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt
or a computer network. Some of the important system-based computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to
attacks are as follows private computer systems. It can appear in the form of executable
code, scripts, active content, and other software.
1. Virus:
5. Ransomware:
A computer virus is a type of malicious software that, when
executed, replicates itself by modifying other computer programs Ransomware is a type of malware program that infects and takes
and inserting its own code. When this replication succeeds, the control of a system. It infects a computer with the intention of
affected areas are then said to be "infected" with a computer virus. extorting money from its owner.

A virus can be spread by opening an email attachment, clicking on 6. Spyware:

an executable file, visiting an infected website or viewing an infected Spyware is unwanted software that infiltrates your computing
website advertisement. It can also be spread through infected device, stealing your internet usage data and sensitive information.
removable storage devices, such USB drives. Once a virus has Spyware is classified as a type of malware designed to gain access to
infected the host it has the capacity to corrupt or to delete data on or damage your computer, often without your knowledge. Just like
your computer and it can utilize an email program to spread the viruses, spyware can be installed when you open an e-mail
virus to other computer systems .In the worst case scenario, it can attachment containing the malicious software or through cookies. It
even delete everything on your hard disk .The purpose of it is to can also be installed when you install another program that has a
disrupt the operation of the computer or the program. spyware installer attached to it.
Ripper, Stuxnet, Petya, Wanna cry, Code red, Melissa, Sasser, Zeus, 7. Adware:
Mydoom, Crypto Locker, Flashback are some example of Viruses.
Adware, or advertising-supported software, is software that
2. Computer Worm: generates revenue for its developer by automatically generating
A computer worm is a malicious, self-replicating software program online advertisements in the user interface of the software or on a
(malware) which affects the functions of software and hardware screen presented to the user during the installation process.
programs. The software may generate two types of revenue: one is for the
Before widespread use of networks, computer worms were spread display of the advertisement and another on a "pay-per-click" basis,
through infected storage media, such as floppy diskettes, which, if the user clicks on the advertisement. The software may implement
when mounted on a system, would infect other storage devices advertisements in a variety of ways, including a static box display, a
connected to the victim system. USB drives are still a common vector banner display, full screen, a video, pop-up ad or in some other form.
for computer worms. Differences between worms and viruses: 8. Key logger:
Computer worms "are self-replicating programs that spread with no
human intervention after they are started." In contrast, "viruses are A key logger is a type of malware that stores all keystrokes of a
also self-replicating programs, but usually require some action on computer. It can record all sorts of personal information, such as
the part of the user to spread inadvertently to other programs or usernames, passwords, credit card numbers, and personal
systems." documents such as emails and reports.

3. Trojan horse: 9. Phishing:

Trojan horse or Trojan is any malware which misleads users of its Phishing is the fraudulent attempt to obtain access credentials such
true intent. Trojans are generally spread by some form of social as usernames, passwords and credit card details by disguising
engineering, for example where a user is duped into executing an e- oneself as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication.
mail attachment disguised to appear not suspicious, (e.g., a routine Typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, it often
form to be filled in), or by clicking on some fake advertisement on directs users to enter personal information at a fake website which
social media or anywhere else. matches the look and feel of the legitimate site.

Trojans may allow an attacker to access users' personal information 10. Spoofing:
such as banking information, passwords, or personal identity. It can A Spoofing attack is a situation in which one person or program
also delete a user's files or infect other devices connected to the successfully represents oneself as another by falsifying data and
network. Ransomware attacks are often carried out using a Trojan. thereby gaining an illegitimate advantage.
After it is activated, it can achieve any number of attacks on the host,
11. Pharming:
from irritating the user (popping up windows or changing desktops)
to damaging the host (deleting files, stealing data, or activating and Pharming is a cyber-attack intended to redirect a website's traffic to
spreading other malware, such as viruses). Trojans are also known another, fake site. Pharming can be conducted either by changing
to create backdoors to give malicious users access to the system. the hosts file on a victim's computer or by exploitation of a
vulnerability in DNS server software. DNS servers are computers
Unlike computer viruses and worms, Trojans generally do not
responsible for resolving Internet names into their real IP addresses.
attempt to inject themselves into other files or otherwise propagate
User of online banking and e-commerce websites are more prone to
themselves.
this attack.

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 Computer Awareness

Important Terms: Laser printer Gary Stark weather

Scanner Rudolph Hell
1. Anti-virus software is a program or set of programs that are
CD-ROM James Russel
designed to prevent, search for, detect, and remove software
C programming language Dennis Ritchie
viruses, and other malicious software like worms, trojans, and
C++ programming language Bjarne Stroustrup
adware.
PASCAL programming language Niklaus Wirth
2. Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls Java programming language James Gosling
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
Perl programming language Larry Wall
security rules
Python programming language Guido van Rossum
3. Authorization is the function of specifying access rights to The Z Series Computers Konrad Zuse
resources related to information security and computer security First fully electronic digital John Vincent Atanasoff &
in general and to access control in particular. More formally, "to computer ABC computer Clifford Berry
authorize" is to define an access policy.
Microsoft Word Shortcuts:
4. Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute
of a single piece of data or entity. It might involve confirming the 1. Ctrl +N- Starts a new Blank Document
identity of a person by validating their identity documents, 2. Ctrl +O- Display the open Dialog Box
verifying the validity of a website with a digital certificate,
3. Ctrl +W- Close the Active Document
tracing the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that
4. Ctrl +S -Save a document
a product is what its packaging and labeling claim to be. In other
words, Authentication often involves verifying the validity of at 5. Ctrl +P- Display the print Dialog Box
least one form of identification. 6. Alt +Ctrl +I- Switch to and from Print Preview view
5. A person who uses his or her expertise to gain access to other 7. Alt +Ctrl +P- Switch to Print Layout View
people’s computers to get information illegally or do damage is 8. Ctrl +F -Display the find dialog box
a Hacker. 9. Ctrl +H -Display the Replace dialog box
6. Zombie is a computer connected to the Internet that has been 10. Ctrl +G -Display the Go to dialog box
compromised by a hacker, computer virus or trojan horse
11. Ctrl +Z -Undoes the last action
program and can be used to perform malicious tasks of one sort
or another under remote direction. 12. Ctrl +C -Copy selected text and graphics to the office clipboard
13. Ctrl +X -Cut selected text and graphics to the office clipboard
7. Breach is the moment a hacker successfully exploits
vulnerability in a computer or device, and gains access to its files 14. Ctrl +V -Paste the post recent addition to the office Clipboard
and network. 15. Ctrl +F9 -Insert a Blank field
8. Bot/Botnet is a type of software application or script that 16. Shift +Enter -Start a new line in paragraph
performs tasks on command, allowing an attacker to take 17. Ctrl + Enter- Insert a page break
complete control remotely of an affected computer. A collection 18. Ctrl + A -Selects the entire document
of these infected computers is known as a “botnet” and is
19. Ctrl + D -Opens the font dialog box to change the formatting
controlled by the hacker or “bot-herder”.
of characters
9. Spam is unwanted emails. In other words, we can call them as
20. Shift + F3 -Changes the case of letters
unsolicited promotional mail.
21. Ctrl + B -Applies or removes bold formatting
10. Encryption is the method by which plaintext or any other type
of data is converted from a readable form to an encoded version 22. Ctrl + U -Applies or removes underlining
that can only be decoded by another entity if they have access 23. Ctrl + I- Applies or removes italics formatting
to a decryption key. Encryption is one of the most important 24. Ctrl + 1(one) -Sets a single line spacing
methods for providing data security, especially for end-to-end 25. Ctrl + 2 -Sets a double line spacing
protection of data transmitted across networks.
26. Ctrl + 5 -Sets 1.5-line spacing
Fathers and Inventers of Computer Field 27. Ctrl + 0(zero) -Adds or removes one-line space preceding a
paragraph
Invention Inventors
The Analytical Engine Charles Babbage 28. Ctrl + E -Switches a paragraph between centered and left
The Turing Machine Alan Turing alignment
Microprocessor Faggin, Hoff&Mazor 29. Ctrl + J -Switches a paragraph between justified and left
Floppy Disk Alan Shugart alignment
Computer Mouse Douglas Engelbart 30. Ctrl + R -Switches a paragraph between Right and left
Key board Herman Hollerith alignment
Transistor John Bardeen, Walter Brattain 31. Ctrl + L -Applies left alignment
& Wiliam Shockley 32. Ctrl + M -Indents the paragraph from the left
RAM An Wang and Jay Forrester
33. Ctrl + T -Creates hanging Indent 23
Trackball Tom Cranston and Fred
Longstaff 34. Ctrl + Q- Removes a paragraph formatting
Integrated Circuit Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce

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