Chapter 1 Fluid Flow in Porous Media Final AY 2023 2024

W
FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
• To estimate skin factor or drilling and

completion-related damage to an oil
ell test analysis is a branch of
well. Based upon the magnitude of
reservoir engineering which
damage, a decision regarding
provides vital information of the in-situ
stimulation can be made.
reservoir condition to determine its production
capacity through flow monitoring and pressure However, before we can undergo in these test
transient tests. As a reservoir engineer, one analyses, we must first be able to understand
must have sufficient knowledge on how to the fundamentals of fluid flow in porous media
interpret the obtained data about the which relates all the parameters in a single
condition and characteristics of reservoir or equation. This equation is called Darcy
well to adequately analyze reservoir equation, named after a French hydraulic
performance and to predict future production engineer Henry Darcy (1856) whose works
from various modes of operation. were mainly involved in underground water
hydrology, soil physics and petroleum
Pressures are the most valuable and useful
engineering. But this equation only works on
data in reservoir engineering. Directly or
certain conditions where reservoir
indirectly, they enter into all phases of
characteristics were considered which
reservoir engineering calculations. Therefore,
includes, flow regime, flow geometry, number
accurate determination of reservoir
and nature of fluid present.
parameters is very important. In general, well
test analysis is conducted to meet the Darcy’s Law
following objectives:
This basic equation for fluid flow can
• To evaluate well condition and only be applied for certain conditions and must
reservoir characterization; meet the following assumptions:
• To obtain reservoir parameters for
1. Steady state creeping flow
reservoir description;
• To determine whether all the drilled 2. Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
length of oil well is also a producing
3. Fluid does not react with rock
zone;
4. Rock is homogeneous and isotropic
Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro
PetE 421 – Well Test Analysis
**Note: The difference between Viscosity, µ Cp Cp Pa-s

homogeneous and isotropic is that Pressure, P Atm Psia Pa
homogeneous reservoirs are those rocks which Length, L Cm Ft m
properties do not change with location while Flow cm/s ft/s m/s
on the other hand, isotropic are those which Velocity, u
rock properties are the same in all directions. Conversion: 1 mD = 0.986823x10-15 m2
They are quite used interchangeably but they
However, when dealing with oilfield units,
should not since considerations in the direction
conversion factor of 1.1271 x 10-3 must be
must be taken into account when talking about
included to make it in barrel per day,
isotropic material. Another the difference
between the two are 𝒒𝒒 𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
= 𝒖𝒖 = −
that homogeneous material has the same 𝑨𝑨 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁
body of properties at every place, but (for reservoir condition, q is in bbl/day)

an isotropic material has the same looking in
𝒒𝒒𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
all the directions at different point of the = 𝒖𝒖 = −
𝑨𝑨 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁
property.
(for surface condition, q is in STB/day)
where Bo is oil formation volume factor in

bbl/STB.
One of the few ways on how we can obtain

data from the well is through coring analysis. In
this method core samples are obtained from
the underground which represents part of the
formation being explored. From the core
samples, we can obtain smaller pieces of
samples called core plugs as a test sample for
laboratory. Laboratory measurement of the
permeability of core plugs can be done as seen
Units for Darcy Equation in Figure 2 where the fluid present in the core
is being displaced by another immiscible fluid
Parameter Darcy Oilfield SI Unit
and by measuring the pressure difference
Unit Unit
between the inflow and outflow, we can now
Volume Flow cm3/s bbl/day m3/s
get the permeability of the sample using Darcy
Rate, q
Equation.
Cross- cm3 ft2 m2
sectional
area, A
Permeability, Darcy milliDarcy milliDarcy
k (D) (mD) (mD)

that can be utilized to make analytical

predictions for similar systems.
One of the aims of this course is to present the

mathematical relationship that are designed to
described the flow behavior of the reservoir
fluids. The mathematical forms of these
relationship will vary depending upon the
characteristics of the reservoir. These primary
reservoir characteristics that must be
considered include:
From Darcy units (laboratory units), we can
• Types of fluids in the reservoir
define one Darcy as the permeability which
• Flow regimes
will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to
• Reservoir geometry
flow at a linear velocity of one centimetre per
• Number of flowing fluids in the
second for a pressure gradient of one
reservoir
atmosphere per centimetre.
1. Types of Fluids in the Reservoir

Primary Reservoir Characteristics
The isothermal compressibility coefficient is
Flow in porous media is a very complex
essentially the controlling factor in identifying
phenomenon and cannot be described as
the type of reservoir fluid. In general, reservoir
explicitly as flow through pipes or conduits. It
fluids are classified into three groups:
is rather easy to measure the length and
diameter of a pipe and compute its flow (1) Incompressible fluids
capacity as a function of pressure; however, in (2) Slightly compressible fluids
porous media flow is different in that there are (3) Compressible fluids
no clear-cut flow paths which lend themselves
The isothermal compressibility coefficient c is
to measurement.
defined mathematically by the following two
The analysis of fluid flow in porous media has equivalent expressions:
evolved throughout the years along two fronts:
In terms of fluid volume:
the experimental and analytical. Physicists,
engineers, hydrologists and the like have −1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑐𝑐 =
examined experimentally the behavior of 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
various fluids as they flow through porous
In terms of fluid density:
media ranging from sand packs to fused Pyrex
glass. On the basis of their analyses, they have −1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑐𝑐 =
attempted to formulate laws and correlations 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2. Flow regimes

There are basically three types of flow regimes derive and appropriate solution for this flow
that must be recognized in order to describe regime.
the fluid flow behavior and reservoir pressure
∆𝒑𝒑
distribution as a function of time. The three 𝑷𝑷 = 𝒇𝒇(𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕)𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
basic flow regimes are briefly described as:
Characteristics of the behaviour of pressure
Steady State Flown (Cross-flow decline rate during pseudo-steady state:
Boundary) or (Constant Pressure Boundary)
 The pressure declines at a higher rate,
During this steady state, the pressure with an increase in the fluids
does not change with time at every location. production rate.
This flow condition occurs when there is a  The reservoir pressure declines at a
strong support from an aquifer or injection slower rate for the reservoirs with
wells which provides the pressure higher total compressibility coefficients
maintenance for the reservoir.
 The reservoir pressure declines at a
lower rate for reservoirs with larger
pore volumes.
Pseudo-steady State Flow / No Flow

Boundary
Also known as semi-steady state flow

where there is no flow across boundary or
closed boundary.
Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady State
During this flow condition, the change in
The time periods require to reach the
pressure with respect to time becomes the
pseudo-steady state for different vertical
same throughout the drainage area. And it is
well locations in the drainage plane and
now necessary to impose different boundary
conditions on the diffusivity equation and
various configurations of drainage areas

can be estimated using the formula,
379∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)
𝑘𝑘
Example
For an oil well drilled at 40-acre spacing,

calculate the time to reach pseudo-steady
state. Given: µ = 3.75 cP; k = 45 mD, cti =
5.5x10-5 psi-1; Φ = 12.5%; A = 40 acres.
During the transient flow phase, pressure
Solution: distribution in the reservoir is not constant and
379∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴 depends on time and distance from the well.
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑘𝑘
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
379(0.125)(3.75)(5.5𝑥𝑥10−5 )(40)(43560)
=
45
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 478.33675 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ≈ 15.76 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Unsteady State Flow
Also known as transient flow. This type of

flow is defined as the fluid flowing at which
the rate of change of pressure with respect
to time at any position in the reservoir is
Figure 6 Comparison of pressure behaviour
not zero or constant. As long as the leading with respect to time for the three flow
front of the pressure transient has not regimes.
reached the boundaries of the reservoir,
fluid flow toward the well is in the
transient state, and the reservoir acts as if 3. Reservoir Geometry
it is an infinite in size.
The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect
on its flow behavior. Most reservoirs have
irregular boundaries and a rigorous
mathematical description of their geometry is
often possible only with the use of numerical
simulators. However, for many engineering

purposes, the actual flow geometry maybe Fluid Flow Equation

represented by one of the following flow
The fluid flow equations that are used to
geometries:
describe the flow behavior in a reservoir can
• Radial flow take many forms depending upon the
• Linear flow combination of variables presented previously.
• Spherical and hemispherical Also, assumptions to consider when dealing
with Darcy’s law has been presented earlier.
Radial flow
Now, applications of Darcy’s law for different
In the absence of severe reservoir reservoir characteristics must be given
heterogeneities, flow into or away from a emphasis.
wellbore will follow radial flow lines a
(1) Linear flow of incompressible fluids
substantial distance from a wellbore. Because
In linear system, it is assumed that the
fluids move toward the well from all directions
flow occurs through a constant cross-
and coverage at the wellbore, the term radial
sectional area, A, where both ends are
flow is used to characterize the flow of fluid
entirely open to flow. It is also assumed
into the wellbore.
that no flow crosses the sides, top or
Linear flow bottom. If an incompressible fluid is
flowing across the element dx, then the
Linear flow occurs when flow paths are
fluid velocity v, and the flow rate q are
parallel and the fluid flows in a single direction.
constants at all points. The flow
In addition, the cross-sectional area to flow
behavior in this system can be
must be constant. A common application of
expressed as
linear flow equations is the fluid flow into
0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )
vertical hydraulic fractures. 𝑞𝑞 =
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Spherical and Hemispherical Where q = flow rate, bbl/day
k = absolute permeability, mD
Depending upon the type of
p = pressure, psi
completion configuration, it is possible to have
μ = viscosity, cp
spherical or hemispherical flow near the
L = distance, ft
wellbore. A well with limited perforated
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
interval could result in spherical flow in the
vicinity of the perforations. And a well which Example 1.
only partially penetrates the pay zone could An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous
result in hemispherical flow. The condition media with the following properties:
could arise where coning of bottom water is
important. L = 2000ft h = 20 ft width = 300 ft
k = 100 mD φ = 15% μ = 2 cp
p1 = 2000 psi p2 = 1990 psi

Calculate Where qref is the flow rate at some

reference pressure pref. Substituting the
(a) Flow rate in bbl/day
relationship in Darcy’s equation gives:
(b) Apparent velocity in ft/day
(c) Actual fluid velocity in ft/day 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �1 + (𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝)� 𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = −0.001127
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution:
Integrating the above equation will give
Calculate the cross-sectional area A:
0.001127𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝2 )
2 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
𝐴𝐴 = ℎ(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ) = 20(300) = 6000 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝1 )
a. Flow rate, q Where:

0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )
𝑞𝑞 = qref = flow rate at a reference pressure,
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
pref, bbl/day
0.0011271(100)(6000)(2000 − 1990)
𝑞𝑞 = p1 = upstream pressure, psi
2(2000)
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 p2 = downstream pressure, psi
𝑞𝑞 = 1.6907
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 k = permeability, mD
b. Apparent Velocity, v μ = viscosity, cP
𝑞𝑞 1.6905 ∗ (5.615) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 c = average liquid compressibility, 1/psi
𝑣𝑣 = = = 0.0016
𝐴𝐴 6000 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Case 1: Selecting upstream pressure,
c. Actual fluid velocity, v p1 as the reference pressure
𝑞𝑞 1.6905 ∗ (5.615)
𝑣𝑣 = = 0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 0.15(6000) 𝑞𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙[1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )]
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
= 0.0105
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2) Linear flow of slightly compressible
fluids Case 2: Choosing the downstream
Equation below describes the pressure p2 as the reference pressure.
relationship that exists between 0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
𝑞𝑞2 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
pressure and volume for a slightly 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 )
compressible fluid.
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝)� Example 2.
This equation can be modified and Consider the linear system in Example 1 and
written in terms of flow rate; assuming slightly compressible liquid, calculate
the flow rate at both ends of the linear system.
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝)� The liquid has an average compressibility of 21
x 10-5 psi-1.

1
Solution:
𝑝𝑝12 + 𝑝𝑝22 2
𝑝𝑝̅ = � �
Choosing the upstream pressure as the 2
reference pressure gives:
Example 3.
0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙[1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )] A natural gas with a specific gravity of 0.72
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
is flowing in linear porous media at 140⁰F.
0.0011271(100)(6000)
𝑞𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙[1 The upstream and downstream pressure
2(21𝑥𝑥10−5 )(2000)
+ 21𝑥𝑥10−5 (2000 − 1990)] are 2100 psi and 1894.73 psi, respectively.
The cross-sectional area is constant at 4500
𝑞𝑞1 = 1.689 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ft2. The total length is 2500 ft with an
absolute permeability of 60 mD. Calculate
Choosing the downstream pressure as the the gas flow rate in SCF/day.
reference pressure gives: Solution:
0.0011271𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
𝑞𝑞2 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � Estimating reservoir pressure,
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 1 + 𝑐𝑐 (𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 )
1
0.0011271(100)(6000) 1
𝑞𝑞2 = �
2(21𝑥𝑥10−5 )(2000)
� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �
1 + 21𝑥𝑥10−5 (1990 − 2000)
� 𝑝𝑝12 + 𝑝𝑝22 2
𝑝𝑝̅ = � �
2
𝑞𝑞1 = 1.692 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
The above calculations show that q1 and q2 are 21002 + 1894.732 2
𝑝𝑝̅ = � � = 2000 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
not largely different, which is due to the fact 2
that the liquid is slightly incompressible, and its
Calculating the pseudo-critical and pseudo-
volume is a not strong function of pressure.
reduced properties for Z estimation,
𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 168 + 325𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 − 12.5𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔2

(3) Linear flow of compressible fluids
𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 168 + 325(0.72) − 12.5(0.72)2
(gases)
𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 395.5⁰𝑅𝑅
0.111924𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑝𝑝12 − 𝑝𝑝22 )
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝜇𝜇𝑔𝑔
It is essential to notice that those gas 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 677 + 15𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 − 37.5𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔2

properties Z and μg are very strong
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 677 + 15(0.72) − 37.5(0.72)2
functions of pressure. The above equation
is valid for applications when the pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 668.4 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
is less than 2000 psi and the gas properties
must be evaluated at the average pressure
𝑝𝑝̅ as defined below: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑝𝑝
=
2000
= 2.99
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 668.4

𝑇𝑇 600 -Unsteady-state flow in heterogeneous

𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = 1.52
𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 395.5 systems:
 Three dimensional
Using Standing-Katz Chart gives;  Multi (three) phases
𝑍𝑍 = 0.78  Multi (three) forces

Calculating gas viscosity using Lee- However, in this book, we will focus only on
Gonzales-Eakin method radial, one phase flow, under one dimension
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 with one force (viscosity) involved.
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 = 28.96𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 = 28.96(0.72) = 20.85
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Well testing provides the following information
𝑝𝑝𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 (2000)(20.85)
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 = = = 8.30 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 3 to be able to optimize the production and
𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 (0.78)(10.73)(600)
understand well behaviour for future
(9.4 + 0.02𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 )𝑇𝑇 1.5 development plans.
𝐾𝐾 =
209 + 19𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 + 𝑇𝑇
(9.4 + 0.02(20.85))6001.5
• Pressure behaviour
𝐾𝐾 = = 119.7194
209 + 19(20.85) + 600
• Average reservoir pressure
986 • Reservoir properties (permeability)
𝑋𝑋 = 3.5 + + 0.01𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑇
986 • Reservoir characterization (Faults,
𝑋𝑋 = 3.5 + + 0.01(20.85) = 5.35
600 layering, areal continuity)
𝑌𝑌 = 2.4 − 0.2𝑋𝑋 = 2.4 − (0.2𝑥𝑥5.35) = 1.33
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑌𝑌 • Well Completion efficiency (Skin)
𝜇𝜇𝑔𝑔 = 10−4 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 �𝑋𝑋( ) �
62.4 • Well productivity (Productivity Index,
8.3 1.33 J)
𝜇𝜇𝑔𝑔 = 10−4 �(119.72)𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �5.35 � � ��
62.4 • Nature of formation fluid
𝜇𝜇𝑔𝑔 = 0.0173 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 • Reservoir temperature
Calculating gas flow rate, For pressure behaviour, plotting the pressure
0.111924(60)(4500)(21002 − 1894.732 ) versus time during the test leads to the
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
(600)(2500)(0.78)(0.0173) determination of the following:
𝑸𝑸𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔/𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 • Average static reservoir pressure
• Flow capacity (k*h = permeability*net

Darcy equation can only be applied under pay)
certain conditions in the reservoir, the reality is
• Skin
that the condition underneath can be
described as follows: • Reservoir discontinuity and limits
(fault,…)
These data obtained from well test must be

crossed-checked with other data source such
as seismic data, well logs, core analysis and
others to determine the accuracy of the test
and validate the results. That is why it should
be given emphasis that a multidisciplinary
professional need to work as an integrated
team to develop and implement the well test
data management program.
Radial Flow System
In a radial flow system, all fluids move Diffusivity Equation Derivation

toward the producing well from all directions. The diffusivity equation is a fundamental
However, before flow can take place, a differential equation obtained by combining
pressure differential must exist. Thus if a well the continuity equation, Darcy law and the
is to produce oil, which implies a flow of fluids equation of state. Most of the mathematics of
through the formation to the wellbore, the well testing were derived from solutions of this
pressure must be less than the pressure in the equation, which is originally developed for the
formation at some distance from the well. study of heat transfer. Fluid flow through
The pressure in the formation at the porous media is directly analogous to flow of
wellbore of a producing well is known as the heat through solids. Solutions used in well
bottom-hole flowing pressure (flowing BHP, testing usually assume radial flow,
pwf). homogeneous and isotropic formations.
(Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary)
Consider Figure 7 as a radial flow towards a
well in a circular reservoir. In this diagram, we Just like Darcy law, this equation was derived
can derive the diffusivity equation by using the following assumptions:
combining the law of conservation of mass and 1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous
Darcy law for the isothermal flow of fluids of media of uniform thickness;
small and constant compressibility. 2. Rock and fluid properties are pressure-
independent;
3. Pressure gradients are small;
4. Flow is radial;
5. Darcy’s law is applicable;
6. Gravity forces are negligible;
7. The flow is along a radial path toward
the wellbore;

8. The fluid flow is single phase and fluid

saturation in the system is constant;
9. The porosity and permeability are
constant in space and time; and
10. Viscosity and compressibility of the
fluid are constant.
The Governing Equations for Diffusivity

Equation
1. Mass Continuity Equation

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏
[𝒓𝒓(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗)] = [∅𝝆𝝆] By general material balance
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
2. Transport Equation Mass entering volume element during interval
Δt - Mass leaving volume element during
𝒌𝒌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒗𝒗 = (𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎) interval Δt = Rate of mass accumulation
𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
during interval Δt
3. Compressibility Equation/Equation of
Mass in = Δt(Avρ)r+dr = Δt(2πh(r+dr))(Vρ)r+dr (1)
State
Mass out = Δt(2πrh)(Vρ)r (2)
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏∅
𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 =
∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 where V = πr2h
Here, the diffusivity equation was obtained by Differentiating V with respect to r,

applying the mass balance over a control
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
volume. Equation of motion which is the Darcy = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
law and the equation of state (PVT relations)
are then combined with the mass balance 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3)
equation to obtain the final form of diffusivity Mass accumulation = dV [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt] (4)
equation.
Substituting Eq.3 to eq. 4,
Mass accumulation = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt]

(5)
And then placing Eqs.1,2 and 5 as an input to

the general material balance expression,
Δt(2πh(r+dr))(vρ)r+dr - Δt(2πrh)(vρ)r = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

[ Φρt+Δt - Φρt] (6)
Dividing both sides by 2πrhdr giving

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
[(𝒓𝒓 + 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅)(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗)𝒓𝒓+𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − 𝒓𝒓(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗)𝒓𝒓 ] = ∅ + 𝝆𝝆∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 (15)
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝟏𝟏
∆𝒕𝒕
[(∅𝝆𝝆)𝒕𝒕+∆𝒕𝒕 − (∅𝝆𝝆)𝒕𝒕 ] (7) And now, assuming that the reservoir is
Taking Δr and Δt as a limit for the given homogeneous with constant viscosity and
function above, eq.7 can now be simplified constant compressibility and substituting Eq.15
on the right side of Eq.10,
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏
[𝒓𝒓(𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗)] = [(∅𝝆𝝆)]  Mass Continuity
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝏𝝏 𝒌𝒌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Equation (8) ��(𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆) ��
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Applying the given equation below = ∅ + 𝝆𝝆∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒌𝒌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒗𝒗 = (𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔)(𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)  Transport Simplifying the above equation
𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Equation (9) 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
��(𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆) �� = ∅ + 𝝆𝝆∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇
𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
where 0.001127 is a conversion factor for field
(16)
units (bbl/day) and 5.615 is a conversion factor
for bbl/day to ft3/day which will give 0.006328 Differentiating using chain rule
Combining Eq. 8 and Eq.9 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝆𝝆 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
� + 𝝆𝝆 + �= ∅ +
𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
�𝒓𝒓 �𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 �� = [(∅𝝆𝝆)] 𝝆𝝆∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 (17)
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
(10)
And then differentiating density in terms of
Differentiating the right side of the equation radius and time using chain rule
using product rule 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝆𝝆 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
� + 𝝆𝝆 + (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐 �= ∅ +
𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏∅ 𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
[(∅𝝆𝝆)] = ∅ + 𝝆𝝆 (11) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝆𝝆∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 (18)
Taking compressibility formula into account
Simplifying the equation above by dividing
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏∅ both sides by density (𝝆𝝆)
𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 =
∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐
� + 𝟐𝟐 + � � �=
𝝏𝝏∅ 𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝆𝝆 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐
∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 = (12) 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
�𝝆𝝆 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏� ∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + ∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 (19)
𝝏𝝏∅
And then taking the chain rule of
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 And since compressibility of a fluid can be
𝝏𝝏∅ 𝝏𝝏∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 1 𝜌𝜌
= (13) defined as 𝑐𝑐 = , we can substitute this in
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Eq.19 to simplify
Substituting Eq.11 to Eq.12 will give
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐
𝝏𝝏∅
= ∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
(14) � + + 𝒄𝒄 �
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
The right side of Eq.10 can now be written as = 𝒄𝒄∅ + ∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

(𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐
With 𝒄𝒄 (𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏)𝟐𝟐 which is so small, we can neglect The absolute value of this fluid velocity
increases as the wellbore is approached.
now the whole term
Relating this equation with Darcy law
𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
� + 𝟐𝟐 � = 𝒄𝒄∅ + ∅𝒄𝒄𝒇𝒇 (20) under laminar condition, 𝒖𝒖𝒓𝒓 = −
𝒌𝒌 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
, Eq.23
𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝁𝝁 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
can now be written as
The right side of the equation above leads to 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒌𝒌 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
− = −
the total compressibility, ct = c + cf, which we 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝁𝝁 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
simplify as Solving for dp using separation of variables will
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 give
� + 𝟐𝟐 � = ∅𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕
𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 (24)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
Rearranging the above equation to get the
And the above equation can now be integrated
diffusivity equation for radial flow
between the limits of rw to re for r and for p
�
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
+
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑
�=
𝝁𝝁∅𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅) will be from pwf to pe.
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
(21) 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆
� = � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑 𝝁𝝁∅𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
� + �= (𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉)
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓
(22) 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � = (𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘) (25)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒘𝒘
The term 0.000264k/φμct is the diffusivity The above equation can be written in two
constant and is denoted by the symbol η, forms, explicitly for the flow rate as:
0.0002637𝑘𝑘 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝜂𝜂 = 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 = 𝒓𝒓 (𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 ) (26)
∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁� 𝒆𝒆 �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
This diffusivity equation was derived to or explicitly for the pressure difference:
be the basis for all mathematical calculations 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓
involved in the radial flow system within the (𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘) = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � (27)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒘𝒘
reservoir.
Considering the conversion factor 0.001127 in
eq. 27, will give
Radial Incompressible Flow 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆

(𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘) = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
The main feature of steady-state radial
flow of incompressible fluids is its superficial 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆
(𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 ) = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
fluid velocity which is derived from the 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
volumetric flow-rate passing through any Where
cross-section as shown in the figure below.
qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐
𝒖𝒖𝒓𝒓 = − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (23)
pe = external pressure, psi 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓

𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐(𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔)(𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓)(𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
k = permeability, mD (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
μ = oil viscosity, cP 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗.0329 psi
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB ∆𝒑𝒑𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
h = thickness, ft ∆𝒑𝒑𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
re = external or drainage radius, ft
rw = well
The external (drainage) radius re is

usually determined from the well spacing by
equating the area of the well spacing with that
of a circle expressed as:
𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 = 43,560𝐴𝐴
where A is the well spacing in acres.
Example 4.
The pressure differential between the external
An oil well in Hans Sam field is producing at a and well bottom hole pressure is known as
steady rate of 600 STB/day at a stabilized drawdown in petroleum engineering. Equation
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1800 psi. 25 shows the important relationship between
Analysis of the pressure build-up test data well production rate, q, drawdown and the
indicates that the pay zone is characterized by reservoir properties. This equation is also
a permeability of 120 mD and a uniform known as well inflow model.
thickness of 25 ft. The well drains an area of
approximately 40 acres. The following
additional data is available:
rw = 0.25 ft A = 40 acres
Bo = 1.25 bbl/ STB μo = 2.5 cP
Calculate the pressure and pressure drop at r =

1.25 ft .
𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆
(𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘) = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘

Figure 10 shows the radial flow integration and 𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑫) (31)
the pressure distribution in which based on the
Figure 9 shows the pressure behaviour
derived equation (Eq.25) shows that the
in the vicinity if the well which demonstrate
drawdown is directly proportional to the
how the pressure increases rapidly as it
production rate, q and the oil viscosity, µ, and
approached the wellbore. This is associated
is inversely proportional to reservoir
with the increase in the fluid velocity as the
permeability thickness product, kh.
area for flow, 2πrh, decreases. Also the near
Equation 25 can also be written in a well bore region shows the most significant
form of a dimensionless parameter where effect in the total drawdown. The relationship
𝒓𝒓
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒆𝒆 � is also known as the dimensionless now can be drawn from the ratio, re/rw which
𝒓𝒓
𝒘𝒘
approximates the total dimensionless
pressure at external radius to wellbore radius.
drawdown if and only if external radius, re is
(𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 )
𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 =
𝒓𝒓
= 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � (28) known.
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐
𝒘𝒘
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
The dimensionless pressure is of much used in

the analysis of well behaviour especially in
steady-state flow where it depends only on the
geometry of the drainage area. This can be
related to the ratio of external radius to the
wellbore radius, re/rw which is known as the
dimensionless radius, rDe. With this
relationship, we can now express the
dimensionless pressure in terms of
dimensionless radius,
𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 ) (29)

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
The pressure, p, at any radius, r,
0.00708𝑘𝑘ℎ
intermediate between rw and re is given by: 𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙�1 + 𝑐𝑐�𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ��
𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 /𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 )
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓
(𝒑𝒑 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘) = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � (30)
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 Where
which follows on changing the upper c = isothermal compressibility coefficient, 1/psi
integration limit and leads to the
qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
dimensionless pressure at any radius, r.
(𝒑𝒑 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 ) k = permeability, mD
𝒓𝒓
𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫 = 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑫 =
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
And the pressure profile in the vicinity of the
well can now be written as :

Example 5. Based on the boundary conditions imposed,

there are two generalized solutions to the
The following data is available on a well in
diffusivity equation. These are:
Hans Sam Field:
(1) Constant-terminal pressure solution
pe = 2506 psi pwf = 1800 psi
(2) Constant-terminal rate solution
re = 745 ft rw = 0.25 ft
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μ = 2.5 cP

The constant-terminal pressure solution is
k = 0.12 Darcy h = 25 ft designed to provide the cumulative flow at any
particular time for reservoir in which the
c = 25x10-6 1/psi
pressure at one boundary of the reservoir is
Solution: held constant. This technique is frequently
0.00708𝑘𝑘ℎ used in water influx calculations in gas and oil
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙�1 + 𝑐𝑐�𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 �� reservoirs.
𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 /𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 )
0.00708(120)(25) The constant-terminal rate solution of the
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙[1
2.5(1.25)(25𝑥𝑥10−6 )𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(745/0.25) radial diffusivity equation solves for the
+ 25𝑥𝑥10−6 (2506 − 1800)] pressure change throughout the radial system
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 595 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 providing that the flow rate is held
constant at one terminal end of the radial
If the fluid is incompressible, system, that is at the producing well. There are
0.00708𝑘𝑘ℎ�𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 � two commonly used forms of the constant-
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = � � terminal-rate solution:
𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 /𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 )
0.00708(120)(25)(2506 − 1800) (1) the Ei function solution;

𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = � � (2) the dimensionless pressure drop pD
(2.5)(1.25)𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(745/0.25)
solution
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 600 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Constant-terminal-rate solution
The constant terminal rate solution is an

Solutions to Diffusivity Equation integral part of most transient test analysis
To obtain a solution to diffusivity equation, it is techniques, for example, drawdown and
necessary to specify an initial condition and buildup analyses. Most of these tests involve
impose two boundary conditions. The initial producing a well at a constant flow rate and
condition simply states that the reservoir is at recording the flowing pressure as a function of
uniform pressure pi, when production begins. time, i.e., p(rw, t).
The two boundary conditions require that the The Ei function solution
well is producing at a constant production rate
and the reservoir behaves as if it were infinite
in size, re = ꚙ.

For an infinite-acting reservoir,

Matthew and Russel (1967) proposed the
following solution to the diffusivity equation;
70.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 −948∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟 2

𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 + � � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � �
𝑘𝑘ℎ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
where
p(r, t) = pressure at radius r from the

well after t hours
t = time, hours
k = permeability, mD
qs = flow rate, STB/day
The mathematical function, Ei, is called the

exponential integral and is defined by:
∞
𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (−𝑥𝑥 ) = − � = �ln 𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯ �
𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢 1! 2! 3!
Craft et al. (1991) presented the values of the

Ei function in tabulated and graphical forms as
shown in the table below.
The Ei solution as expressed by the equation

shown on the left is referred to as the line
source solution. The exponential integral “Ei”
can be approximated by the following equation
when its argument x is less than 0.01:
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (−𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1.781𝑥𝑥 )
where the argument x in this case is given by:
948∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑥𝑥 =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
However, if 0.01 < x < 3.0, the equation is given
as;
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (−𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 ln(𝑥𝑥 ) + 𝑎𝑎3 [ln (𝑥𝑥)]2

+ 𝑎𝑎4 [ln (𝑥𝑥)]3 + 𝑎𝑎5 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎6 𝑥𝑥 2
+ 𝑎𝑎7 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑎8 /𝑥𝑥
with the coefficients a1 through a8 having the Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μo = 1.5 cp

following values:
ko = 60 mD ct = 12x10-6 psi-1 h = 15 ft
a1 = -0.33153973 a2 = -0.81512322
pi = 4000 psi φ = 15% rw = 0.25 ft
a3 = 5.22123384x10-2 a4 = 5.9849810x10-3
(1) Calculate the pressure at radii of 0.25,
a5 = 0.662318450 a6 = -0.12333524 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000,
and 2500ft for 1 hour. Plot the results
a7 = 1.0832566x10-2 a8= 8.6709776x10-4
as:
The above relationship approximated the Ei a. Pressure versus the logarithm of
values with an average error of 0.5%. It should radius
be pointed out that for x > 10, Ei(-x) can be b. Pressure versus radius
considered zero for reservoir engineering (2) Repeat part 1 for t = 12 hours and 24
calculations. hours. Plot the results as pressure
versus logarithm of radius.
Solution:
𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡)
= 4000
70.6(300)(1.5)(1.25) −948(0.15)(1.5)(12x10 − 6)𝑟𝑟 2
+� � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � �
(60)(15) 60𝑡𝑡
𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡) = 4000

𝑟𝑟 2 −6
+ 44.125𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 �(−42.6𝑥𝑥10 ) �
𝑡𝑡
By performing the required calculations after 1

-
hour in tabulated form will give
Example 6.
a As calculated using the equation
b From Figure 1.19
An oil well is producing at a constant flow rate
of 300 STB/day under unsteady state flow
conditions. The reservoir has the following
rock and fluid properties:

Figure 1.21 indicates that as the pressure

disturbance moves radially away from the
wellbore, the reservoir boundary and its
configuration has no effect on the pressure
behavior, which leads to the definition of
transient flow as: “Transient flow is that time
period during which the boundary has no
effect on the pressure behavior and the well
acts as if it exists in an infinite size reservoir.”
The given example shows that most of the

For t = 12 hours pressure loss occurs close to the wellbore;
accordingly, near-wellbore conditions will
exert the greatest influence on flow behavior.
When the Ei parameter x < 0.01, the log

approximation of the Ei function can be
expressed as:
162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 3.23�
𝑘𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟 2
For most of the transient flow calculations,

engineers are primarily concerned with the
behavior of the bottom-hole flowing pressure
at the wellbore, i.e., r = rw.
162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 3.23�
𝑘𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
For t = 24 hours Using the properties for logarithm,

162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − � � �log(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 2 � − 3.23�
𝑘𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 = 4000
162.6(300)(1.5)(1.25) (60)(10)
Note: The two equations are only applicable if the flow time is −� � �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
(60)(15) (0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥𝑥10−6 )(0.252 )
greater than the limit imposed by the constraint 𝑡𝑡 >
9480∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟2 − 3.23�
.
𝑘𝑘
The above equation can be written as (if r = 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 3358 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

rw).
𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝑡𝑡) The second form of solution to the diffusivity

equation is called the dimensionless pressure
The above equation indicates that a plot of pwf
drop solution.
vs. t on a semilogarithmic scale would produce
a straight line with an intercept of a and a
slope of m as given by:
The dimensionless pressure drop pd solution
162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 3.23� 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 )
𝑘𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟2𝑤𝑤
𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 =
𝑚𝑚 = 141.2𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝜇𝜇
𝑘𝑘ℎ � �
𝑘𝑘ℎ
Example 7. 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
Using the data in Example 6, estimate the
bottom-hole flowing pressure after 10 hours of The dimensionless pressure drop concept can
production. be extended to describe the changes in the
pressure during unsteady state flow condition
Solution: where the pressure is a function of time and
Calculating t to determine if Ei or log radius:
approximation is applicable. 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡)
9480∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟 2 Therefore, the dimensionless pressure during
𝑡𝑡 >
𝑘𝑘 unsteady state flowing condition is defined by:
9480(0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥𝑥10−6 )(0.252 )
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − 𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟, 𝑡𝑡)
60 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 =
141.2𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝜇𝜇
𝑡𝑡 = 0.000267 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.153 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘ℎ
Since the pressure p(r, t), as expressed in a
Since the specified time of 10 hours is greater
dimensionless form, varies with time and
than 0.000267 hours, the value of pwf can be
location, it is traditionally presented as a
estimated using either Ei function or log
approximation. function of dimensionless time, tD and radius,
rD as defined below:
162.6𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 3.23� 0.0002637𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟2𝑤𝑤
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 =
∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
Another common form of the dimensionless

time tD is based on the total drainage area A as
given by:
0.0002637𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = = 𝑡𝑡𝐴𝐴 � �
∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 = and 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤
where pd = dimensionless pressure drop
reD = dimensionless external radius
tD = dimensionless time based on

wellbore radius rw
tDA = dimensionless time based on well

drainage area A
A = well drainage area, i.e., πre2, ft2
rd = dimensionless radius
t = time, hours
p(r, t) = pressure at radius r and time t

For tD < 0.01:
k = permeability, mD
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷
μ = viscosity, cp 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 2�
𝜋𝜋
For 1000 < tD < 0.25reD2:

Dimensionless pressure for infinite-acting
reservoir. 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 ) + 0.80907]
For infinite acting reservoir, re = ꚙ, the For 0.02 < tD < 1000
dimensionless pressure drop pD is strictly a 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 ) + 𝑎𝑎3 [𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 )]2
function of the dimensionless time tD. + 𝑎𝑎4 [𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 )]3 + 𝑎𝑎5 𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷
pD = f(tD) + 𝑎𝑎6 (𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 )2 + 𝑎𝑎7 (𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 )3 + 𝑎𝑎8 /𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷
where the values of the coefficients of the

Chatas and Lee tabulated the pD values for the
above equations are:
infinite-acting reservoir as shown in Table 1.2.
The following mathematical expressions can be
used to approximate these tabulated values of
pD.

Calculating the bottom-hole flowing pressure

at given r and t.
141.2𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 𝜇𝜇
𝑝𝑝(𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 , 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 − � � 𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷
𝑘𝑘ℎ
𝑝𝑝(0.25, 1) = 4000
141.2(300)(1.25)(1.5)
−� � (6.1294)
(60)(15)
Example 8.
𝑝𝑝(0.25, 1) = 3459 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
A well is producing at a constant flow rate of
300 STB/day under unsteady-state flow This example shows that the solution as given
conditions. The reservoir has the following by the pD function technique is identical to that
rock and fluid properties: of the Ei function approach. The main
difference between the two formulations is
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μo = 1.5 cp ko = 60
that the pD function can only be used to
mD calculate the pressure at radius r when the flow
ct = 12x10-6 psi-1 h = 15 ft pi = 4000 rate qs is constant and known. In that case the,
psi pD function application is essentially restricted
to the wellbore radius because the rate is
φ = 15% rw = 0.25 ft qs = 300 STB/d
usually known. On the other hand, the Ei
Assuming an infinitely-acting reservoir, i.e., reD function approach can be used to calculate
= ꚙ, calculate the bottom-hole flowing the pressure at any radius in the reservoir by
pressure after 1 hour of production by using using the well flow rate, Q.
the dimensionless pressure approach.
Solution:
Radial Flow of Compressible Fluids under
Calculating tD, Transient Flow Condition
0.0002637𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 Gas viscosity and density varies significantly

𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 =
∅𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2 with pressure and therefore the assumptions
for the diffusivity equation are nt satisfied for
0.0002637(60)(1)
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 = gas systems which are considered as
(0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥𝑥10−6 )(0.25)2
compressible fluids. In order to develop the
𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 = 93,866.67 proper mathetical function for describing the
Since tD > 100, calculate the dimensionless flow of compressible fluids in the reservoir, gas
pressure drop pD function: density and gas compressibility should be used
to modify diffusivity equation.
𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑡𝑡𝐷𝐷 ) + 0.80907]
The radial diffusivity equation for compressible
𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(93,866.67) + 0.80907] fluids relates the real gas pseudopressure (real
𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷 = 6.1294 gas potential) to the time t and radius r.

Al-Hussainy, Ramey, Crawford (1966) pointed The m(p) solution equation can be written
out that in gas well testing analysis, the equivalently in terms of the dimensionless
constant rate solution has more practical time tD as
applications than that provided by the
constant pressure solution.
For radial flow of compressible fluids, there are

three forms of the mathematical solution to And the dimesionless time is defined
the diffusivity equation. previously as:
1. m(p) solution (Exact solution)

2. Pressure - squared method (p2
approximation method)
The parameter γ is called Euler’s constant and
3. Pressure approximation method (p
given by:
approximation method)
But in this chapter, our focus is exclusively

directed towards the precise method of Example:
calculating wellbore flowing pressure in the
A gas well with a wellbore radius of 0.3 ft is
context of radial flow for compressible fluids.
producing at a constant flow rate of 2000
Specifically, we will delve into the application
Mscf/day under transient flow conditions. The
of the m(p) or exact method, which offers a
initial reservoir pressure (shut-in pressure) is
meticulous and rigorous approach to address
4400 psi at 140◦F. The formation
this intricate aspect of wellbore analysis.
permeabilityand thickness are 65 md and 15 ft,
respectively. The porosity is recorded as 15%
and the reservoir radius is 1000ft. The
properties of the gas as well as values of m(p)
as a function of pressures is given below:
Assuming that the initial total isothermal

compressibility is 3x10-4 1/psi, calculate the
bottomhole flowing pressure after 1.5 hours of
production.

free-water oil production, the productivity

index is given by:
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠
𝐽𝐽 =
𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
where qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
J = productivity index, STB/day/psi
pe = volumetric average drainage area

pressure
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure

Solution:
Δp = drawdown, psi
Calculate the dimensionless time tD:
It is important to note that the productivity
index is a valid measure of the well
productivity potential only if the well is flowing
at pseudosteady state conditions. Therefore in
order to accurately measure the productivity
index of a well, it is essential that the well is
Solve for m(pwf). allowed to flow at a constant flow rate for a
sufficient amount of time to reach
pseudosteady state as shown in the figure
below.
From the given table above, using the value of

m(pwf) to give a corresponding pwf of 4367 psi.
Well Productivity Index

Example 9
Oil well performance
A productivity test was conducted on a well.
A commonly used measure of the The test results indicate that the well is
ability of the well to produce is the capable of producing at a stabilized flow rate
productivity index, defined by the symbol J, the of 110 STB/day and a bottom-hole flowing
productivity index is the ratio of the total liquid pressure of 900 psi. After shutting the well for
flow rate to the pressure drawdown. For a
24 hours, the bottom-hole flowing pressure field will be economically viable. The
reached a static value of 1300 psi. productivity of an oil well is quantified by the
productivity index, Jsse, which is defined by the
Calculate:
ratio of volume flow rate to pressure
(a) the productivity index drawdown.
(b) the AOF (Absolute Open Flow: 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔
𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = (32)
maximum flow rate) �𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 �
(c) the oil flow rate at a bottom-hole

where qs is the oil flow rate at stock tank
flowing pressure of 600 psi
conditions (STB/day) and the pressure
(d) the wellbore flowing pressure required
drawdown is in psi. Hence, the productivity
to produce 250 STB/day
index is the rate at which stock tank oil can be
Solution: produced per unit pressure drawdown with a
unit of STB/day/psi. For oilfield units where
(a)
productivity index is usually expressed,
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 110 formation volume factor, B is introduced to
𝐽𝐽 = =
𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1300 − 900 obtain Jsse in bbl/day/psi
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
= 0.275 /𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 = �𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘�
𝒓𝒓
𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 � 𝒆𝒆 �
(b) 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐽𝐽(𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 0) = 0.275(1300 − 0) Expressing productivity index form the above

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 equation
= 375.5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃
= 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒓𝒓 ; /𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
�𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 � 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁� 𝒆𝒆 � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
(c) 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
(33)
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 𝐽𝐽�𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 � = 0.275(1300 − 600)
= 192.5 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Well’s productivity is often measured by the
productivity index which shows the well’s
(d) ability to deliver oil and is one of the most
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 250 important concepts in petroleum engineering.
𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 − = 1300 − = 390.9 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 The usual values of productivity index varies
𝐽𝐽 0.275
from less than unity to nearly 100,000 in
extremely prolific wells.
Radial Steady State Model
Based on Eq.33, well productivity index
The steady state radial flow equation depends strongly on permeability-thickness
shows how the permeability-thickness product, kh and in-situ viscosity, µ.
product, kh, influences the rate at which oil
can be produced from the well. This can be an
indicator or a basis to decide whether an oil

drawdown pressures. The reservoir fluid

composition and behaviour of the fluid phases
under various flowing conditions determine
the shape of the curve.
In single phase flow, this is a straight

line but when gas is moving in the reservoir, at
a pressure below the bubble point, the
relationship is not linear.
Example 10 Figure 13 shows the well inflow performance

where the inflow performance relation (IPR)
An oil well which 1250 ft long is drilled in a
and vertical lift performance (VLP) were
reservoir with the following characteristics: h =
plotted to get the optimal operating pressure
170 ft; rw = 0.39 ft; φ = 4.9%; Bo = 1.275
from the point of intersection. This is done to
bbl/STB and μ = 0.75 cP. Calculate the steady
determine the best pressure which will give
state well productivity if a vertical well drains
the optimum flow rate in a safe operating
80 acres with a permeability of 85 mD.
condition.
Solution:
Calculating the effective drainage radius,
43,560𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 = 43,560(80)
43,560(80)
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = � = 1053 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝜋𝜋
0.00708𝑘𝑘ℎ 0.00708(85)(170)
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝜇𝜇𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �� (0.75)(1.275) �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �1053��
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 0.39
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 13.54 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
In some circumstances, it is useful to know the

Straight Line Inflow Performance Relation
volume averaged pressure within the system
(IPR)
of a steady state radial flow. This is defined by
Inflow performance relation (IPR) is a the following:
mathematical tool used in production 𝒓𝒓
∫ 𝒑𝒑(𝒓𝒓)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒑(𝒓𝒓)𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
engineering to assess well performance by 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = = 𝒘𝒘
(35)
𝑽𝑽 𝝅𝝅(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )𝒉𝒉
plotting the well production rate against
flowing bottom hole pressure (BHP). The data
required to create the IPR are obtained by
measuring the production rates under various

Simplifying the above equation 𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )

𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐 +
𝒓𝒓 (𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐
∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒑(𝒓𝒓)𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒘𝒘
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘
(36)
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆
� �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
Substituting Eq.34 to Eq.36, (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 =
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
�∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 �𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 +
𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �� 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟏𝟏 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �� − �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
(37)
𝟐𝟐 Simplifying the equation above by cancellation
Distributing and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) and factoring,
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑 ∫ 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 ∫ 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 �𝒓𝒓 � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 (𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒘𝒘 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 +
𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓
��𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒆𝒆 � − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒘𝒘 �� − � ; 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒘𝒘 � =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
(38)
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝟏𝟏) =0
Applying integration by parts on the last term 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏

𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒆𝒆 � − � (40)
of Eq.38, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 Equation 40 shows the average pressure

For ∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 � � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 :
𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 formula for steady-state radial flow. And the
𝒓𝒓 difference between the average pressure, pave,
Let 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 and the external pressure, pe, is small and is
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 given by
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆−𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 =
𝟏𝟏 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒
(41)
𝒓𝒓
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝑽𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐 The productivity index, J can also be
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 expressed in terms of average pressure instead
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 − � 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − � of the external pressure which is denoted as
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
Jssa
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏
= 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − � 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = = 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 /𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 −𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝝁𝝁�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍� 𝒆𝒆 �− �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 − ∫ 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − (39) (42)
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Integrating Eq.38 and plugging Eq.39 will give Pseudosteady State Radial Flow
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 Figure 14 shows the comparison of the

𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 pressure profile between the transient and
= semi-steady state flow. As shown, the trend of
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 pressure change in the semi-steady state is the
+ 𝟐𝟐 � 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − � same and constant, however, in the transient
(𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
flow, it is not and it hasn’t reached the
Evaluating the limits of the above equation boundary yet known as infinite-acting period.
from r = rw to r = re will result to

In the semi-steady state (SSS) analysis,

no flow is allowed across the external face and
oil production from the cell occurs solely as a
result of the expansion of the oil (natural drive
mechanism) due to a reduction in pressure.
Also, it should be emphasized that this type of
stabilized flow is only attained after a transient
period during which the pressure in the region
changes from the initial uniform value to a
profile characteristics of SSS flow.
In a closed or no flow boundary as depicted by Since the natural drive mechanism in

the circular well in Fig 14, when an this system is the expansion of oil within the
undersaturated, bounded reservoir is reservoir, we can take into account fluid
produced at a constant rate, after an initial compressibility assuming that it is constant
start-up period, the rate of pressure decline at everywhere. The fluid compressibility, c, is
all points in the system becomes constant and defined as the fractional change in volume per
uniform. And when the disturbance reaches unit change in pressure denoted by,
the outer boundary, the shape of the 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒄𝒄 = − (43).
distribution stabilizes and the pressure 𝑽𝑽 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
changes linearly with time, this is referred to as Liquid’s compressibility is so small which
semi-steady state flow or also known as means that even if there is a large change in
stabilise flow since the pressure profile in the pressure, its effect in volume would be small,
depletion zone, although declining, maintains this is the basic reason for the inefficiency of
the same shape as shown in Fig.14. depletion drive.
By equating the oil production rate at

the well to the overall volume rate of fluid
expansion within the drainage region, we can
obtain the rate of pressure decline in a
depletion drive. Consider a time interval, dt,
over which the in-situ fluid expands by a
mount dV, due to a pressure change, dp, then
using the compressibility definition:
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒒𝒒 = = −𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 (44)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 = ∆𝑽𝑽 = −𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
Pseudo-Steady State Solution Volume produced in time interval =

Expansion of the liquid in the reservoir

cf = compressibility of formation
Note that in Eq.44 dp/dt is negative for oil Equation 45 should therefore be written in the
production and putting the volume of oil in form:
place V = 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒉𝒉∅, will give, 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝑩
� 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = − (47)
𝒒𝒒 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒉𝒉∅
−= (45)
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒉𝒉∅ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Equation 45 is applicable to any pressure in the

distribution since its shape is constant and, in
particular, it applies to the average reservoir
pressure, pave. In Figure 15, this quantity is
plotted versus time on a Cartesian graph
𝑞𝑞
where a straight line of slope m* = - is
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2 ℎ∅
present; this illustrates the primary depletion
of an undersaturated reservoir block with no
aquifer support. The key point about semi-
steady state depletion is the linear decline of Figure 16 also shows the importance of
the average pressure with time according to reservoir limit test which is a long drawdown
the Equation 45. If the volume, V, drained by a with constant volume flow rate. This reservoir
particular well is relatively small due to limit test is used to determine the boundary of
reservoir compartmentalization, then this rate the formation and the drainage area of the
of pressure change can be rapid which will reservoir.
have an adverse effect on the well’s
Equation 45 shows how the pressure at
production rate.
any point varies with time. The instantaneous
The compressibility used in Equation 45 should pressure profile in the radial zone can be
also account for the expansion of connate determined by realizing that the oil flow
water and porosity reduction due to formation crossing any circumference at radius, will be
compression as the pore pressure decreases. proportional to the fluid volume between r and
That is why total compressibility must be taken re as shown in Figure 17. Thus the oil flow at r,
into account, which is denoted by the formula denoted as qr, is given by:
given below, 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒒𝒒𝒓𝒓 = −𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝅𝝅(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 )𝒉𝒉∅ (48)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
ct = Swccw + (1-Swc)co + cf (46)
And at the wellbore:
where
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒒𝒒 = −𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒉𝒉∅ (49)
Swc = connate water saturation 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒒𝒒𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 −𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐

cw = compressibility of water = = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 (50)
𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆
co = compressibility of oil

Equation 50 shows how the oil flow at radius r 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒓𝒓) − = 𝒑𝒑
which is determined by the cumulative 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒
expansion of all the fluid contained within the
Evaluating their limits will result to
rock volume between r and the external
boundary. Naturally, qr increases progressively 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − � 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 � = �𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 −𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘�
as the wellbore is approached where it attains 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒
the maximum value of q, the well production
The analytical solution for q, takes the form:
rate and the local pressure gradient is given by
Darcy’s law: 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐�𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 −𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘�
𝒒𝒒 =
𝒒𝒒𝒓𝒓 𝒌𝒌 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
= (51) 𝝁𝝁 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � − � 𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐 + 𝒘𝒘𝟐𝟐 ��
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝁𝝁 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆
But re>>rw, which simplifies the equation to be

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐�𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 −𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 �
𝒒𝒒 = 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 (53)
𝝁𝝁�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍� 𝒆𝒆 �− �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎�𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆−𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘�
𝒒𝒒 =
𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏
𝝁𝝁 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � − 𝟐𝟐�
𝒘𝒘
Equation above (Eq.53) is well inflow equation

under semi-steady state conditions and this
equation can also be written in terms of
Substituting Eq.50 to Eq. 51 in terms of qr gives dimensionless parameters:
�𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 −𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 � 𝟏𝟏
𝒒𝒒 �𝟏𝟏 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 � =
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
(52) 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 = 𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 − (54)
𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆 𝝁𝝁 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Separating the variables setting q,h,k and μ as

constant and integrating between the limits:
r = rw p = pwf and r =
re p = pe
results in:
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆
� �𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐 � = � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
Distributing dr/r gives

𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆
� − � � 𝟐𝟐 � = � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝒓𝒓 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘

Well Inflow in terms of Average Pressure - Slightly compressible liquid

(constant compressibility)
Pseudo-steady State Flow in a Radial System
- Constant fluid viscosity
𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
[ 𝒑𝒑(𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕)]⃒𝒓𝒓 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 (55)
- Single-phase liquid flow
𝑵𝑵𝒑𝒑𝑩𝑩
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊 − where NBi = Vp - Gravity and capillary pressure are
𝑵𝑵𝑩𝑩𝒊𝒊𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕
(56) neglected
𝑵𝑵𝒑𝒑 𝑩𝑩
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒊 − (57) - Constant permeability
𝑽𝑽𝒑𝒑 𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕
- Horizontal radial flow (nonvertical)
For a cylindrical reservoir, 𝑽𝑽𝒑𝒑 = ∅𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 −
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) (58)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Substituting Eq.4 to Eq. 3, If we assume q is constant, then 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
is also
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒊 −
𝑵𝑵𝒑𝒑 𝑩𝑩
(59) constant and hence, 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
is also constant as well.
∅𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕
Assuming q is constant, then
Recalling the definition of the cumulative 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
production, Np, we have = = − = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 ∅𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕
𝒕𝒕 (63)
𝑵𝑵𝒑𝒑 = ∫𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝒒(𝒕𝒕)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 (60)
Substituting eq.10 to Eq.9 to make it as an
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒑𝒑
= 𝒒𝒒 (61) ordinary derivatives
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Taking the derivative of Eq.57, 𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ∅𝝁𝝁𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩

� �= �− �
𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒌𝒌 ∅𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉(𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕
𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
= − ; all in Darcy units (62)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ∅𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �𝑪𝑪𝒕𝒕 Simplifying the given equation above
𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
� � = �− � (64)
𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �
Pseudo-steady State Flow Solutions for the
Radial Flow Diffusivity Equation Defining
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
The governing partial differential 𝒄𝒄 = (65)
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �
equation for flow in porous media is called the
“diffusivity equation”. The diffusivity equation Substituting Eq.12 to Eq.11
for a slightly compressible liquid is given by 𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
�
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
� = −𝒄𝒄 (66)
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 ∅𝝁𝝁𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
� �=
𝒓𝒓 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝒌𝒌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 Separating
(21)
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝒅𝒅 � � = −𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
The significant assumptions made in 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Eq.9 are: Integrating the equation above with respect to

r,
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 =

𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
��𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐−𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 �� 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � −
𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 −𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒘𝒘
�
� 𝒅𝒅 � � = −𝒄𝒄 � 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆 𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 �
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
(73)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 −𝒄𝒄𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓 = + 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 (67) Assuming that re>>rw
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
Dividing both sides by r ��𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 � = 𝟏𝟏
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 �
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 −𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏

= + (68) 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 −𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
�𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 �
= 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆
For pseudosteady state, we assume a closed
Simplifying Eq.73 will give
reservoir, that is,
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
�𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � −
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
� (74)
� � @𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Rearranging Eq.74 to obtain pr
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 −𝒄𝒄𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏
� � @𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟎𝟎 = + 𝒓𝒓
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
�𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � −
𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
� (75)
𝒘𝒘
Solving for C1 gives
Equation 75 determines the pressure at any
𝒄𝒄𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = (69) given radius, r within the reservoir under semi-
𝟐𝟐
steady state condition. However, average
Substituting Eq.16 to Eq.15 gives
pressure is also an important data to be
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
=
𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
� − 𝒓𝒓� (70) determined for forecasting and future plans.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
Multiplying both sides by dr

Volume Average Reservoir Pressure
𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = � − 𝒓𝒓� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 To express the inflow equation in terms
of average pressure, it is necessary to derive an
Integrating across the reservoir volume,
expression for pave as:
𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
∫𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = ∫ � 𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 (71) ∫ 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒓𝒓
∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = = 𝒘𝒘
𝝅𝝅(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )𝒉𝒉
(76)
𝑽𝑽
𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = �𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(𝒓𝒓) − � evaluating from Simplifying the above equation
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
r w to r 𝒓𝒓
∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 −𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒘𝒘
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘
(77)
𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = �𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � − � (72)
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
Substituting Eq.75 to Eq.77,
Recalling Eq.65 and substitute it to Eq.72
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = �∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − �� 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = �𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � − �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 )
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 (78)
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
Distributing �𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 � will give Distributing and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,
𝒆𝒆 𝒘𝒘 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 )

𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 ∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 ��𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 � − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 �� −
𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒘𝒘 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 +
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒘𝒘 𝒘𝒘
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 ∫ 𝒓𝒓 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 � − 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 (79)
𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒘𝒘 𝒆𝒆
𝟏𝟏 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒓𝒓
− � ; 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 � = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝟏𝟏) =0
𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
For∫𝒓𝒓 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 : 𝒘𝒘
𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓 𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟏𝟏
Assuming that re>>rw, so =
𝟒𝟒𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝟒𝟒
𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓
As we can recall ∫𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 �� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 is equal to 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝒘𝒘 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒆𝒆 � − − �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − . See Equation 39
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 𝟑𝟑
Therefore, 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝒆𝒆 � − � (83)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
𝒘𝒘 𝟒𝟒
𝒓𝒓
𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓
∫𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 �𝒓𝒓 � − ∫𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟐𝟐
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � −
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
Equation 83 shows the formula for average
𝒘𝒘 𝒆𝒆
𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟒𝟒 pressure for semi-steady state condition.
− 𝟖𝟖𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 (80)
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆
And the difference between the average
Plugging Eq.80 on last term of the right hand pressure, pave, and the external pressure, pe, is
side of Eq.79 and integrating the first term will small and is given by
give
𝟏𝟏 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒
𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒆−𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = (84)
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 +
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐
Well Productivity in a Bounded Drainage Area
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟒𝟒
� 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − − 𝟖𝟖𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 � (81)
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆 In semi-steady state which is usually
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 has a bounded drainage area, the productivity
Factoring on the last term of Eq.81;
𝟐𝟐 of a well is normally defined in terms of the
𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 average pressure, pave, since this quantity is
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 +
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐 observable from a well test. Thus, the
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − − 𝟐𝟐 �
𝟒𝟒𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟐𝟐
(82) productivity index, Jsssa, of the well is given by
𝒆𝒆
the equation:
Evaluating the limits of the above equation
𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝒒𝒒
from r = rw to r = re will result to 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = =
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝑩𝑩(𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘)
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝟐𝟐 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) With the equation above, we can now
= 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐
− 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐 express the well inflow equation for SSS in
+
𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
��𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � � − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � ��
terms of average pressure;
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
(𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐(𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 )
𝟏𝟏 (𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ) 𝒒𝒒 = 𝒓𝒓 𝟑𝟑 (85)
− − � 𝝁𝝁�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟒𝟒
𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
Also, the productivity index in terms
Simplifying the equation above by cancellation,
average pressure and well inflow equation:

𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒓𝒓 𝟑𝟑 (86) a given well may not be symmetrically located
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟒𝟒 in the drainage region and this has a
Expressing the above equation in field units to pronounced effect on SSS drawdown.
obtain Jsssa in bbl/day/psi However, non-circular, non-symmetric systems
do not indeed eventually reach SSS conditions
𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)
𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒓𝒓 𝟑𝟑 (87) although it may take much longer for the flow
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩�𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘 𝟒𝟒
to stabilize than in the case of a circular well
For true single-phase SSS flow, the system. Not unexpectedly the average flow
productivity index is constant, independent of paths are longer for unsymmetrically placed
flow-rate or drawdown as shown in Eq.86. wells and a greater drawdown is experienced
However, in practice the linearity between than in a symmetric system of the same overall
flow rate and drawdown is not preserved and area. The problem of areal flow convergence
the PI declines somewhat. The cause of this and bunching of the streamlines because the
decrease may be due to: well lies in the proximity of a no flow boundary
(real or virtual) and is evident on this kind of
- turbulence near the well-bore at
condition.
high flow rates
To generalize the inflow equation for
- decrease in the permeability to oil
this system, we introduce the so called Dietz
due to the presence of free gas
shape factor which is denoted by CA, which are
caused by the pressure falling
presented for a variety of different geometric
below the bubble point
configurations.
- increase in oil viscosity associated
Equation 83 can be written alternatively as
with liberation of gas or simply
reduced pressure 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝟑𝟑 �� (88)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐
- reduction in formation permeability
due to rock compressibility in which the natural log can alternatively be
expressed as:
It should be emphasized that the productivity
index is not really a useful concept for 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆
=
𝟒𝟒Ā
=
𝟒𝟒Ā
(89)
𝟑𝟑
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘
situations where the pressure falls below the 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘
bubble-point and two-phase flow occurs.

where Ā is the area being drained, 𝛾𝛾 is the
General Form of the Semi-Steady State Inflow exponential of Euler’s constant equal to 1.781
Equation and 31.6 is the Dietz shape factor, CA, for
circular geometry. Therefore, Eq.83 can be
The equation presented above for the
written with Dietz shape factor as:
productivity index of a semi-steady state
𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒Ā
condition in terms of average pressure is 𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = � 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � 𝟐𝟐 �� (90)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪 𝑨𝑨 𝜸𝜸𝒓𝒓𝒘𝒘
somewhat restrictive to a well on the center of
a circularly shaped drainage area. In particular,

Expressing the productivity index with the compaction and chemical scaling. Injection
Dietz shape factor: wells are also prone to plugging due to
impurities in the fluids injected, clay alteration
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = upon contact with the fluid injected and
𝟒𝟒Ā
𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝝁𝝁 �𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �� incompatibility and these conditions will result
𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨𝜸𝜸𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘
in reduction of permeability near the well
bore.
Illustrated below is the Dietz shape factor of
different geometrical configurations:
The illustration above clearly shows the effect

of reduced permeability near the wellbore. The
deviation from the ideal pressure profile starts
from the wellbore until the extent of the radius
rs, and this results in an incremental pressure
drop.
DIMENSIONLESS SKIN FACTOR
In order to quantify the effect of the near

NEAR WELLBORE ALTERED ZONE wellbore damage, the concept of skin factor is
introduced. Skin factor is a dimensionless
In most cases, the surrounding area near the
parameter which shows the deviation from
wellbore has an altered permeability. This
ideal radial flow. In an actual well with near
condition arises due to variety of reasons.
well bore damage, the equation for bottom
During drilling if the drilling fluids used is not
hole flowing pressure is:
compatible with the formation this may result
in a lower permeability near the wellbore. 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − ∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
During production the near-wellbore
∆Ps is skin pressure drop and it is a function of
permeability may be reduced due to fine sands
the well flowrate, viscosity and the average
moving towards the wellbore, formation
permeability and thickness of the formation.
Hurst and Everdingen were the proponents of ∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = �𝑘𝑘 − 1� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟
the skin factor as a quantitative measure of the 𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
damage to a well and it is expressed by the
following equation: The equation above is also known as the
Hawkins equation.
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑆 =
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
The skin factor is expressed as a positive
number for well with near well bore damage,
zero for wells without damage, and a negative
number for wells with an increased
permeability near the wellbore. Stimulation
operations such as acidizing and fracturing can
result in an increased permeability and thus a
negative skin factor.
The permeability and skin can be obtained by

performing a well test analysis and the
quantity rw is measured by using a caliper
survey. However, ks and rs cannot be
calculated using the equation above. In order
to deal with this scenario, the concept of
effective wellbore radius, rw,eff was introduced.
It equates that the pressure drop in an ideal
reservoir with different radius is equal to the
The skin pressure drop, ∆Ps, is the difference pressure drop in an actual reservoir with skin.
between the actual and the ideal pressure In a formation with a positive skin, the rw,eff
drop on the altered zone. This can be would be smaller than the actual radius and
expressed mathematically as: the other way around for wells with negative
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 skin.
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
Or 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = � − 1� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 Therefore S can be expressed as
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑒𝑒 −𝑆𝑆

Therefore the dimensionless skin factor, S, Or

𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 Semi-Steady-State Radial Flow

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
If the previous equation will be rewritten for
SSS this will give:
WELL PRODUCTIVITY WITH SKIN EFFECTS 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 3
𝑃𝑃� − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − + 𝑆𝑆�
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 4
The steady state homogenous radial flow
equation is: And the productivity index for SSS
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = =
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃� − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 3 + 𝑆𝑆�
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟 4
𝑤𝑤
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
This is the widely used equation for
The incremental pressure drop, ∆Ps:
productivity index. In field unit this becomes:
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑆𝑆 1.127𝑥𝑥10−3 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑟𝑟 3
The total drawdown is obtained by adding the 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 4 + 𝑆𝑆�
𝑤𝑤
two equations above:
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆� For a non-circular drainage area, the inflow
equation will take the form of:
Or
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 1 4𝐴𝐴̅
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = ln 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃� − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 2𝑆𝑆)
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 2 𝛾𝛾𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
This equation accounts for both homogenous Or
radial flow and near wellbore alteration. Pwf
stands for the bottom-hole flowing pressure 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
that has a skin effect. Therefore the steady 1 4𝐴𝐴̅
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆�
𝛾𝛾𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
state productivity index, PI, becomes:
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = =
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑆𝑆� The main factors that affects the productivity
𝑟𝑟 𝑤𝑤
index are permeability thickness product, kh,
The inflow equation based on mean pressure fluid viscosity, µ, and skin factor, S.
becomes
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 1
𝑃𝑃� − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − + 𝑆𝑆�
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2

investigated by Brons and Marting and can be

determined as a function of the ration hs/rw,
and the penetration ratio, b,
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑏𝑏 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
ℎ𝑝𝑝
=
ℎ
DEVIATION FROM TRUE RADIAL FLOW
In developing the equations for radial flow, it

was assumed that the well was completed and
perforated on its entire producing section.
However there are cases that the completion
was partially penetrating or the perforations
are limited on a certain portion only, this
would cause a deviation from radial flow and
the flow geometry would closely resemble a
After calculating the Brons and Marting
spherical shape as shown on the figure below.
parameters, b and hD, the Brons and Marting
Correlation should be used to determine the
extra skin due to partial penetration, SPP. See
Figure 25
Since the fluid has a restricted entry this would

result in an increase in the pressure near the
well bore and this can be treated as an Limitations of the Brons and Marting
additional skin factor. This extra skin has been Correlation

 Based on homogenous theory i.e. The altered zone in a partially penetrated well
uniform horizontal and vertical has an increased flow velocity compared to the
permeabilities flow velocity of a completely penetrated
formation by a factor of h/hw – the inverse of
 Uncertainty in the value of penetration
the penetration ratio, b.
ratio, b
 Lack of knowledge of the effective or

average (macroscopic vertical
permeability
 Does not allow for layering
COMBINED EFFECT OF PARTIAL COMPLETION

AND FORMATION DAMAGE
If the well was chosen to be partially

completed in an area with formation damage, Pressure drop for no altered zone i.e ka = k
it is necessary to express the total apparent
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
skin Sa, as the sum of the skin for partial 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �
penetration SPP, and the skin for formation
damage Sd. The incremental drop over the altered zone
equation is:
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 + 𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
Rearranging the equation above gives:

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ℎ 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = �� − 1� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ ℎ𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
Or
𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 − 1�
� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 = 𝑏𝑏
Therefore the total pressure drop is given by 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟
The quantity � − 1� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 is the true skin
𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠
the following equation 𝑤𝑤
factor characteristic of the altered zone
∆𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = ∆𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑 denoted Std
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 Thus:
∆𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = �𝑆𝑆 + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝 �
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑑𝑑

𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 = 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑏𝑏 1 4𝐴𝐴̅
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 �
𝛾𝛾𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤2
Note that the effect of formation damage is
enhanced by the limited entry due to increased FRACTURED WELLS
velocity through the altered region
A common method to increase the
Therefore the inflow equation including productivity index of a well is to perform
damage effect and geometric skin becomes: hydraulic fracturing. If the resulting fracture is
of reasonable length it can be considered as
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + � having infinite conductivity. If the fracture
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑏𝑏
dimension is small compared to the drainage
The total skin effect is written as: area of the well, then the inflow follows a
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 pseudo-radial model with a negative skin. The
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 skin term S in the productivity index equation
𝑏𝑏
will then be replaced with Spr which refers to
To reduce the skin effect brought by formation
pseudo radial conditions. Acidizing a formation
damage stimulation operations such as
results in the creation of “worm-holes” which
fracturing and acidizing needs to be done. In
increases the permeability of the area. In this
cases that the perforations become clogged as
case, either the radial composite model may
shown in the figure below, the penetration
be used or the effective wellbore concept can
ratio, b, will be much lower than originally
be used.
designed and therefore would result in a
higher skin factor. This scenario can only be
determined by performing a production
logging run on the well.
The concept of effective wellbore radius is

demonstrated on the figure above. In cases of
The productivity index equation of a well with damage i.e. positive skin, the additional
formation damage and limited entry should pressure drop can be accounted for by
take into account the apparent skin, i.e.: decreasing the radius an effective value, rw,eff.

The relationship between effective wellbore 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ

𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
radius and skin factor is: 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑟𝑟 3
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 − �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4
Thus
The equation for Pseudo-radial skin factor is:
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑒𝑒 −𝑆𝑆
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
Or 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 And the productivity equations will be written
as:
When the area near the well bore has a 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �
greater permeability than the formation, the 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
skin, S, is negative and rw,eff is larger than rw. =
𝑟𝑟 3
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 − + 𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �
Aside from its use on cases with negative skin, 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 4
the effective wellbore concept can also be The equations above demonstrates that the
applied in the case of an infinite conductivity concept of skin factor can be used for
vertical fracture. scenarios in which the flow in the vicinity of
the wellbore is no longer radial.
In this scenario the equation for effective

wellbore radius is:
𝑥𝑥𝑓𝑓
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
2
The productivity index equation or wells with
vertical fracture becomes:
Name: _______________________________________ Date:_______________
Section: ______________ SR Code: ____________ Rating: _______________
Problem Set No. 1

1. A well has been perforated over a 100 ft interval located in the middle of a 300 ft thick
formation. Analysis of a pressure build up test indicated that the total skin effect was 20.
Determine the potential increase in productivity index if a further 100 ft of formation is
perforated yielding a completed interval of 200ft, again located centrally.
Reservoir Data
Average kh = 180 md
Effective kv = 5 md
rw = 0.25 ft
re = 1000 ft
μ = 1.0 cp
Bo = 1.2 bbl/STB
Assume the reservoir is undersaturated with no nearby gas or water contacts.

2. The reservoir development of a particular isolated fault block, roughly square in shape, is based on
four producing wells as shown below. The first three wells are each located approximately at the
centre of a quarter sub-square of the block which has a total surface area of 10x106 ft2. The fourth
well, when drilled, was found to be situated near the intersection of two of the bounding faults as
shown below. Pressure testing indicated that the well was about 400 ft from the sealing fault planes.
If this well’s production is significantly affected by the proximity of the boundaries, it can be
sidetracked to a new location 800 ft from the fault planes. Estimate the incremental oil production
resulting from the sidetrack operation from a drawdown of 600 psi. The production mechanism is
semi-steady-state primary depletion and the damage skin factor may be assumed to be 1.5. The
reservoir is undersaturated and there is negligible natural water drive.
Reservoir Data:
h = 160 ft
μ = 0.9 cp
k = 700 md
Bo = 1.22 bbl/STB
rw = 0.3 ft

3. A well was completed over the upper 150 ft of a 250 ft thick sand and a well test indicated a very
high total apparent skin of 34. A production log was also run and this showed that, in fact, only top
50 ft of perforations were producing. Estimate the well total skin factor following underbalanced
(clean) reperforation assuming the same perforation characteristics (shots per foot, perforation
length, etc.). The effective permeability anisotropy (kh/ kv) can be taken as 10 and the well bore
radius rw is 0.33ft

4. A formation thickness 300 ft is to be completed with a limited height fracture (for sand control) at
the bottom of the zone. The fracture half-length, xf, will be 60 ft and the fracture height, hf will be 100
ft. Estimate the productivity of the well given the following reservoir properties:
Horizontal permeability, kh = 180 mD

Vertical permeability, kv = 3 mD
Oil viscosity, μ = 0.7 cp
Oil Formation volume factor, Bo = 1.22 bbl/STB
External radius, re = 1000 ft

5. A well is to be stimulated with a limited height fracture. The fracture height, hf is approximately
equal to twice the fracture wing length, Xf, and in the intended design, the fracture height is roughly
half the formation height and is positioned at the top of formation. Use the concept of the effective
wellbore radius of an infinite conductivity fracture in conjunction with the Brons and Marting theory
of limited entry to determine the well productivity index (J). Calculate J of the unfractured well and
that of a well with a fracture of full height (hf = h) with xf remaining the same as the limited height
fracture.
Reservoir data
h = 100 ft
k = 1 mD
μ = 2 cp
kz = 0.05 mD
Bo = 1.2
rw = 0.354 ft

6. A formation has been severely damaged during drilling with the well exhibiting a skin factor, S of 70.
The virgin formation permeability k, from the well testis 70 mD and the formation thickness is 150 ft.
the wireline logs indicate a depth of filtrate invasion of 6ft and it is just presumed that the damage is
uniform over the invaded annulus. An acid stimulation job is being designed which will remove
formation damage to a radial depth of 3ft from the wellbore, i.e., the acid dissolves interstitial clay,
polymer and mud solids and returns the permeability to unaltered value. Calculate the well skin factor
after stimulation and the volume of the acid required for the treatment if the porosity is 0.2, residual
oil saturation is 0.3 and the well radius, rw = 0.354 ft.

7. A particular formation has been shown to be amenable to acid treatment which can increase the rock
permeability from the intrinsic value of 5 mD to an improved value of 17 mD due to its effect on interstitial clay.
In a formation of 80 ft thickness and 20% porosity, estimate how much the well (steady-state) productivity
index (based on pe) will be increased if 1000 bbl of acid are injected into the formation, assuming piston
displacement of connate water, negligible rw for acid volume calculation and oil to a residual saturation of 0.35
and negligible wellbore radius compared to invaded zone radius.
Additional reservoir data:

Swc = 0.25
B0 = 1.2
μ = 0.8 cp
re = 5000 ft
rw = 0.3 ft

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W

FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

• To estimate skin factor or drilling and

**Note: The difference between Viscosity, µ Cp Cp Pa-s

body of properties at every place, but (for reservoir condition, q is in bbl/day)

where Bo is oil formation volume factor in

One of the few ways on how we can obtain

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

that can be utilized to make analytical

One of the aims of this course is to present the

1. Types of Fluids in the Reservoir

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

Pseudo-steady State Flow / No Flow

Also known as semi-steady state flow

various configurations of drainage areas

For an oil well drilled at 40-acre spacing,

Unsteady State Flow

Also known as transient flow. This type of

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

purposes, the actual flow geometry maybe Fluid Flow Equation

p1 = 2000 psi p2 = 1990 psi

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

Calculate Where qref is the flow rate at some

a. Flow rate, q Where:

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �1 + 𝑐𝑐(𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑝𝑝)� Example 2.

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 168 + 325𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 − 12.5𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔2

It is essential to notice that those gas 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 677 + 15𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 − 37.5𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔2

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

𝑇𝑇 600 -Unsteady-state flow in heterogeneous

Using Standing-Katz Chart gives;  Multi (three) phases

𝑍𝑍 = 0.78  Multi (three) forces

• Flow capacity (k*h = permeability*net

These data obtained from well test must be

Radial Flow System

In a radial flow system, all fluids move Diffusivity Equation Derivation

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

8. The fluid flow is single phase and fluid

The Governing Equations for Diffusivity

1. Mass Continuity Equation

Here, the diffusivity equation was obtained by Differentiating V with respect to r,

Mass accumulation = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt]

And then placing Eqs.1,2 and 5 as an input to

Δt(2πh(r+dr))(vρ)r+dr - Δt(2πrh)(vρ)r = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

Dividing both sides by 2πrhdr giving

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

Radial Incompressible Flow 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆

pe = external pressure, psi 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝝁𝝁𝑩𝑩𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓

μ = oil viscosity, cP 𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗.0329 psi

Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB ∆𝒑𝒑𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

h = thickness, ft ∆𝒑𝒑𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑

re = external or drainage radius, ft

The external (drainage) radius re is

where A is the well spacing in acres.

Bo = 1.25 bbl/ STB μo = 2.5 cP

Calculate the pressure and pressure drop at r =

Department of Petroleum Engineering Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro

The dimensionless pressure is of much used in

𝒑𝒑𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 ) (29)

• Flow capacity (kh = permeabilitynet