The Root Test

Consider again the series σ∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 with positive terms. According to the Root Test:
• If lim 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 < 1, then the series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is convergent;
𝑛→∞
• If lim 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 > 1, then the series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is divergent;
𝑛→∞
• If lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 1, then the series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 , may converge or diverge, but no conclusion can be drawn from this
𝑛→∞
test.
𝑛 𝑛
Example : Investigate whether the series σ∞
𝑛=1 23𝑛−1 converges or diverges.
We use the root test.
1
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2𝑛
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = lim = lim = lim =∞>1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 23𝑛−1 𝑛→∞ 3− 1 𝑛→∞ 3 − 1 𝑛→∞ 23
2 𝑛 2 2 𝑛
We see that the given series is divergent.
 ∞ 1 1 𝑛
Example : Determine whether the series σ𝑛=1 + converges or diverges.
3 𝑛
Using the root test, we calculate the following limit:
𝑛
𝑛
𝑛 1 1 1 1 1
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim + = lim + = < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛 3
Hence, the given series converges.
1 1 1
Example : Investigate whether the series + + + ⋯ converges or diverges.
ln2 2 ln3 3 ln4 4
We use the root test.
𝑛
𝑛 1 1
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑛
= lim =0<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ ln𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛𝑛

Hence, the given series converges.

 Alternating Series
Definition: A series in which successive terms have opposite signs is called an alternating series.

෍ −1 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑛=1
The Alternating Series Test (Leibniz’s Theorem)
This test is the sufficient convergence test. It’s also known as the Leibniz’s Theorem for alternating series.
Let {𝑎𝑛 } be a sequence of positive numbers such that
1. 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛;
2. lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→∞
Then the alternating series σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 −1 𝑎𝑛 converges.
 2
σ∞ 𝑛 sin 𝑛
Example: Use the alternating series test to determine the convergence of the series 𝑛=1 −1 .
𝑛
sin2 𝑛
Here 𝑎𝑛 = . By the alternating series test we find that
𝑛

sin2 𝑛
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = 0, (−1 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 ≤ 1 ⟹ 0 ≤ sin2 𝑛 ≤ 1)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Thus second condition is satisfied. Let us check the first condition:

sin2 𝑛 sin2(𝑛+1)
𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = . Since 0 ≤ sin2 𝑛 ≤ 1 and 𝑛 + 1 > 𝑛,
𝑛 𝑛+1

sin2 (𝑛 + 1) sin2 𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1 = < = 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛+1 𝑛
First condition also satisfied.
Hence, the given series converges.
 2
σ∞ 𝑛𝑛
Example: Use the alternating series test to determine the convergence of the series 𝑛=1 −1 .
𝑛!
𝑛2
Here 𝑎𝑛 = . By the alternating series test we find that
𝑛!

𝑛2
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = 0,
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛!
Thus, second condition is satisfied. Let us check the first condition:
𝑛2 𝑛+1 2
𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = .
𝑛! (𝑛+1)!

𝑛+1 2
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛+1 2
= = < 1.
𝑎𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 + 1 𝑛2
𝑛!
Thus, 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 and first condition also satisfied.
Hence, the given series converges.
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
Definition: A series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is absolutely convergent, if the series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is convergent.
Remark: If the series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is absolutely convergent then it is (just) convergent. The converse of this statement
is false.
Definition A series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is called conditionally convergent, if the series is convergent but is not absolutely
convergent.

∞ −1 𝑛+1
Example : Determine whether σ𝑛=1 is absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent.
𝑛!
−1 𝑛+1 1
Let us investigate the convergence of the series σ∞
𝑛=1 = σ∞
𝑛=1 . Applying the ratio test to the series with
𝑛! 𝑛!
the corresponding nonnegative terms, we have
1
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 1
lim = lim = lim =0<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
𝑛!
Hence, the series is absolutely convergent.
 ∞ −1 𝑛+1 𝑛
Example : Determine whether the alternating series σ𝑛=2 is absolutely convergent, conditionally
𝑙𝑛𝑛
convergent, or divergent.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = . Calculate the limit lim
by L’Hopital’s rule:
𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛𝑛
1
𝑛 2 𝑛 𝑛
lim = lim = lim = ∞.
𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 2
𝑛
The nth term of the series does not approach to the zero. Thus, the given series is divergent from the alternating
series test.
2 22 23 24
Example : Determine the nth term and test for convergence the series − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7! 9!
−1 𝑛+1 2𝑛 −1 𝑛+1 2𝑛
The 𝑛 th term of the series is 𝑎𝑛 = . Apply the ratio test to the series σ∞
𝑛=1 =
2𝑛+1 ! 2𝑛+1 !
∞ 2𝑛
σ𝑛=1 with nonnegative terms:
2𝑛+1 !
2𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛+1 2𝑛 + 3 ! 2
lim = lim = lim =0<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 3 2𝑛 + 1
2𝑛 + 1 !
Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent.
 ∞ −1 𝑛+1
Example : Investigate whether the series σ𝑛=1 is absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or
5𝑛−1
divergent.
Using the alternating series test, we see that the series is convergent:
1 1
1. 𝑎𝑛+1 = 5𝑛+4 < 5𝑛−1 = 𝑎𝑛
1
2. lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = 0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 5𝑛−1
−1 𝑛+1 1
Now consider convergence of the series σ∞ =σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 5𝑛−1 with nonnegative terms. By the integral test,
5𝑛−1
we have
∞ 𝑛
𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 1
න = lim න = lim ln 5𝑥 − 1 = lim [ln(5𝑛 − 1) − ln4] = ∞.
5𝑥 − 1 𝑛→∞ 5𝑥 − 1 𝑛→∞ 5 1 𝑛→∞ 5
1 1
1
The series σ∞
𝑛=1 5𝑛−1 is divergent.
∞ −1 𝑛+1
Hence, the series σ𝑛=1 is conditionally convergent.
5𝑛−1
 Power Series

Definition: A series, terms of which are power functions of variable 𝑥, is called the power series:
∞

෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛=1

A series in (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) is also often considered. This power series is written as

෍ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2
+ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑛
+ ⋯,
𝑛=1
where 𝑥0 is a real number.
The Interval and Radius of Convergence
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) . The domain of this function is the set of those values of 𝑥 for
which the series is convergent. The domain of such function is called the interval of convergence.
If the interval is (𝑥0 − 𝑅, 𝑥0 + 𝑅) for some 𝑅 > 0, (together with one or both of the endpoints), the 𝑅 is called
the radius of convergence. Convergence of the series at the endpoints is determined separately.

Using the root test, the radius of convergence is given by the formula
1
𝑅 = lim 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

but a fast way to compute it is based on the ratio test:

𝑎𝑛
𝑅 = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1
 ∞ 𝑥+3 𝑛
Example : Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the power series σ𝑛=0 .
𝑛!
𝑢 𝑛
We make the substitution: 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 3. The series becomes σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! . Calculate the radius of convergence:

1
𝑎𝑛 𝑛!
𝑅 = lim = lim = lim 𝑛 + 1 = ∞.
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞
𝑛+1 !
Then the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).
Example : Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the power series σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛𝑥 .
Calculate the radius of convergence:
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
𝑅 = lim = lim =1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
Consider convergence at the endpoints.
• If 𝑥 = −1, we have the divergent series σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛(−1) .
• If 𝑥 = 1, the series σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛 is also divergent.
Therefore, the initial series σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛𝑥 converges in the open interval (−1,1).
Example : Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
+ + + ⋯+ +⋯
1 2 3 𝑛
1 1
Here 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = . Calculate the radius of convergence:
𝑛 𝑛+1

𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑅 = lim = lim =1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

(−1) 𝑛
• When 𝑥 = −1, we have the convergent series σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 . (Leinbiz Series)
1
• When 𝑥 = 1, we obtain the divergent harmonic series σ∞
𝑛=1 . 𝑛

Thus, the initial series converges in the half-open interval [−1,1).

 −1 𝑛 𝑥−2 𝑛
Example : Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the power series σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛2
.
∞ −1 𝑛 𝑢𝑛
We make the substitution: 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2. The series then becomes σ𝑛=0 . Calculate the radius of convergence:
𝑛 𝑛2
−1 2
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛+1
𝑅 = lim = lim = lim = 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ −1 𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2
(𝑛 + 1)2
Investigate convergence at the endpoints of the interval. −1 < 𝑢 < 1
• If 𝑢 = −1, then the series ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑛 𝑛 2𝑛
−1 (−1) −1 1
෍ =෍ =෍ 2
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
converges as a p-series with 𝑝 = 2 > 1.
• If 𝑢 = 1, we get the alternating series ∞ ∞
−1 𝑛 (1)𝑛 −1 𝑛
෍ =෍
𝑛2 𝑛2
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
that converges by Leibniz’s theorem.
∞ −1 𝑛 𝑢𝑛
Thus, the interval of convergence of the series σ𝑛=0 is [−1,1]. Since 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2, the initial series
𝑛2
converges for
−1 ≤ 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 1 𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
Answer: the given series converges in the interval [1,3].