Part B

Applications
Batteries

called a charge whereas the output from a battery is

What is covered in this chapter called a discharge.
→battery types
lead-acid high-maintenance type Primary and secondary batteries
→lead-acid low maintenance type Many years ago it was discovered that when two
lead-acid maintenance-free type dissim-ilar metals were placed close together and
charging and maintenance of lead-acid batteries immersed in an acid solution, an e.m.f. was produced.
nickel-alkaline batteries (Today this effect can be demonstrated by placing two
small batteries coins made of different metals in a lemon. If a
millivoltmeter is connected across the two coins the
meter will register
8.1 Battery types
A battery is required to supply electrical energy to meet
the electrical load requirements when the engine is not
running. It must 'store' electrical energy and then
deliver this energy when it is needed at a later time.
A battery fitted to a vehicle fulfils its storage role by
an electrochemical process: the energy delivered by an
electrical current produces a chemical change in the
battery discharges. Current supplied to a battery is
 After a short time the surface condition of the plates of a
simple battery causes the p.d. to reduce to a low value and in
this state the battery is classed as discharged.Recharging has
no effect on this type of battery so it is discarded. A battery
which cannot be 'reversed'is called a primary battery: a
standard torch battery is an example of a primary battery.
When a battery enables the chemical process to be
reversed after discharge, i.e. it can be charged and
discharged, it is called a secondary battery or accumulator.this
type is used on motor vehicles.

Types of secondary battery

Secondary batteries are classified by the materials used
to form the plates and the electrolyte into which the
plates are immersed. There are two main types used on
motor vehicles:

(1) lead-acid
(2) nickel-alkaline.

Lead-acid This type is used on the majority of vehi-cles

because it is relatively cheap and performs well over a
long period of time. Unfortunately all batteries are
heavy, so until some new construction is discovered it is
expected that the lead-acid will remain in common use.
For many yearsthe basic construction of a lead-acid
a p.d. In this case the acid juice conducts the electrical charges
type has remained unchanged, but alterations have
called ions from one plate to the other.) A liquid solution
which conducts an electrical charge is called an electrolyte. been
introduced to minimize the periodic maintenance needed to
keep the battery in good condition. The original basic type is
called a conventional battery;later designs are named low-
maintenance and maintenance-free.The name given to each
voltage (Figure 8.1). Three cells are used in a 6 V battery and six
type indicates the work needed to service the battery.
cells for the common 12 V unit. Normally the connecting bars are
internal.
Nickel-alkaline As the name suggests this type is a non-acid A moulded cover seals the cells and a removable plug allows
battery which uses nickel as a plate material. It is more the cells to be topped-up with distilled water and also exposes
expensive and larger in size than a lead-acid type,but it is more theelectrolyte for testing purposes. A small vent hole in the plug
able to withstand heavy discharge currents without damage. allows for the escape of gas.
Batteries of this type have a very long life so they are used in
situations where reliability over a long period of time is a prime Electrolyte Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) forms the electrolyte in
consideration. which the plates are immersed.

8.2 Lead-acid 'high maintenance'type Cell action and construction

The lead-acid battery is the most popular type used on motor When a battery is fully charged and ready for use the positive plates
vehicles. It is capable of supplying the large current of several comprise lead peroxide (PbO2) and the negative plates are spongy
hundred amps demanded by a starter motor, has a life of four lead (Pb).
years or more and is relatively inexpensive. In the past it suffered As the battery discharges through an external circuit,the
the disadvantages of size, weight and the need for periodic sulphuric acid reacts with the plates and this changes both plate
attention, but today these drawbacks have been minimized. materials to lead sulphate (PbSO4). The loss of sulphate from the
The battery consists of a container which houses a number electrolyte to the plates during the discharge process decreases the
of cells of 2V nominal voltage that are connected in series by density of the elec-trolyte (i.e. reduces the specific gravity), so this
lead bars to give the required feature enables the state of charge to be assessed by using a
hydrometer.
To charge a battery requires a d.c. supply at a poten-tial
sufficient to force an adequate current through the battery in a
direction opposite to the direction of the discharge current. To
achieve this, the positive terminal
ig. 8.1 Lead-acid battery;12V
 Batteries 119

of the battery charger must be connected to the battery positive

terminal.
During the charging period the plate materials will return to
their original forms and the electrolyte density will increase. When
the process is complete,i.e.when the battery is fully charged, the
continuance of the charge current will lead to excessive gassing of
the cell.The gas consists of hydrogen and oxygen,a highly explosive
mixture, so a naked flame or electric spark must not be produced in
the vicinity of a battery at any time.
A cut-away view is shown in Figure 8.1. This basic construction is
still used on many vehicles.

SAFE PRACTICE
A lead-acid battery:
when fully charged gives off hydrogen and oxygen which is highly
explosive
is filled with sulphuric acid - a highly corrosive substance which must
NEVER come into contact with any part of a human body
· has plates made of lead- a toxic material which must not be
handled

Plates and separators The cell is made up of two sets of lead plates,
positive and negative,which are placed alternately and separated by
an insulating, porous material such as porous polythene or glass
fibre. Each plate consists of a lattice-type grid of lead-antimony alloy
into which is pressed the active material. This is a lead oxide paste
Fig.8.2 Charge and discharge action
electrically formed into lead peroxide (positive and chocolate brown
in colour) and spongy lead (negative and grey in colour).
The surface area of the plates governs the maximum discharge
current that can be supplied for a given time,so in order to give
maximum output, each cel1 contains a number of thin plates, each
set connected in parallel.Connections within a cell in this manner do
not affect the cell voltage.

Container The case is made of translucent polypropy-lene or of a

black hard rubber composition. Recesses are formed in the bottom
of each cell to collect active material that falls from the plates. This
space prevents the material from bridging and short circuiting the
plates.
time(hours)
The charge and discharge process is shown diagram-matically in
Figure 8.2. Fig. 8.3 Battery voltage

Voltage variation Figure 8.3 shows that when a battery is taken off
charge, the teminal p.d. is about 2.4 V per cell. This quickly drops to
about 2.1 V as the concen-trated acid in the pores of the plates
diffuses out into the electrolyte.
 Batteries 119 Batteries 119

During discharge at a low rate the cell voltage remains at about Towards the end of this period, the p.d. falls more rapidly until a
2.0 V for the major part of the dis-charge period. voltage of 1.8 V is reached, which is the
120 Applications
fully discharged condition. This limit should not be exceeded because
excessive sulphation causes the growth of large lead sulphate crystals
and a battery in this condition is difficult to reconvert when recharging
is carried out.
The readings shown in Figure 8.3 represent poten-tial difference
(p.d.), so to active these results the battery,or charger, must be
supplying a normal discharge,or charge current at the time the
voltmeter readings are taken.
Terminal p.d. during the charging process rises towards the
end of the period from about 2.1 V to over 2.4 V when the cell
is fully charged, but the p.d.soon falls to about 2.1 V when the
charge current is stopped.
The rise in p.d. whenthe battery approaches its fully charged state
is used to signal the battery condition to the vehicle's charging system.
Setting the regulator to limit the maximum generator output p.d. to
14.2 V for six cells ensures that the battery cannot be
overcharged.When the cell voltage reaches about 2.4 V (i.e. 14%/) the
p.d. of the generator will equal the p.d. of the battery (14.2-14.6 V), so
no current will pass to the battery.

Electrolyte density Electrolyte resistance and, in con-sequence, Fig. 8.5 Hydrometer

internal resistance, rises outside the relative density limits 1.100-
These values represent the 'strength' of the electrolyte.This is
1.300,so these values represent the range in which a battery should
measured by comparing the mass of a given volume of electrolyte with
operate. Furthermore,a density higher than 1.300 would cause the
the mass of an equal volume of pure water. The ratio obtained is
plates to be attacked by the acid.
termed specific gravity (sp. gr.) and is measured by an instrument
Figure 8.4 shows the electrolyte density as the battery state-of-
called a hydrometer (Figure 8.5).
charge changes. Values vary slightly for different makes of battery, but
The reading shown in the diagram is 1.250 and this indicates that
the following table gives a set of typical values:
the electrolyte is 1/4 times as heavy as pure water.For simplicity, the
Fully charged: 1.280
decimal point is often omitted in speech; in this example the specific
Half charged: 1.200
gravity is stated as 'twelve fifty'.
Fully discharged: 1.150 The electrolyte expands when the electrolyte tem-perature is
increased, so this must be taken into account if accuracy is required. A
temperature of 15℃ (60°℉)is the standard temperature, so to obtain
a true value a correction factor of 0.002 is deducted from the
hydrometer reading for every 2C fall below 15°C and 0.002 is added for
every 3°℃ rise above 15°℃.

Freezing of electrolyte The freezing point of the elec-trolyte depends

on the state of charge, i.e. it depends on the electrolyte density. When
the density decreases,the acid strength falls, so the freezing point rises
as the electrolyte composition moves towards a pure water state. In
consequence, the electrolyte of a discharged battery will freeze at a
higher temperature than a fully charged battery.
state of charge
Capacity The capacity of a battery is expressed in ampere-hours
Fig. 8.4 Graph shows variation in density of electrolyte
(Ah). This represents the current that a
 A typical value for the reserve capacity of a 40 Ah battery is 45 minutes.

Internal resistance If the voltage could be measured at the source of the

energy, i.e. at the plate surface, the voltage obtained would be the
time(hours) electromotive force.This would be the same as the open circuit voltage
measured at the terminals. When current flows from a battery,the resistance of
Fig. 8.6 Battery discharge curves
the parts within the battery causes the terminal voltage to fall. In view of this,
the p.d. of a battery is less than the e.m.f.

battery will deliver for a given time; it is generallybased on a time of

10 hours or in some cases 20 hours;e.g.a battery capacity of 38 Ah,
based on a 10-hour rate,should supply a steady current of 3.8 A for
10 hours, at a temperature of 25°C, before the cell voltage becomes
1.8 V(the voltage of a discharged cell).
When the capacity is based on the 20-hour rate, its stated
capacity is about 10-20% higher than the capacity given by the 10-
hour rate. This increase in capacity is achieved because a
lowerdischarge current is used for the 20-hour rate. The effect of the
rate of discharge on the battery voltage is shown in Figure 8.6. This
graph shows that the battery capacity reduces considerably as the
current is increased.
Under engine-starting conditions, the current used is several
hundred amperes so the time that a 38 Ah battery can supply this
high current may be consider-ably less than the calculated time.
Capacity of a battery is governed by the weight of active material
in the plates so batteries having many plates of large size have a large
capacity. A small-capacity battery may have only five plates (three
negative,two positive) per cell, whereas large units may have more
than thirty plates per cell.
Capacity reduces as the temperature decreases, so this is an Fig. 8.7 Method for finding internal resis-tance
important factor to consider when choosing a battery for low
temperatures operation. The internal resistance can be found by the method shown in
Figure 8.7. A voltmeter of high resistance is connected across the
Reserve capacity Nowadays the ampere-hour capacity rating battery and an ammeter is used to measure the current, I, that flows
has limited appeal; the reserve capacity rating has taken its through the external resistor R. The internal resistance 'r is found by
place. This rating indicates the time in minutes that a battery using Ohm's law. V is the open circuit voltage of the battery.
will deliver a current of 25 A at 25℃before the cell voltage
drops to 1.75 V.
The standard current of 25 A represents the average discharge on In this case there are effectively two resistors in series,SO:
a vehicle if the charging system should fail.The reserve capacity
indicates the time that a battery will keep the vehicle in operation
assuming the elec-trical load is normal, and the battery is fully
charged at the start.

So internal resistance
 122 Applications

The lead-acid battery has a low internal resistance so the

comparatively high terminal p.d. makes it attractive for vehicle
use. Nevertheless the internal resistance causes the battery to
become warm and the potential to drop from say 12.6 V when
together in this way the nominal p.d. across both batteries (at x
a high discharge current has to be supplied, e.g.a current of
and y) is increased to 24 V but the capacity remains the same
200 A causes a voltage drop of 1 volt:
at 40 Ah.

Parallel Connecting the batteries in parallel (Figure 8.9)

reinforced the p.d. of 12 V, so the terminal voltage at x and y
therefore will be similar to that given by one battery.This arrangement
but however doubles the plate area avail-able so the capacity
therefore available is increased to 80 Ah.The aim behind this battery
arrangement is to increase the capacity of the system. No
matter how many batteries are connected in parallel, the
voltage remains the same.

i.e. the internal resistance for a typical battery is 0.005 Ω.Any

increase in the resistance proportionally increases the voltage
drop.
Internal resistance is the sum of various resistances;these
include the following:
Plates -an increase in plate area decreases the resis-tance.
When a battery is old, a decrease in the effec-tive plate area
increases the resistance.
Internal connections - these are large in section to improve
the current flow.
Electrolyte - the resistance increases when the
12V40Ah
temperature is decreased and also when the acid
strength is reduced, i.e. when the battery becomes
discharged.
Fig. 8.9 Batteries in parallel
Connecting batteries in series and parallel Occasions arise
when two or more batteries are connected together to give a
series of parallel arrangement.

Series Figure 8.8 shows two 12 V batteries A and B connected

in series with the negative terminal of A joined to the positive
terminal of battery B. Joined

REMEMBER
Lead-acid 'high maintenance' type:
in a charged state has a lead-peroxide (Pb)2) posi-tive
plate and a spongy lead (Pb) negative plate
in a discharged state the plates are lead-sulphate (PbSO4)
has an electrolyte of diluted sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and a
Fig. 8.8 Batteries in series relative density range of 1.150(fullydischarged) to
1.280(fully charged)
cell p.d. rises to about 2.4 V at the end of the
charging period
has a capacity expressed in ampere-hours (Ah) or given as

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

 122 Applications

a reserve capacity

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

 122 Applications

8.3 Lead-acid low-maintenance type 8.4 Lead-acid maintenance-free type

Improved materials and new constructional techniques have This type differs in several respects from a conventional battery:
reduced or eliminated the need for a battery to be recharged or the most significant feature is that the battery is sealed (except
topped-up periodically with distilled water to replace losses due for a very small vent hole) and requires no service attention
to gassing. New-style batteries which do not need this other than to be kept clean.
maintenance task are attractive to the vehicle owner for Figure 8.11 shows a Delco-Remy Freedom battery which
obvious reasons. first appeared in America in 1971. It is claimed that in addition
Use of these batteries has been made possible by the to being maintenance-free,this battery offers better cold
improved control of the charging rate, especially the voltage weather starting power and improved resistance to heat and
output, given by an alternator system as compared with a vibration damage.
dynamo system. The Freedom battery manufacturer has eliminated
Gassing has been reduced by changing the grid antimony from the plate grids and this has reduced over-
material from lead-antimony alloy to an alloy of lead- charge, water usage, thermal runaway and self-discharge
problems. Thermal runaway is a condition which occurs in a
calcium.
battery when the battery operating temperature is high or
As the name suggests the low maintenance type (shown in
when faulty regulation of the charging system is combined with
Figure 8.10) requires less maintenance than the previous type.
a rising electrolyte temperature.Overcharge is the major cause
Under normal temperature operation and suitable charger
of gassing in a conven-tional battery. A Frecdom battery uses
conditions, the electrolyte level needs to be checked only once
lead calcium (Pb-Ca)for the grid material so with the assistance
per year, or at vehicle service intervals.
of the inherently higher e.m.f. given by this construction,as it
Other than grid material, the construction of a low-
approaches full-charge, it is possible to reduce water
maintenance type is similar to a conventional battery. The grid
consumption during overcharge conditions. There is
alloy contains a low proportion of antimony.

polypropylene container

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

 124 Applications

Fig. 8.11 Maintenance-free battery (Delco-Remy Freedom)

still some gassing, so a gas reservoir is formed in the container

to collect any acid spray and return it to the main electrolyte
mass.
This make of battery incorporates a built-in, temper-ature-
REMEMBER
compensated hydrometer to indicate the relative density and Maintenance-free batteries:
level of the electrolyte. The indicator displays various colours
use lead-calcium(PbCa) for the grid material to reduce gassing
to show the states of charge.A green-coloured ball shows that
should not be fast-charged
the battery is charged and serviceable, whereas a green/black
must be removed from the vehicle for recharging when a fault
or black signal indicates that recharging is necessary. When a
has caused the battery to become fully discharged
light-yellow signal appears it indicates an internal fault and
when internal fault indicated by a yellow signal must not be
when this is evident the battery must not be charged or
charged, tested or used with jump leads to start the engine
tested. Also when the battery is in this state the engine must
not be started with jump-leads.Instead the vehicle should be
124 Applications
fitted with a new battery and the alternator should be checked
for correct operation.
If the battery is discharged to a point where it cannot VRLA batteries
crank the engine,and in consequence the engine has to be A more recent innovation is the valve regulated lead-acid
started by other means, then it will be impossible for the (VRLA) battery. This maintenance-free battery uses the
alternator to recharge the battery. When it is in this con-dition recombination principle to reduce the formation of oxygen and
the battery must be removed and bench-charged,because the hydrogen when the battery is being charged. The essential
voltage needed to restore it is higher than the output given by design differences between this battery and the conventional
the charging system of the vehicle. maintenance-free battery are the following.
Other design improvements include strengthened grid Each plate is wrapped with a glass microfibre sepa-rator
supports, sealed terminal connections and stronger retention that absorbs, in its pores, all the liquid electrolyte.There is no
supports. These features together with a better efficiency free acid in the cell as in conventional batteries. The plate
make this battery smaller and lighter in weight than older type groups are under compression in the cells. There is a slight
batteries. excess of negative capacity.

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

 124 Applications

Fig. 8.10 Low-maintenance battery

The battery is totally sealed, other than a small pressure relief valve
set to open if the battery is abused.
The combination of those features - microfibre separator, no
free electrolyte, plate group compression,excess negative
capacity,and elevated pressure - allow electrolytic water loss to be
suppressed by the following mechanism: as the battery approaches
its fully charged state, the oxygen liberated at the positive plate
passes through the separator to the negative plate. In the pres-ence
of sulphuric acid the oxygen reacts with the lead of the negative
plate to form lead sulphate.

As a result of this action the negative plate never reaches the

potential for hydrogen to be released so no water is lost. Since no
free oxygen or hydrogen are produced,it is possible to totally seal the
battery.
Because the VRLA battery contains less acid than the
conventional battery, it is smaller in volume and lighter in weight.
Because is has lower resistance sepa-rators it can deliver a higher
cold cranking current.Because there are no dangerous emissions Fig.8.12 Bench charging
from the bat-tery the vehicle designer has more freedom in deciding
where to locate the battery on the vehicle.
These features make the VRLA battery attractive to both user Since the charger is operated from a 230 V a.c. mains supply, the
and the original equipment manufacturer. charger must incorporate a transformer to step-down the voltage to
suit the battery, and a rectifier to convert a.c. to d.c. By arranging to
8.5 Charging and maintenance of lead-acid connect the diodes or metal plates in the rectifier in a particular way,
it is possible to obtain full-wave rectification (see page 23).In Figure
batteries 8.13 the transformer only has one voltage output, but when
Battery charging additional tappigs of the transformer secondary coil are provided,
Charging of a battery on a vehicle is performed by a generator. This other outputs can be obtained (Figure 8.14). Although the
provides a d.c. current at a voltage suffi-cient to overcome both the transformer output
back-e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the battery.
External battery chargers are used when it is incon-venient to
use the vehicle generator. External chargers may be divided into the
following categories.

Bench charger Fitted in a well-ventilated, divided-off section of the

workshop, this type is generally fixed to the wall above a charging
bench. Batteries are connected to the charger either individually or
in a balanced series-parallel arrangement. In Figure 8.12 it is seen
that the '+' terminals of the batteries are connected to the
charger'+'. By setting the output at a nominal 24 V,the total output
current from the charger takes three paths; the current flow through
any branch of the circuit depends on the state-of-charge of the
batteries in that branch.
Batteries 125

12Vd.c.

Fig. 8.13 Layout of battery charger

 126 Applications

Fig. 8.14 Battery charger transformer

is marked with the nominal battery voltage, e.g. 12 V,the actual

output must be higher than that given by a fully charged
battery.
A constant-voltage charger gives a voltage output
equivalent to the voltage of a fully charged battery,e.g.14.4 V
Fig. 8.15 Battery charger (Crypton)
for a 12 V battery. When a discharged battery is connected to
the charger, the initial charge current is high, but this gradually
falls until it is practically zero.The batteries are normally An additional feature of a fast charger is the supply of an
connected in parallel with this type of charger. extra high current to a discharged battery which enables the
A constant-current charger has special switching features engine to be started.
which allow, by manual or automatic means, the current to be
controlled at a constant rate. A typical rate recom-mended for a Trickle chargers This type is intended for use in a car-owner's
battery is 7/o of the ampere-hour capacity,so a 80 Ah battery garage. It provides a small charge current of about 2-4 A to
should be charged at 8 A. enable the battery to be maintained in a fully charged state in
cases where the vehicle is used only infrequently.
Fast chargers This transportable type of charger enables a Extended trickle charging is detrimental because the battery
battery, but NOT maintenance-free types, to be recharged in is overcharged.
126 Applications
about 30-60 minutes to meet workshop requirements. Figure
8.15 shows this type of charger. Battery tests
Initially the current flow is about 50 A, so special protection Personal safety must be observed when batteries are handled or
devices are incorporated to taper-off the current as it charges to tested. A fully equipped medical kit, includ-ing eye-wash
prevent the battery being damaged by overheating. A facilities, should be available and protective clothing worn. Acid
thermostat is fitted to stop the charge when it senses that the splashes in the eye should be treated immediately with plenty of
electrolyte tempera-ture exceeds 45°℃. clean water and medical attention should be sought as soon as
possible. Acid on the skin should be washed off with water and
neutral-ized with sodium bicarbonate solution. Acid splashes on
clothing must be treated with an alkali, such as ammo-nia, if
holes are to be avoided.
126 Applications
SAFE PRACTICE Batteries
127
Battery terminals should be removed and re-fitted as follows:
· earth terminal removed FIRST when discon-necting
· earth terminal fitted LAST when reconnecting level in the cells should be checked. After ensuring that no naked
flame is present, the vent caps are opened and the level checked. If
the plates are not covered by elec-trolyte, then top-up with distilled
A safety hazard exists during or after battery charging due to the
water. After topping-up, the battery should be charged for about 15
emission of potentially explosive hydrogen gas. Any testing involving
minutes at 15-25 A to mix the electrolyte before testing the battery.
production of sparks, e.g.electrical load test, must not be performed
until the gas has dispersed from the cell. A similar hazard occurs Relative density check A specific gravity check of the clectrolyte with a
when a battery is fitted on to a vehicle immediately after the battery hydrometer indicates the state-of-charge. A fully-charged battery in a
has been removed from a charging plant. serviceable condi-tion should give a reading of at least 1.270 with a
Charging should only be carried-out in a well-venti-lated area. variation between cells of not more than 50 points (0.050).
There are three basic checks which are performed on a
conventional battery. These are:
· Visual inspection
· Relative density (specific gravity) check
·Electrical load (high rate discharge) test
The first indication that a battery is approaching the end of its
life occurs normally when the starter motor is operated on a cold
morning. Under these severe con-ditions the output from a good
battery isless than its maximum so this is the time that a battery
fault becomes evident.
Assuming that the battery condition is the cause of the
starting fault, then the following procedure is used to confirm
the diagnosis.

Visual inspection The battery is checked for terminal corrosion,

cracks and for leakage of acid. A white powdery corrosion of metal Fig. 8.16 Specific gravity correction
parts in the vicinity of the battery indicates a past leakage of acid.
This hould be investigated and the corrosion neutralized by washing
the affected parts in ammoniated water. After all traces of acid have This result relates to the sp.gr. at a temperature of 15 ℃ (60°F).
been removed the metal parts should be painted, preferably with When greater accuracy is required, the graph (Figure 8.16) may be
acid-resistant paint. used to find the value which is either added or deducted from the
Evidence of bulging of the container or cover sug-gests that the reading at different ambient temperatures.
plates have deformed and this generally means that the battery Table 8.1 shows typical results of a hydrometer test.
capacity has decreased. Distortion of the container can occur after Reading Variation Action
excessive overcharging. 1.270 less than Battery in good
Battery life depends on the use of a battery and on the
0.050 condition; confirm
maintenance given to the battery. Under normal conditions a typical
with drop test
life is about 4 years. 1.190 less than Discharged battery;
If the initial checks are satisfactory then the fluid 0.050 rechargefor 10 hours
at the battery's bench
charge rate and retest
Some cells more than Battery should be·
less than 0.100 scrapped
1.200

Table 8.1 Results of hydrometer testing

 128 Applications

reaction which occurs in a faulty cell: this condition should not be

confused with the 'gassing' which occurs when a battery on charge
approaches full charge.

Cold-cranking test This test indicates the ability of a battery to supply

a high current when the battery is exposed to a low temperature. It
represents the condi-tions experienced by the battery during an
engine-start in winter. The Society of Automotive Engineers test
defines the current in amperes that a battery can deliver for 30
seconds at a temperature of-18℃ (0°F) and still maintain a terminal
voltage of 1.2 V per cell.
A battery having a rating of 360/60 has a cold crank-ing current
of 360 A and a reserve capacity of 60 min-utes.

Self-discharge test When a battery is left unused for a period of time,

a small discharge takes place. This is due to internal chemical action
and external leakage caused by a small current flow between the
Fig. 8.17 High-rate discharge tester two terminals when moisture and dirt are present on the battery
cover.
A normal self-discharge is about 1-2% of the ampere-hour
Electrical load test This is also called a high-rate discharge test and capacity per week, but if this rate is exceeded it indicates an internal
drop test. It is a severe test and should be performed only on a fault.
charged battery, i.e. a battery having a sp.gr. higher than 1.200. Maintenance-free batteries have a smaller self-discharge rate
The test simulates the electrical load demanded from a due to the absence of antimony. Since gassing is reduced the
battery during the starting of an engine under cold winter external surface of the battery is kept drier and cleaner.
conditions. For this reason, the test should not be extended
beyond the time recommended: this is normally about 15 Capacity tests The ampere-hour capacity test and reserve capacity
seconds. test have been described on pages 120-121.
The tester (Figure 8.17) consists of a voltmeter and a low- During the lifeof a battery, active material becomes dislodged
resistance strip which is connected across the battery. The from the grids and this falls into the sediment trap at the base of the
resistance value, and in consequence the current load, can be cell. The reduction in plate area caused by this decreases the
adjusted to suit the battery being tested. A load of half the SAE capacity in proportion.
cold cranking current for the battery is recommended. This figure Another factor affecting capacity is sulphation. This is a hard
can normally be found on a label on the battery. white crystalline form of lead sulphate which forms on the plate and
The voltmeter indicates the battery p.d. while it is supplying acts as a resistance to the passage of charge and discharge currents.
the high current. The voltage given by a good battery varies with Its presence can be detected when the battery is charged because
the capacity and temperature of the battery. A serviceable battery the voltage required to overcome the internal resistance will be in
should give at least 9.6 V for 15 seconds. excess of 16 V.
A decrease in temperature reduces these values, e.g.when the Sulphation is caused when the battery is:
temperature changes from about 20°℃ to -20℃ the voltage · left discharged for a long period of time
reduces by 1 V.128 Applications · discharged past its normal limit
If a charged battery does not maintain the specific voltage for used with a low electrolyte level.
a given time, the battery is unserviceable.In some cases it may be
Mild sulphation can be overcome by prolonged charging at low rate,
seen that the electrolyte 'boils'in some cells during this test.
but it is more economical to replace the battery.
'Boiling' is a vigorous
 Bacceries

Charge rate for conventional batteries It is recom-mended that the

charge current should be Xo of the ampere-hour capacity of the
SAFE PRACTICE
battery. Charging at this rate should continue until the sp.gr. values Electrolyte preparation:
remain constant for three successive hourly readings and all cells are ·Wear goggles and protective clothing
gassing freely.
·Mix in an earthenware or glass container
During charging, the electrolyte should be main-tained at the
· Always add acid to water
indicated level by topping-up with distilled water.
It takes about 12 hours to recharge a battery at the normal
rate from a sp. gr. of 1.190 to its fully-charged state.

Battery replacement
Conventional batteries are supplied as new in the following forms:
· charged and filled ready for use
· dry-charged.
Dry-charged batteries This form has the plates in a charged state but
the cells contain no electrolyte. After the battery has attained room
temperature it is filled, to the indicated level, with sulphuric acid
diluted to give a sp. gr. of 1.260 at 15.5°℃ (60°F). The battery is
allowed to stand for 20 minutes. After this time, the temperature and
final sp.gr required
sp.gr.are measured. Assuming the temperature has not risen by more
than 6°C (10°F) or the sp.gr. has not dropped by more than 0.010, then Fig.8.18 Graph shows water required to dilute
the battery is ready for use. If either the temperature of sp.gr. readings concentrated acid (by volume)
are outside the limit, then the battery should be recharged at the
normal rate.
graph (Figure 8.18) shows the quantity of water required to obtain
Electrolyte preparation a given sp.gr. value.
Sulphuric acid is normally supplied as a concentrated solution of sp. gr.
1.840 in a large carboy. Special care must be exercised when diluting
the acid to the strength required. Attention to low-maintenance batteries The low water loss of a
Suitable protective clothing and goggles must be worn and the low-maintenance battery means that an elec-trolyte level check
vessel used for the mixing should be either glass or earthenware. The need only be performed every 12months or at vehicle service
acid must be added slowly to the water because mixing in the opposite intervals if these are more frequent.
way causes a violent reaction. (N.B. the 'A' and 'W' are in alpha-betical In other respects this type of battery is treated in a similar way to a
order). conventional battery.
To obtain a final sp. gr. of 1.260, 1 part of acid at (1.840
sp.gr.) is added to 3.2 parts of distilled water,by volume. Attention to maintenance-free batteries If the battery is sealed, no
In countries where average temperatures are normally topping-up can be carried out. A normal visual inspection is
above 26℃, an acid strength of 1.240 is used for filling a necessary for cracks and corrosion and where an indicator is
battery: this strength is obtained by mixing 1 volume of acid to provided, a sp.gr. check is made. When the battery is fully charged
3.5 volumes of distilled water.The the built-in hydrometer displays a green dot but when the area is
dark recharging is necessary.

Testing for state-of-charge

Bacceries
A voltmeter can be used to ascertain the state-of-charge.The
method used on the vehicle is:
(1) Switch on headlamps for 30 s to remove the 'surface charge'

Fig. 8.20 Battery connectors

 130 Applications

Fault Cause
Undercharging Low alternator output, perhaps
due to a slipping drive belt
Excessive drain on the battery,
which may be due to a short
circuit
Faulty alternator regulator
Terminal corrosion
Overcharging Defective cell in battery
(excessive ·Faulty alternator regulator
gassing)
Fig. 8.19 Battery test for state-of-charge Low battery ·Internal or external short circuit
capacity ·Sulphation
Loss of active material from
plates
(2)Switch off lamps and any external loads on the battery such as · Low electrolyte level
courtesy door lights. ·Incorrect electrolyte strength
(3) Measure voltage across the battery as shown in Figure 8.19. ·Terminal corrosion

Electrical load test This may be carried out in a man-ner similar to

Table 8.2 Battery faults
that used with conventional batteries.
Battery terminals
Charging a maintenance-free battery off the vehicle Various types of connector are shown in Figure 8.20.
Becausethe battery cannot be topped up it is necessary to charge
it in such a way that water is not electro-lysed i.e. the charging Terminal corrosion This creates a high resistance which can cause
voltage is kept below the gassing voltage. The battery the battery to be suspected of being faulty.If a terminal is coated
manufacturer's recommendations should be carefully adhered to. with a white powder or green-white soft paste then this should
Typical voltage values are: be removed by immersing the terminal lug in ammonia solution
Less than 12.2 V: deeply discharged or soda dissolved in water.
12.2-12.5 V: partially discharged After cleaning both contacting surfaces the terminals should
Greater than 12.5 V: fully discharged be coated with petroleum jelly and tightened securely.

General battery faults

Table 8.2 gives some typical faults relating to batteries.
Most battery faults become apparent at a time when winter is
approaching. The extra demand on the battery results in sluggish
operation of the starter motor.The remedy is to apply the basic
fault diagnosis sequence:
· visual inspection
· state-of-charge test (recharge if necessary) diecast(helmet)typ flat
· load test. e type
The result of this test sequence will confirm whether or not the
battery has reached the end of its useful life.

130 Applications

SMMT(clamp)type
8.6 Nickel-alkaline Batteries
131
The nickel-alkaline battery is a strong, long-life battery which
withstands greater abuse than a lead-acid type but it is more bulky
and expensive. the steel containers are in electrical contact with the positive plates
There are two main types of nickel-alkaline battery.The types are they must not be allowed to touch one another in the battery crate.
classified by their plate material;nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)-often Each cell has two suspen-sion bosses welded on opposite sides by
referred to as'Nicad'- and nickel-iron (Ni-Fe). The latter type, often which they are located in tough rubber sockets in the wooden
called a 'Nife' battery, is less suitable for automobile use so it is not crates,gaps being left between adjacent cells.
considered in this book.
Electrolyte The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide
Nickel-cadmium battery (caustic potash, KOH) diluted with distilled water to a specific gravity
Figure 8.21 shows a 'cut-open' view of one cell. Both positive and negative of about 1.200. The density does not change with the state of charge
plates are made of a nickel-plated steel frame into which are spot-welded a
because it does not chemically combine with the plate material.
number of flat-section perforated tubes, also made of nickel-plated steel. In
Instead the electrolyte acts as a conductor for the electrical current
the positive plates the tubes are filled with powdered nickel hydroxide and
and allows oxygen to pass from the negative plates during charge and
in the negative plates with cadmium oxide.
return during discharge.
The plates have lugs by which they are attached to collecting
bars to each of which a terminal pillar is also fixed. The plates are
assembled into sets in which the negative plates are interleaved Charge and discharge During the charging process the positive plates
between positive plates with ebonite rods between the plates to become oxidized while the negative plates are deoxidized (reduced)
prevent elec-trical contact between them. from cadmium oxide to spongy cadmium. When the battery is
discharged the reverse action takes place. The cell voltage during the
In what might be called the traditional construction,each cell is
charge-discharge cycle vanes from about 1.4 V to a minimum of 1.0V.
enclosed in a nickel-plated steel container having welded seams. The
Since the active-plate material does not chemically combine with
terminal pillars pass through rubber gland rings in the cell lid and
any element in the electrolyte,there is virtually no self-discharge.
are secured by nuts. Each cell has a combined filler cup and vent Thezefore the bartery can 'stand' for long periods in either the
cap. charged or dis-charged state without causing damage to the battery.
An appropriate number of cells is assembled to make up a
battery, five cells being used for a nominal 6 V battery, nine for a 12 Maintenance of nickel-cadmium-alkaline batteries
V and eighteen for a 24 V. Since
Electrolyte Periodically the electrolyte level in the cells should be
checked. If the level is below that which is recommended then the
cells should be topped-up with pure distilled water. Great care must
be taken to ensure that no trace of acid is allowed to contaminate the
cells,so all equipment used for lead-acid batteries must not be used
on nickel-alkaline batteries.
The electrolyte deteriorates with age, so about every four years
the electrolyte should be completely changed.When a hydrometer
shows that the relative density has fallen to about 1.160 changing is
necessary. The ageing process quickens if the electrolyte is exposed to
air,therefore the cell vents must be kept closed except when the level
is being checked.
In the UK, the electrolyte is supplied in liquid form but for use
overseas it is supplied in solid form and must be dissolved in pure
distilled water. In both solid and liquid forms the electrolyte must be
handled with extreme care and must not be allowed to come into
contact with clothing or the skin. It will cause severe

Fig.8.21 Nickel-cadmium battery

 132 Applications

burns on the skin which should be covered immedi-ately with

boracic powder. (A supply of boracic powder should always be
available whenever electrolyte is being handled.) Prevention
being better than cure, it is recom-mended that goggles and
rubber gloves be worn.

Battery tests There is no simple test for the state of charge of a

nickel-cadmium-alkaline battery; neither the cell voltage nor the
relative density of the electrolyte give any useful information. In
vehicle applications,advantage is taken of the fact that the
battery cannot be damaged by over-charging so one should
ensure that the charging rate is sufficiently high to provide
ample charging. This can be checked by examining the battery
from time to time immediately after the vehicle has been
running: if the cells are found to be gassing it can be taken as an
indication that the state of charge of the battery is being
satisfactorily maintained. A further check is the need for
topping-up. A reasonable consumption of distilled water is the
best indication that the battery is being kept properly charged.
Excessive consumption indicates overcharging.
No satisfactory high-rate discharge tester is available for this Fig. 8.22 Zinc-carbon battery
type of battery, chiefly due to the difficulty of obtaining an
adequate area of contact with the steel cell terminals.

General attention The battery should be kept clean and dry and e.m.f. is 1.5 V per cell and the capacity is governed by its
periodically the terminals should be cleaned,fully tightened and physical size. Normally the battery is discarded when it is
lightly smeared with petroleum jelly. exhausted.
Plastic and wood cell containers should be inspected for In many industrial applications a zinc-chloride battery is often
damage from fuel oil and hydraulic fluidand the containers used instead of a zinc-carbon type because of its higher energy
should be checked to ensure that no metal objects bridge the content.
metal cells.
The battery should not be discharged below a cell voltage of Alkaline-manganese Compared with other non-rechargeable
1.0 V. batteries, this type can supply a larger maximum current and has a
significantly higher capacity.
This steel-cased battery has a zinc negative electrode,a
8.7 Small batteries manganese dioxide positive electrode and an alkali electrolyte of
Batteries are used to operate portable test equipment and potassium hydroxide. The e.m.f. is 1.5 V per cell.
remote controllers. Also very small batteries are made to
provide back-up power to retain the data in the RAM computer Nickel-cadmium rechargeable This type has a nickel positive
memory at times when the main battery is disconnected. The electrode, a cadmium negative electrode and a potassium
main types of 'dry' battery are covered here. hydroxide electrolyte. Made in many stan-dard and non-standard
sizes it is claimed that it can supply a high discharge current and
Zinc-carbon type This type of cell has been used for many years accept ove 700 full charge/discharge cycles. A constant current
for low current domestic items such as torches and toys (Figure must be used to charge these cells. The e.m.f. is only 1.2 V per cell
8.22). The cell consists ofa zinc case (negative), a rod of carbon so this must be taken into account when using it in place of a non-
(positive) in manganese dioxide and an electrolyte of rechargeable battery.
ammonium chloride.The Some nickel-cadmium batteries are specially made for
mounting on a printed circuit board (PCB) to sup-port volatile
memory systems and other standby appli-cations. These compact
 132 Applications

132 Applications

batteries incorporate a resistor/diode charging circuit. Other types of battery Modern electronic systems use many
different shapes, sizes and plate combinations, so it is essential to
use the type recommended for a given application. In addition to
those already covered in this chapter, other types are made which
include:
 Batteries 133

lithium
lithium thionyl chloride
lithium manganese dioxide
nickel metal hydride
· silver oxide and mercury oxide.

1. List THREE safety precautions Batteries 133

associated with lead-acid batteries. 4. Draw a graph to show how the cell 7. State why gas vented from a
p.d. of a lead-acid battery changes battery increases the rate that it self-
2. For each of the following name TWO
during charging. discharges.
batteries that are classified as:
(a)primary 8. What method is used on a
(b) secondary. 5. The cold-cranking capacity and maintenance-free battery to indicate
reserve capacity of a battery is given that it is:
3. State the relative density of the as 360/60. State how these values (a)charged;
electrolyte of a lead-acid battery when it are deter-mined. (b) discharged:
is: (c) dangerous to charge?
(a) fully charged
6.What constructional feature of a
(b) fully discharged. 9. State FOUR causes of low battery
maintenance-free battery minimizes
capacity.
gassing?
10. State FOUR types of small dry
battery.