Superposition Principle:

The principle of superposition states that whenever two (or more) waves travelling through the same
medium at the same time and without being disturbed, the net displacement of the wave at any point in
space or time, is the vector sum of the individual wave displacements at that space or time.
Y = Y1 + Y2
Superposition principle

Interference of two waves:

When two waves of same frequency travel in a medium simultaneously in the same direction super impose each
other, the resultant intensity at any point of the medium is different from the sum of intensities of the two waves.
This phenomenon is called interference of two waves.

At some points, the resultant intensities will be large and other points the resultant intensities will be small or
zero.

Constructive interference: the points where the resultant intensity is maximum

Destructive interference: the points where the resultant intensity is minimum

Resultant Intensity and Amplitude of interfered wave:

Consider two simple harmonic progressive waves of same frequency travelling in the same direction superimposed
each other. If a1 is the amplitude of the first wave, the displacement equation of the wave is

𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) ………………….(1)

If the second wave move with a phase difference of ∅ with amplitude a2, the displacement equation is

𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + ∅ ) ……......(2)

According to superposition principle, the resultant wave is,

Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

= 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + ∅ )

Using the relation , sin(A+B) = sinA cosB + cosA SinB

𝑌 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑎2 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

𝑌 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅) + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)
𝐿𝑒𝑡 ( 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … … … … (3)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … … … . . (4),
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝑌 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑌 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜃) .

This equation is similar to the equations (1) and (2). Hence, the resultant wave is also simple harmonic progressive
wave with amplitude ‘A’.
Resultant Amplitude:
𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Resultant Intensity:

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
OR
𝐼 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Conditions for Constructive interference (Maximum Intensity):

When 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = +1

∅ = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, ….
∅ = 2 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … … … ..

Conditions for Destructive Interference (Minimum Intensity):

When 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = −1

∅ = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 ….
∅ = (2 𝑛 − 1)𝜋 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1, 2,3, … … … ..

Interference of Sound Waves:

Sound waves produce due to compressions and rarefactions in the medium. When two sound waves of
same frequency travel in a medium in the same direction and if they meet with same phase (compression
of one wave interfere with compression of other and rarefaction of one wave interfere with rarefaction of
other), a constructive interference will be produced (maximum amplitude). If they meet with out of phase
(compression of one wave interfere with rarefaction of other and vice-versa), a destructive interference
will be the result (minimum amplitude).
Conditions for sustained interference:
1. Two waves must have a constant phase difference.
2. Amplitudes of two waves should be nearly equal
3. Two waves must have same frequency.
4. The displacements of two waves should be along the same straight-line direction.
Beats in Sound:
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https://www.compadre.org/osp/EJSS/4370/203.htm

When two sound waves of nearly equal frequencies superimposed, the intensities of resultant sound waves
increases and decreases alternatively. This rise and fall in the intensity of sound is called phenomenon of beats.

Interference Beats
The interfering sound will have same frequency, The interfering sound waves slightly differ in their
preferably same amplitude and same or constant frequencies and therefore phase difference varies.
phase difference.
The intensity of sound at every point remains The intensity of sound at every point changes with
constant time

Practical Applications:
1. Determination of unknown frequency of tuning fork.
2. Tuning of musical instruments

Numerical Example:
1. Two tuning forks A and B, when sounded together, produce 5 beats per second. The frequency of B is 512 Hz.
It is observed that if one prong of A is scraped, then the number of beats increases. Determine the frequency
of A. (Ans: 517 Hz)
2. Two tuning forks A and B, when sounded together, produce 6 beats per second. On loading the fork A with a
little wax, they produce 4 beats per second. The frequency of the fork B is 384 Hz. Determine the frequency
of the fork A before loading and after loading. (Ans: 390 Hz ; 388 Hz)

================================================================================================
https://ophysics.com/w9.html

1. Reflection from Rigid surface ( or closed surface)

𝟐𝝅
Incident wave is 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙 )
𝟐𝝅
Reflected wave is 𝒚𝟐 = −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
[( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 )]

Note: Reflected wave is 180o phase difference with incident wave.

2. Reflection from free surface ( or open surface)

𝟐𝝅
Incident wave is 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙 )
𝟐𝝅
Reflected wave is 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 )

Note: Reflected wave has no phase difference with incident wave.

EQUATION OF STATIONARY (standing) WAVE

Stationary wave: When two identical progressive wave (transverse or longitudinal) travel in a bounded
medium with the same speed but in opposite directions, they superimpose each other and a new type of
wave is produced. This wave is called ‘stationary wave’ or ‘standing wave’.
A plane progressive wave moving towards positive direction:
𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙 )
𝝀

If this wave reflected by a rigid boundary;

𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟐 = −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 )

By superposition principle 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚 = −𝒂 [𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙)]
𝝀 𝝀
𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Using the relation: 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑨 − 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑩 = 𝟐 ([𝒄𝒐𝒔 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ])
𝟐 𝟐

(The steps need to be filled and this derivation is required)

𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒗𝒕
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬( )
𝝀 𝝀

𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬( ) 𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒌𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝝎𝒕 )
𝝀 𝑻
 𝟐𝝅𝒙
Here the amplitude of resultant (stationary) wave is 𝐴 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) and is not a constant
𝝀

If the incident progressive wave is reflected from a ‘free’ boundary, the equation of stationary wave will be;

𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝝀 𝑻

𝟐𝝅𝒙
Here the amplitude of stationary wave is 𝐴 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬( ) and is not a constant
𝝀

𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒌𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝝎𝒕 ) …...By a closed boundary

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒌𝒙) 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒕 ) ……… By an open boundary

How a standing wave is : https://ophysics.com/w8.html

Characteristics of Stationary waves:

1. The points in the waves which are at the maximum amplitudes, are called antinodes
2. The points in the waves which are at the minimum amplitudes, are called nodes.
3. The distance between two consecutive antinodes is λ/2 and the distance between node and
antinodes is λ/4
4. In stationary waves, the disturbances do not (crest or trough or compressions or rarefactions)
move forward or backward. Therefore, the energy is not transferred from particle to other.

Comparison of Progressive and Stationary waves

Progressive Stationary

The waves advances in a medium with definite The waves remain stationary with in the boundary
velocity

These waves transmit energy in the medium These waves do not transmit energy in the medium

In these waves, all the particles in the medium In these waves, except nodes, all the particles of the
vibrates and amplitude of vibration is same for all medium vibrate and the amplitude of vibration
of them. different for particle to another particle. Amplitude
is zero at nodes and maximum at antinodes.
 Vibration of stretched string
Frequency of Vibration of stretched String:
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnH2ltfW48U

Simulation: https://ophysics.com/waves6.html

𝑻
The speed of vibration of a string plucked, is given by 𝑽 = √
𝒎

Where T is the tension of the string and m is the mass per unit length

𝝀
𝒍= ; 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 𝒊𝒇 ′𝒇′ 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 , 𝒗 = 𝒇 𝝀
𝟐
Substituting;
𝑽 𝑽
𝒇= =
𝝀 𝟐𝒍
𝟏 𝑻
Therefore; 𝒇= √
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

Modes of Vibrations in standing waves

(The string is fixed at both ends)
A wave moving along +x axis direction
𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙 ) ………………….(1)

Reflected wave moving along –x axis direction;

𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟐 = −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 ) …………….( 2)

By superposition principle 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚 = − 𝟐𝒂 [𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙)]
𝝀 𝝀

𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Using the relation: 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑨 − 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑩 = 𝟐 ([𝒄𝒐𝒔 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ])
𝟐 𝟐
 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) ……………………..(3)
𝝀 𝑻

The boundary conditions for the wave are when; Y = 0; x = 0 and When; Y = 0; x = l

Applying second boundary condition (When; Y = 0; x = l)

𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝟎 = −𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( )
𝝀 𝑻
𝟐𝝅𝒍
This is possible when 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )=𝟎
𝝀

𝟐𝝅𝒍
OR, (
𝝀
) = π , 2π, 3π ……..
𝟐𝝅𝒍
( 𝝀
) =nπ ; n = 1, 2, 3…….etc
𝟐𝒍 𝒏𝑽
𝝀= 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚(𝒇) =
𝒏 𝟐𝒍

Here n = 1, 2, 3,…….correspond to first, second and third, ……… mode of vibration

respectively.

Nodes (N): Positions of zero displacements in a standing wave

Antinodes (A): Positions of maximum displacements in a standing wave

𝑽
First Mode of Vibration: ( n=1) 𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔
𝟐𝑽
Second Mode of Vibration: (n =2) 𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆
 𝟑𝑽
Third mode of vibration: ( n=3) 𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆

The frequencies are in the ratio 1: 2: 3: …………

All harmonics (both even and odd) are produced.
========================================================================================

SONOMETER: Used for finding unknown frequency of a given tuning fork.

𝟏 𝑻
𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇= √
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

𝑯𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑻 = 𝑴𝒈
𝑴 𝝆𝑽
𝒎= = = 𝝆𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝝆
𝒍 𝒍

𝟏 𝑴𝒈
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇= √ 𝟐
𝟐𝒍 𝝅𝒓 𝝆

==========================================================
 Modes of Vibration of Air column

Modes of vibration of Air column in Closed Organ pipe

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0ONLkZVFhc
https://ophysics.com/w7.html
A wave moving along negative x axis direction,
𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 ) ………………….(1)
𝝀

Reflected wave moving along + x axis direction,

𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟐 = −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙 ) …………….( 2)

By superposition principle 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚 = 𝒂 [𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙)]
𝝀 𝝀
𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Using the relation: 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑨 − 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑩 = 𝟐 ([𝒄𝒐𝒔 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ])
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝒚 = −𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) ……………………..(3)
𝝀 𝑻

Applying boundary conditions;

When x =; y = 0
When x = 𝒍 ; 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒍
The displacement ‘y’ is maximum, 𝒔𝒊𝒏( ) =∓𝟏
𝝀

𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝝅
= ( 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝝀 𝟐
𝟒𝒍
𝝀=
𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏
𝑽 (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) = Where, n = 1, 2, 3 …
𝟒𝒍
First Mode of Vibration: (n=1)
𝑽
𝒇=
𝟒𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔

Third Mode of Vibration: (n =2)

𝟑𝑽
𝒇=
𝟒𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆

Fifth mode of vibration: ( n=3)

𝟓𝑽
𝒇=
𝟒𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟓𝒕𝒉 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝟓𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆
*Only odd harmonics are formed; they are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : ……..etc

Modes of vibration of Air column in Open Organ pipe

A wave moving along +x axis direction
𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝒗𝒕 − 𝒙 ) ………………….(1)

Reflected wave moving along –x axis direction

𝟐𝝅
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀
( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙 ) ………………….(2)

By superposition principle 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚 = 𝒂 [𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑽𝒕 + 𝒙) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝑽𝒕 − 𝒙)]
𝝀 𝝀
𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Using the relation: 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝑨 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝑩 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝟐
) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐
)

𝟐𝝅𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) ………………………………(3)
𝑻 𝝀

𝟐𝝅𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )
𝑻 𝝀
Applying the boundary condition:
When x = 0 ; y = maximum
When x= l ; y = maximum
Therefore;
𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒍
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )
𝝀 𝝀
𝟐𝝅𝒍
‘𝒚’ will be maximum when; 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) =±1
𝝀
𝟐𝝅𝒍
( 𝝀
) = nπ
𝟐𝒍 𝒏𝑽
𝝀= ; 𝑽= ; where n = 1, 2, 3……etc
𝒏 𝟐𝒍

𝒏𝑽
𝝂=
𝟐𝒍

Here n = 1, 2, 3,…….correspond to first, second and third, ……… mode of vibration

respectively.
First Mode of Vibration: ( n=1)

𝑽
𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔
𝟐𝑽
Second Mode of Vibration: (n =2) 𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝟑𝑽
Third mode of vibration: ( n=3) 𝒇=
𝟐𝒍
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑶𝑹 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝑶𝑹 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆

The frequencies are in the ratio 1: 2: 3: …………

All harmonics are produced.

*If the air column vibrate with the two ends of a pipe closed, the equation to find the
frequency of vibration is similar to that of equation for both the ends open.
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End Correction (e)

𝒗 (𝟐𝒏−𝟏)
For closed (one end closed) pipe: 𝒇 =
𝟒 (𝒍+𝒆)
𝒏𝒗
For Open (both ends are open) pipe 𝒇=
𝟐(𝒍+𝒆)

End correction depends on the diameter of the pipe:

𝒗 (𝟐𝒏−𝟏)
For closed pipe: 𝒇 =
𝟒 (𝒍+𝟎.𝟔 𝒓)
𝒏𝒗
For Open pipe 𝒇 =
𝟐(𝒍+𝟏.𝟐𝒓)

Resonance Tube (Resonance column apparatus)

𝝀 𝝀
𝒍𝟏 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝟐 = 𝟑
𝟒 𝟒
𝝀
𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 = 𝝀 = 𝟐(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝟐
End Correction (e)
𝒆 = ( 𝒍𝟐 − 𝟑𝒍𝟏 )/ 𝟐