Chapter

Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of South India

Introduction: In South Indian Temples, the equivalent term of Shikhara is vimana; unlike
the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including the sanctum beneath. In the
south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped
with a finial. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of
south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in
large temples.
. Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:

 Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each
face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are
also sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which
may be called "heterogeneous".

 Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may
be more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets
are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
 Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to
the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly
vertical in overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the
northern Deccan and West India

Evidence of engineering marvel of Indian architecture can be clearly seen in the country's
temples. In Christianity the Height of the church was their way of showing the power of the
church in the community during the middle ages. The Gothic cathedral had to tower above
every other building to symbolize this majesty and authority of the church.
Cathedrals were very important because they were buildings made for Christians to praise
and worship God. Cathedrals were very tall, large buildings, so you could easily find one.
Over time, cathedrals were eventually built to have pointed arches. The builders did this
because it made cathedrals appear taller.

1
why are cathedrals gothic? Gothic architecture, on the other hand, focused on height and light
—despite being constructed from heavy stone, Gothic cathedrals seem to defy the laws of
gravity. Common traits include pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, all of
which enabled the structures to be built taller and stronger. One of the fundamental
characteristics of gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the
flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and
loftier towers. This all meant that gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights.

However,in the case of the architecture of the Hindu tyemples, it is not only about the work
of ancient engineers of India; it is important to say that Hindu cosmology shapes the temples’
form because 'it recreates the universe and every person’s struggle, occurring over multiple
lifetimes, to cast aside illusion in order to realize divine truth and oneness with an infinite
god.' (India Revealed: Hindu Temples of South India). The Vimana towers symbolize

2
power and connection between the human world on earth and the abode of gods and
goddesses in high heavens.This structure is the mountain residence of the gods because
according to Hindu cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains.

The temple’s overall form, dominated by its large central tower (vimana), reconstructs the
appearance of god’s mountaintop dwelling. All of these temples have beautiful, precise, and
harmonious geometry and many of them are richly decorated with sculptures of gods,
animals, flowers, erotic scenes, geometric patterns, and other figures bringing the memory of
mythological episodes.

3
Temples were built to house a sacred symbol of a particular god.
Vimana is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South
India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of Odisha using the Kalinga style of
architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as it is in the shikhara towers of
temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically
smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking
architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as a pyramid,
consisting of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati vimanas that have
up to four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.
In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called
a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a
dome-shaped crowning cap above the vimana.
A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East -
main entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where
it is believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the
outer most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of
each wall. This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum
sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana.
Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the
exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple
complex itself.

Golden shrine of Tirumala Venkateswara Temple

The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example.
This shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive
in size when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth

4
century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory
even today.
1. The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous
example where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the
temple's history and identity.
2. Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana, the huge one for Shiva and the second
one for his consort, Meenakshi.
3. The vimana of the Big Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very
exaggerated height. This form is not very common.
4. The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of
the vimana. It is a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana
chakra.
5. The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.

Several temples of India have impressive, soaring towers ‘Gopuram' (or ‘Gopura’), usually
ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. Gopurams are the
dominant architectural feature of a temple's outer appearance, sometimes soaring as high as
170 feet and completely overshadowing the main shrine and other structures of the temple,
due to their colossal size. The Early Cholas always built the vimana (tower) of the core
temple sanctuary as the highest structure in the temple complex. Later, the Medieval Cholas
began to build the gopurams even taller than the central sanctuary’s vimana towers.
This building style was continued and widely used by later Hindu dynasties.

In the Dravidian (or South Indian style), “the sanctuary and the superstructure together are
called the vimana. In architecture texts regarding this style, the vimana is described as a
mountain-like spire of a free-standing temple.

“The most distinctive feature of the Dravidian style is the articulation of the vimana, a
composite of the garbha griha and superstructure or spire (shikhara) which is a trapezoidal
structure, starting on a square base, and soaring up in a series of well-articulated stories called
tala…”
(‘Shikhara’ means a dome-shaped crowning cap is located above the Vimana, while a
Vimana resembles a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically. Vimana Temples – Architectural
Marvel Of India, A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com December 31, 2018 |

5
 Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana
1)Sopana Marga:
The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on both
sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures. sōpānamārga (सोपानमार्ग).—m (S Ladder-road.) A
method, course, or way very practicable or easy. Used also literally--Way by a staircase or a
flight of steps or a ladder, a stairway. The Yali (IAST: Yāḻi) is a ancient creature seen in
many South Indian temples, often sculpted onto the pillars. It is portrayed as part lion, part
elephant and part horse, and in similar shapes. It is also part of Chola army troops. with some
bird-like features.
Descriptions of and references to yalis are very old, but they became prominent in south
Indian sculpture in the 16th century. Yalis were believed to be more powerful than the lion,
the tiger or the elephant.
In its iconography and image the yali has a catlike graceful body, but the head of a lion
with tusks of an elephant (gaja) and tail of a serpent. Sometimes they have been shown
standing on the back of a makara, another mythical creature and considered to be
the Vahan of Budha (Mercury). Some images look like three-dimensional representation of
yalis. Images or icons have been found on the entrance walls of the temples, and the graceful
mythical lion is believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading to the temple.
They usually have the stylized body of a lion and the head of some other beast, most often an
elephant (gaja-vyala). Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha-vyala), horse-
(ashva-vyala), human- (nir-vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana-vyala) ones. Vyala, is also
called sardula, popular motif in Indian art, consisting of a composite leonine creature with
the head of a tiger, elephant, bird, or other animal, frequently shown in combat with humans
or pouncing upon an elephant.
It is a solar symbol, it represents—like the eagle seizing the serpent—the triumph of the spirit
over matter.Occurring in a relatively naturalistic form in the earliest monuments, notably the

6
great stupa at Sanchi (c. 50 BC) Vyala pouncing on an elephant, khondalite, mid-13th
century; on the Surya Deula (Sun Temple), at Konarak, Orissa, India. BELOW LEFT

and in the Kushan sculpture of Mathura (1st–3rd century AD), the vyala assumed a definite
stylized form about the 5th century. From the 8th century onward, it was constantly employed
in architectural decoration, being repeated, for example, on the walls of temples.

7
Meenakshi Amman temple Madurai showing the 1,000 pillars with Vyalas carved on each.

2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha

Upapīṭha (उपपीठ) is a sub structure or member constructed beneath the adhiṣṭhāna. The term
is formed by combining two Sanskrit words namely upa and pīṭha. Upapīṭha serves three
important functions. They are,

1. Upapīṭha contributes to the stability (rakṣārtha),

2. Upapīṭha increases the height of the building (unnatārtha),
3. Upapīṭha enhaces the beauty (śobhārha).

Upapīṭha also symbolically conveys the form of trivarga structure.It is above the plinth
called the Adhiṣṭhāna (अधिष्ठान) or “pedestal” or “molded base”. Adhiṣṭhāna can also
refer to an “object on which something stands”. According to the Mayamata,
an adhiṣṭhāna may be optionally provided with an upapīṭha (sub-structure), but
according to the Pādmasaṃhitā this is mandatory.
According to the Mayamata, Adhiṣṭhāna has the following synonyms: Masūraka,
Vāstvādhāra, Kuttima, Tala; while the Kāmikāgama extends this lists with: Dharātala,
Ādhāra, Dharaṇi, Bhuvana, Pṛthvī, Bhūmi and Ādyaṅga.
3) Adhiṣṭhāna (‘plinth’) represents a part of the trivarga structure, where it is also known
as upāna.

Adhiṣṭhāna, bhitti and prastara forms the trivarga of this structure. In the Upapīṭha, the
lowest moulding, i.e., upāna, represents the plinth. The gala represents the wall and
the kapota or paṭṭikā represents the prastara. The presence of these three parts in the
Upapīṭha makes it look like a miniature structure or shrine.
Mayamata mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are:

1. vedibhadra,
2. pratibhadra,

8
 3. subhadra.

Mānasāra also mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are:

1. vedibhadra,
2. pratibhadra,
3. mañcabhadra.

sketch of Upapithas, pedestals in Hindu temple architecture, Vedibandha Pratibhanda Manchabandha

BELOW

To RIGHT- Open Nandi mandapa and the entrance to the Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal temple complex, Pattadakal,
Karnataka, India. The elephants in the adhishthana in different postures.

9
3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha. As mentioned above is the base
of the structure causing support tonthe walls. In Buddhism, 'Adhishthana' means power of the
Buddha. The Lankavatara sutra describes it thus: "...sustained in two ways by the power
(adhishthana) of the Buddhas. So the plinth has to have the power to support the structure

4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions

Hindu temple architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span openings.
The post and lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby a
horizontal 'lintel' beam rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load
above.Hindu temple architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span
openings. The post and lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby
a horizontal 'lintel' beam rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load
above .Tensile stresses once again come into play in the lower portions of the horizontal
lintel, and thus limit the maximum span of the system. Corbelling involved successive
overhanging courses of masonry rising up to cover the entire span

This method was not effective in spanning large openings either. Even the largest, and most
mature Hindu temples in the nation boasts of innumerable corbelled openings, including
corbelled cross vaults, but not arches5. Interior spaces of such temples were thus usually of a
very human scale, as opposed to the monumental interior spaces that were to be found in
contemporary churches and mosques in other parts of the world.

10
 Post and Lintel system

The carving of the lion symbol represents the Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh,
Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts
of Hinduism. It is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India.

11
TO RIGHT- 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.

5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha+

LEFT PICTURE- Colorful carved walls of the temple in Tamil Nadu state, South India. — Photo by
ElizavetaLarionova

A garbhagriha or sannidhanam is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of

a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the
temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means
"womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally
in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is
often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain temples. The room has a single
entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is
normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's
deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of
the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is
no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid,
although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space.
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north)
or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them
form the main vertical axis of the temple. [3] These together may be understood to represent
the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbhagriha is usually also on the main
horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where
there is also a cross-axis, the garbhagṛiha is generally at their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created
thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the
Hindu garbhagriha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in
temples in active worship

12
The Vastu Purusha Mandala is the base of the temple. We have touched upon the base
elements above from 1 to 4 . Above the vastu-purusha-mandala lies the walls of the high
superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches
towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with
symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is
designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of
concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this
shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of
gods according to its ancient mythology.
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or
shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite
Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means
circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the
dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and
mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a
perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The
square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and
human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life
(moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. ] The square is divided
into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In
ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid.
The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire
altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals
of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations,
through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16,
25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a
hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front.
The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is
also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the
template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through
49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is
also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is
conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or
apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with
Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the
next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas

13
signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The
devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to
complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer
side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may
be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which
signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana.
Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house;
literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in
everything and everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and
Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).

A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the
temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and
geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-
squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises
towards the sky.
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive
all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-
griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti.
This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives
it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva
temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple,
and others. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of
knowledge, or vision.

14
Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted.

In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images
meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from
Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some
they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have
highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha,
dharma, and

6) Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main
deity. The term Koshta has two meanings. Anatomical meaning – large space which gives
accommodation to visceral organs of body. Physiological meaning – bowel movement and
gut behavior Read – Koshta – Large Anatomical Body Cavities. Doshas control gut behavior
and bowel movement in physical body. IN CASE OF THE TEMPLES HOWEVER THE
COURTYARD OR INNER SPACE WHEREIN LIE THE TEMPLES TO SMALLER
DIETIES.These could be in the GMandapa also but never in the Garbagriha or inner sanctum.

LEFT_ 12th century Chennakeshava temple, built by the ruling Hoysala dynasty.Kanchipuram Temple
showing smaller temples or shrines encompassed in the walls. AT RIGHT .

7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature

15
Vastushastra (architecture)
1) Prastara (प्रस्तर) refers to the “entablature” of a temple (prāsāda or vimāna). It is
considered the third part in the ṣaḍvarga structure.
2) Prastara (प्रस्तर):—One of the eight types of villages, according to Chapter 9 of the
Mānasāra (called the grāmalakṣaṇam). The Mānasāra is one of the traditional authorative
Hindu treatises on Vāstuśāstra. The form of this village is said to be tattadrūpeṇa, which
means it represents the form of the meaning of its Sanskrit name.Prastara (प्रस्तर) means
entablature. It is found above the architrave of the temple, inside or outside. Prastara is one of
the six important architectural parts of the body of the temple. It is the third member of the
temple building from the bottom. Prastara is considered very important in the architectural
composition of the temple.
Prastara, in dravidian context, means a meeting place. This is the meeting place of the two
divisions of the temple namely the prāsāda-varga and the pāda-varga. Pāda-
varga represents the earth and prāsāda-varga represents the Heaven. In the entablature
both pāda-varga and prāsāda-varga unite. Therefore this part is given the name prastara.
According to Hindu metaphysics the mother Earth (bhūmi-tattva) is feminine (prakṛti) in
character. It is embraced by ākāśa-tatva, which is masculine (puruṣa).
The prastara represents the union of these two concepts.
Prastara, according to Mayamata, should be decorated with sculptures
of yakṣas, vidyādharas, bhūtamāla, gaṇas, haṃsas, floral decorations, etc. According to
Mānasāra the semi divine and demi-devine and other celestial beings are to be carved
in śayana (lying) or āsīna (seated) postures.
Prastara ( or extension, flat top) is a sort of entablature in the Hindu temple architecture.It
is a horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings above column capitals, sometimes
functions as a parapet of a story. Prastara is both functional and decorative element located
above the architrave of the temple. Being the third part of the building counting from the
bottom, prastara is a very important element of the overall architectural composition of the
temple.
In the Dravidian context, prastara signifies a meeting place, where the two divisions of the
temple, prasada varga (the Earth) and the pada varga (the Heaven), meet each other.
Prastara consists of several parts from bottom to top: uttara, valabhi (stringcourse above
uttara), and kapota (dripstone). Kapota is usually shaped as a pigeon's head.

16
The Papanath temple Karnataka showing the entabuleres

8) Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures

See 1. Above

9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace

Haara is a decorative element and refers to name of necklace. It circumambulates the temple
just as a necklace does to the neck and is added to improve the ambiance. A parapet wall is a
low or dwarf wall built along the edge of the roof, terrace, walkway, balcony etc. Parapet
walls can be constructed using different materials.
Types of Parapet Walls
Classification Based on Appearance
Parapet walls are classified into following types based on appearance :
1. Plain Parapet Walls
2. Perforated Parapet Walls
3. Embattled Parapet Walls
4. Paneled Parapet Walls
1. Plain Parapet Walls
 The plain parapet wall is nothing but a vertical extension of the wall at the edge of the roof. It
is a general type of parapet which is specially provided for safety concern.

17
  Concrete coping is provided at top and corbel below it.
 Plain parapets are easy to construct and requires low maintenance.
 Plain parapet generally looks dull in appearance.

Fig 1: House with Plain Parapet Wall/ Fig 2: Perforated Parapet Wall/ Paneled Parapet Wall

2. Perforated Parapet Walls

 The perforated parapet wall is also an extension of the wall like plain parapet but in this case,
the extended wall portion is perforated with different sized openings considering the aesthetic
appearance of the structure.
 Differently designed perforations such as circles, trefoils, flower shapes etc. are used.
3. Paneled Parapet Walls
 The Paneled parapet walls are similar to plain parapets but the difference is paneled parapets
are ornamented with series of panel designs on the outside of parapet wall.
 The panels may be oblong or square but no perforations are provided in this case.
 This type of parapets is more prevalent since it provides a beautiful appearance to the
structure and at the same time doesn’t cost much and provides ease in construction.

4.Embattled Parapet Walls

 The Embattled parapets were widely used in olden days especially for castles, forts etc.
 Alternative low and high portions and perforations are provided in the parapet. In ancient
periods, these perforations were generally used by arrow shooters to shoot arrows through it
while defending the castle.
 Because of their beautiful appearance and uniqueness, embattled parapets are being
constructed nowadays to enhance the aesthetic aspects of the structures.

Embattled Parapet Wall ( Great Wall of China) //Sloped Parapet Wall/: Flat Parapet Wall
Classification Based on Shape and Configuration
Parapet walls are also classified based on the shape and configuration as follows:
1. Sloped Parapet Wall
2. Stepped Parapet Wall
3. Flat Parapet Wall

18
 4. Curved Parapet Wall
1. Sloped Parapet Wall
Sloped parapet walls are provided for sloped roof structures such as industrial structures, trussed
structures etc.

2. Flat Parapet Wall

3. Stepped Parapet Wall
Stepped parapet walls are also used for inclined roof structures. In this case, the wall is constructed in
staircase-type design as shown in the figure below.
4. Curved Parapet Wall
Curved parapet walls also called as arched parapet walls are recommended for both flat and inclined
rooftops.
Miscellaneous Parapet types
 Several modern types of parapet walls are replacing the above-mentioned types because of
their dominance in all categories such as safety, appearance, economy etc.
 Some of the modern type parapets are fiber-glass parapets, parapet with steel railings, etc.
 Glass or steel railings can also be provided in the pierced portions of perforated parapet walls
for better appearance. Such types of parapets are called composite parapet walls.
Uses of Parapet Walls
Parapet walls constructed have various uses. Some of them are :
 To provide an aesthetic look to the structure.
 To provide safety for humans when they are on the rooftop and in case of bridges to prevent
vehicles from falling off bridge.
 To hide and prevent the equipment and machinery on the rooftop.
 To prevent the entrance of dust through the air on the rooftop.
 To prevent the falling of debris gathered on the rooftop.
 To prevent high wind loads coming on to the rooftop.
 Perforated parapets can be useful for defence measures in military areas.

10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region+

10 Tala temple on RIGHT

11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region Also ABOVE PIC
12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey) See above right
pic

13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey+

19
14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana
15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped
Arch.In Indian architecture, gavaksha or chandrashala (kudu in Tamil, also nāsī) are the
terms most often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or
horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian
structural temples and other buildings. In its original form, the arch is shaped like the cross-
section of a barrel vault. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall,
around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and
becomes a very flexible unit, "the most common motif of Hindu temple architecture".
Gavākṣha (or gavaksa) is a Sanskrit word which means "bull's or cow's eye". In Hindu
temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the
central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the
deity to gaze out into the world

16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana

 Shikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in
the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples.
A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most
prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India but in South Indian Temples, the
superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall shape,
consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is normally
straight rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.
In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings,
or water-pot, at its peak

In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole
building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the

20
vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial. The southern vimana is not to be
confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are
often taller and more prominent features in large temples.
. Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:

 Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each
face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are
also sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which
may be called "heterogeneous".

 Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may
be more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets
are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
 Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to
the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly
vertical in overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the
northern Deccan and West India

17)Stupi or Kalasha : The Finial (Final) of the Vimana

21
A kalasha, also spelled kalash or kalasa also called ghat or ghot (Sanskrit: कलश kalaśa;
literally "pitcher, pot"), is a metal (brass, copper, silver or gold) pot with a large base and
small mouth, large enough to hold a coconut.
Sometimes "kalasha" also refers to such a pot filled with water and topped with a coronet
of mango leaves and a coconut. This combination is often used in Hindu rites and depicted
in Hindu iconography. The entire arrangement is called Purna-Kalasha (पूर्णकलश), Purna-
Kumbha (पूर्णकु म्भ), or Purna-ghata (पूर्णघट). Each of these names literally means "full or
complete vessel" when the pot is referred to as the Kalasha (to avoid confusion, this article
will refer to the pot as Kalasha and the entire arrangement as Purna-Kalasha).
Sometimes the Kalasha is filled with coins, grain, gems, gold, or a combination of these items
instead of water. The coronet of 5, 7, or 11 mango leaves is placed such that the tips of the
leaves touch water in the Kalasha. The coconut is sometimes wrapped with a red cloth and
red thread; the top of the coconut (called Shira – literally "head") is kept uncovered. A sacred
thread is tied around the metal pot. The Shira is kept facing the sky.
The Kalasha is viewed as an auspicious object in Jainism. The Kalasha is used as a
ceremonial object as well as a decorative motif in Indian art and architecture. The Kalasha
motif was used in decorating bases and capitals of pillars from the 5th century.
The Purna-Kalasha is considered a symbol of abundance and "source of life" in the Vedas.
Purna-Kumbha is preeminently a Vedic motif, known from the time of Rigveda. It is also
called Soma-Kalasha, Chandra-Kalasha, Indra-Kumbha, Purnaghata, Purna-Virakamsya,
Bhadra ghata, or Mangala ghata. It is referred to as "overflowing full vase" (purno-asya
Kalasha) in the Vedas.[2]
The Kalasha is believed to contain amrita, the elixir of life, and thus is viewed as a symbol of
abundance, wisdom, and immortality. The Kalasha is often seen in Hindu iconography as an
attribute, in the hands of Hindu deities like the creator god Brahma, the destroyer
god Shiva as a teacher, and the goddess of prosperity Lakshmi.
The Purna-Kalasha is believed to be a symbol of auspiciousness embodying either Ganesha,
remover of obstacles, or his mother Gauri, the goddess of household bounty or Lakshmi. The
Purna-Kalasha is worshipped in all Hindu festivities related to marriage and childbirth, as a
mother goddess or Devi. In this context, the metal pot or Kalasha represents material things: a
container of fertility - the earth and the womb, which nurtures and nourishes life. The mango
leaves associated with Kama, the god of love, symbolize the pleasure aspect of fertility. The

22
coconut, a cash crop, represents prosperity and power. The water in the pot represents the
life-giving ability of Nature.
Sometimes, a silver or brass face of the Goddess is attached over the coconut of the Purna-
Kalasha. In this form, the Purna-Kalasha symbolizes the Goddess as the manifestation of
mother earth with her water, minerals, and vegetation. This method
of Kalash pooja (worship) has come in for Vishnu in household functions too.
The Purna-Kalasha is also worshipped at Hindu ceremonies like Griha Pravesha (house
warming), child naming, havan (fire-sacrifice), Vaastu dosha rectification, and daily worship.
Other interpretations of the Purna-Kalasha associate with the five elements or the chakras.
The wide base of metal pot represents the element Prithvi (Earth), the expanded centre - Ap
(water), neck of pot - Agni (fire), the opening of the mouth - Vayu (air), and the coconut and
mango leaves - Akasha (aether). In contexts of chakras, the Shira (literally "head") - top of
the coconut symbolizes Sahasrara chakra and the Moola (literally "base") - base of Kalasha -
the Muladhara chakra.
A kalash is placed with due rituals on all important occasions. It is placed near the entrance as
a sign of welcome.
In Jain temples; The Kalasha is included in the Ashtamangala lists of both
the Svetambara and Digambara sects of Jainism. Two eyes are depicted around the Kalasha,
symbolising right faith and right knowledge. It is used for religious and social ceremonies. It
is used in temples when certain images are being worshipped. When one enters a new home it
is customary to carry the kalasha on the head reciting mantras. This ceremony is performed to
welcome grace and happiness into the new home. They first appear in stone in the Kushan
Empire period (65-224 AD). It is a symbol of auspiciousness.

23
 Chapter
GOPURA of South Indian Mandirs
nārāyaṇaṁ namaskṛtya naraṁ caiva narottamam
devīṁ sarasvatīṁ vyāsaṁ tato jayam udīrayet/When translated:

Om ! Having bowed down to Narayana and Nara, the most exaltedmale

being, and also to the goddess Sarasvati, must the word Jaya be uttered.

What is the significance of the Gopuram?

Gopuram”

It is believed that construction of temples started in Kaliyug. In the earlier

Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dwapar Yuga, the devotees were able to make
direct union with God.
Meaning of Go Puram

1. Tamil language terms like 'ko' 'koil' in Tamil makes us wonder whether
the word gopuram was originally pronounced as 'kopuram' but transformed
into 'gopuram' as the word came to symbolise the temple gopuram in
sanskrit. The word 'ko' in Tamil stands for king and also God. In early
works, ko+il
(koil) was meant for the king's palace and it came to signify temple only
much later. Similarly, ko+puram might have meant the outer portion of the
king's / god's dwelling.

2. Another interesting theory :

"gopuram" comes from "go puram" where "gO" probably refers to cows or
cow-shed, "gO shAla", and "puram" means "city", "neighbourhood" or
"residence".

3. In ancient days, temples in India did have separate quarters inside the
temple precincts to house many cow-sheds. Often these cowsheds were built
abutting the temple tower (as can be seen even now in the Kanchi
Varadaraja temple), giving hence the temple-tower its unique name of "gO
puram" - the "residence of cows".

4. The very soil inside a temple is said to be supremely sacrosanct. We

should ask ourselves why it is so. If there are indeed any "gO shAla-s" within
a temple and the herds are often led about, here and there, within the
precincts, then the soil they trample upon is said to become "gO dhULi" --
the dust thrown up by cow-hoofs. This fine dust blown off the hoofs of cows
is held to be sacred since in the 'Krisha-avatar. Now, whenever a pilgrim in
India enters into the portals or the "gOpuram" of any temple, he is expected

24
to mentally re-live the scenes of the "krishnAvatAra" and imagine too, as
well, the "gO dhULi" spread fine all across the cowherd, Krishna's person.

The tower that guards the sacred, "sAttvic" soil of "gO dhULi" strewn and
spread all across the temple grounds -- such a tower, quite appropriately,
gets the name "gO puram".

Gopura Darshan in Temples

5. As soon as we enter into the temple (or even before entering) we should do
pranams (Namaskarams ) to the Gopuram.
In fact those who are in a hurry and who do not have time to enter into a
temple will have the blessing of the almighty just by doing worship to the
Gopuram. But some people take it for granted that it is just enough if they
worship the Gopuram and they need not even enter into the temple.

6. What is the significance of the Gopuram?

Our scriptures confirm that the Gopuram is nothing but the symbol of the
feet of God! When we have the darshan of the feet of God- what else do we
need?

http://www.brahminsnet.com/forums/showthread.php/1938-What-is-the-significance-of-the-
Gopuram-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

A gopuram or gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the

entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. They are a prominent
feature of koils, Hindu temples built in the Dravidian style.
Murdeshwara Temple in Karnataka,India has 2 Gopurams, but most
temples have just 1. This Gopuram is 237 feet tall and the temple is from
2000 BC.Yes.

If it is a complex( See Pic Above) of several temples such as the Angkor, then
each structure should generally have 1. With the increasing threat from
invading armies, the temple cities found it expedient to erect a series of
protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples, palaces and cities.
The Gopuras constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the
next, initially, served as watch towers for defense.The gopuram's origins can
be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to the
central shikhara towers of North India. Most Kalasams are made of metal
and some of stone. View of Gopuram (temple tower) is one of the important
rituals of Hindu worship along with view of Dwajasthambam or Kodimaram
(temple flag mast). These Gopurams were topped with ornamental
Kalasams.

25
Gopurams are widespread in south Indian temples, predominantly in Tamil
Nadu. Very tall gopurams are a later feature, added from the Middle Ages
onwards, typically to much older temples.

Birds eye view from the Western Baray Lake to Wat Bakong, Lolei and Phnum Bok.From this Pic the
tall GOPURAMS are easily seen

26
History of Temples
In the Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire
that stood for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the
sky, and oblations were offered to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-
Aryans first started building temples for worship. The scheme of building temples
was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol worship.
Locations of Temples

As the race progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred
meeting place for the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual
energies. Large temples were usually built at picturesque places, especially on river
banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore. Smaller temples or open-air shrines
can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even under the tree.

Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amarnath to Ayodha,
Brindavan to Banaras, Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari — are all known for their wonderful
temples.

Temple Architecture
The architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and there
is a great variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes —
rectangular, octagonal, semicircular — with different types of domes and gates. Temples in
southern India have a different style than those in northern India. Although the architecture of
Hindu temples is varied, they mainly have many things in common.

The 6 Parts of a Hindu Temple

1. The Dome and Steeple: The steeple of the dome is called ‘shikhara’ (summit) that
represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape of the dome
varies from region to region and the steeple is often in the form of the trident of Shiva.
2. The Inner Chamber: The inner chamber of the temple called ‘garbhagriha’ or ‘womb-
chamber’ is where the image or idol of the deity (‘murti’) is placed. In most temples, the
visitors cannot enter the garbhagriha, and only the temple priests are allowed inside.
3. The Temple Hall: Most large temples have a hall meant for the audience to sit. This is
also called the ‘nata-mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women
dancers or ‘devadasis’ used to perform dance rituals. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate,
pray, chant or watch the priests perform the rituals. The hall is usually decorated with
paintings of gods and goddesses.
4. The Front Porch: This area of the temples usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from
the ceiling. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and
departure.
5. The Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir of
fresh water is built on the temple premises. The water is used for rituals as well as to keep the
temple floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.
6. The Walkway: Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for
circum-ambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the temples god or
goddess.

27
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

Ranganathaswamy Srirangam,
239.5
1 Temple, 1987 CE
01 Tiruchirappalli, T
Raja Gopuram
amil Nadu, India

Murdeshwar, Kar
2 Murdeshwara Temple 237 2008 CE
nataka, India

9th
century
Annamalaiyar Temple
CE; Tiruvannamalai,
3 East Gopuram 216.5
gopuram Tamil Nadu, India
(Raja Gopuram)
16th
century

28
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

10th-16th
Srivilliputhur Andal Srivilliputhur, Ta
4 193.5 centuries
Temple mil Nadu, India
CE

Ulagalantha Perumal Tirukoilur, Tamil

5 192 CE
Temple Nadu, India

29
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

Kanchipuram, Ta
6 Ekambareswarar Temple 190 CE
mil Nadu, India

Madurai, Tamil
7 Kallazhagar Temple 187 CE
Nadu, India

15th
Kasi Viswanathar temple, Tenkasi, Tamil
8 180 century
Tenkasi Nadu, India
CE

30
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

Annamalaiyar Temple
9th
Northern Gopuram Tiruvannamalai,
8 171 century
(Ammani Amman Tamil Nadu, India
CE
Gopuram)

Meenakshi Amman Madurai, Tamil

9 170 870 CE
Temple Nadu, India

15th
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, Karnatak
10 166 century
main entrance gopuram a, India
CE

12th
Kumbakonam, Ta
11 Sarangapani Temple 164 century
mil Nadu, India
CE

Annamalaiyar Temple 9th

Tiruvannamalai,
12 Southern Gopuram 157 century
Tamil Nadu, India
(Tirumanjana Gopuram) CE

31
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

1523- Mannargudi, Tam

13 Rajagopalaswamy Temple 154
1575 CE il Nadu, India

Mangalagiri, And
Lakshmi Narasimha
14 153 1809 CE hra
Temple, Mangalagiri
Pradesh, India

Annamalaiyar Temple 9th

Tiruvannamalai,
15 Northern Gopuram 144 century
Tamil Nadu, India
(Pei Gopuram) CE

32
 Hei Consec
Ra ration Location
Temple Image ght
nk
ft
Year

Ranganathaswamy 13th
Srirangam, Tamil
16 Temple, 144 Century
Nadu, India
Vellayi Gopuram CE]

Sankara Narayanan 11th

Sankarankovil, Ta
17 Temple, Sankaranayinar 127 century
mil Nadu, India
koil, Sankarankovil CE

9th Nanjangud, Karn

18 Nanjundeshwara Temple 120 century ataka, India
CE

Significance of the "Gopuram" in Hindu temples?

All Indian temples (12th century onwards) were surrounded by series of concentric
protective walls called the prakaras. Towers erected over the entrance gateways of
these walls are known as Gopuras or Gopurams. These towers can go over fifty
meters tall.

A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure

of brick and pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof

33
crowned with a row of finials. It differs from the Vimana over the central shrine in
that it need not necessarily be square-based.

When viewed from top, the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With sculptures and
carvings of Yalis and mythical animals located in the outer enclosure. Humans and
divine beings are in the inner enclosures. The peak of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is
at the centre of the Mandala

These sculptures follow a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology,
particularly those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the
gopuram is located.
Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the
deity. A devotes bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the
temple and proceeds towards the sanctum, leaving behind the world of
contradictions. It is believed that construction of temples started in Kaliyug. In the
earlier Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dwapar Yuga, the devotees were able to make
direct union with God.

Meaning of Go- Puram

In sanatana Sampradaya All Temples have a GOIPURAM or Sikharam on the
sanctum sanctorum or Garbha gudi where MOOLA VIRAAT is there.
If One is unable to enter into Temple and Have Darshan of eswara or Parameswari
there, the Shastraas say that have a DARSHAN OF THE GOPURAM.
On the Gopuram there will be a small Moorthy of moola Vit\raat.
This is Called VIMAANA MOORTHY.

it is equal to the Moola Viraat in the Garbha Gudi.

So those who could not have an opportunity to have a darshan inside the Garbha
Gudi, for reasons of RUSH OR HEALTH OR ANY OTHER THING , they CAN SEE
THIS VIMAANAM OR AALAYA SIKHARAM AND IT IS EQUAL TO ENTERING AND
HAVING DARSHAN INSIDE.

This Vimaana or GOPURA DARSHANAM IS SO PAAPA VIMOCHANAM as you are

are we are seeing the Parameswara in GOPURA.
That is the meaning.

34
Tamil terms like 'ko' 'koil' in Tamil makes us wonder whether the word gopuram
was
originally pronounced as 'kopuram' but transformed into 'gopuram' as the word
came to symbolise the temple gopuram in sanskrit. The word 'ko' in Tamil stands
for king and also God. In early works, ko+il
(koil) was meant for the king's palace and it came to signify temple only much later.
Similarly, ko+puram might have meant the outer portion of the king's / god's
dwelling

Another interesting theory :

"gopuram" comes from "go puram" where "gO" probably refers to cows or cow-shed,
"gO shAla", and "puram" means "city", "neighbourhood" or "residence".
In ancient days, temples in India did have separate quarters inside the temple
precincts to house many cow-sheds. Often these cowsheds were built abutting the
temple tower (as can be seen even now in the Kanchi Varadaraja temple), giving
hence the temple-tower its unique name of "gO puram" - the "residence of cows".

Origins: The Gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Tamil
kings Pallavas; and by the twelfth century, under the Pandyarulers, these gateways
became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually
overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the
Gopuram's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of
ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one Gopuram. They also appear in
architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat.
A koil may have multiple Gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in
tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the
central deity's shrine) is also called the Vimanam.
Seeing Gopura is as good as seeing God and therefore if one sees God, papa
vimochana is done. Elders say that Morning Gopura Darshan is punniyam.

Visual Context of the GOPURA DHARSHAN IN TEMPLES ;-

As soon as we enter into the temple (or even before entering) we should do pranams
(Namaskarams ) to the Gopuram.
In fact those who are in a hurry and who do not have time to enter into a temple
will have the blessing of the almighty just by doing worship to the Gopuram.
But some people take it for granted that it is just enough if they worship the
Gopuram and they need not even enter into the temple.

What is the significance of the Gopuram?

Our scriptures confirm that the Gopuram is nothing but the symbol of the feet of
God!
When we have the darshan of the feet of God- what else do we need?
Now you can guess why the Gopuram was built so high! You can have the darshan
of the Gopuram- rather the feet of god from any distance! Thus away from temple
may not make us away from GOD! God's grace is very high! That is why Gopuram
is very high!
Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the
deity. A devotes bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the
temple and proceeds towards the sanctum, leaving behind the world of
contradictions.
In concept, the crest of the Gopuram has the same significance of representing the
central Brahmasthan which is the energy field of any building. This energy field in

35
three dimension is taken to the top level of the gopuram and this confers spiritual
benefits to the visitors of the temple.
In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent
the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that
envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material world. The Gopuras
are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple
and proceeds toward the central shrine
The Gopura also emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.
Gopuras came in rather late during the mid-12th century in evolution of Dravidian
or South Indian Temple Architecture and probably due to security reasons.
With the increasing threat from invading armies, the temple cities found it
expedient to erect a series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples,
palaces and cities. The Gopuras constructed on the gateways leading from one
enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch towers for defense.
Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura of the Jambukesvara
temple at Tiruchchirappalli, the Gopuras of the great Shiva temple at
Chidambaram and the Gopuras of the Meenakshi temple at Madurai.
Meenakshi temple has twelve impressive Gopuras over the three tier Prakara walls.
The outer four towers are nine -storied with heights ranging from 161 feet to 170
feet.
Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. The
spaces around the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the
main shrine, the lesser was its eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of a
more utilitarian or a secular nature - shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc.,
thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship to the hub of a vibrant
living city.

In concept, the crest of the Gopuram has the same significance of representing
the central Brahmasthan which is the energy field of any building. This energy field
in three dimension is taken to the top level of the gopuram and this confers
spiritual benefits to the visitors of the temple.

In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent
the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that
envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material world. The Gopuras
are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple
and proceeds toward the central shrine

The Gopura also emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.
Gopuras came in rather late during the mid-12th century in evolution of Dravidian
or South Indian Temple Architecture and probably due to security reasons.
With the increasing threat from invading armies, the temple cities found it
expedient to erect a series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples,
palaces and cities. The Gopuras constructed on the gateways leading from one
enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch towers for defense.

Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura of the Jambukesvara
temple at Tiruchchirappalli, the Gopuras of the great Shiva temple at
Chidambaram and the Gopuras of the Meenakshi temple at Madurai.

Meenakshi temple has twelve impressive Gopuras over the three tier Prakara walls.
The outer four towers are nine -storied with heights ranging from 161 feet to 170
feet.

36
 Meenakshi
temple Madurai.India layout

Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. The
spaces around the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the
main shrine, the lesser was its eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of a
more utilitarian or a secular nature - shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc.,
thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship to the hub of a vibrant
living city.
A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri
Rangam, which has seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras,
the seventh, the outer most enclosure encloses an area of about six hundred acres.
The gopuram was constructed to large heights this is because the old people who
cannot come to temple can also pray their god by sitting at their place just seeing
the gopuram.

Cultural Importance:
In ancient days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was
identified either using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being
ruined due to invasion, temples served as the major landmark for the passengers.
In order to facilitate the traveling folk to identify the locations easily, the Gopuram’s
of the temples have to be built at high. Thatpaved way for the high Gopuram’s.
By means of seeing the Gopuram’s from distance, passengers calculated the
approximate distance of their destination from their location. Gopuram’s were built
very high to serve as landmarks as well as for passenger distance’s
Further, temples served as the main shelter for travelers. When people travel
between places, they stay at the temple premises to take rest. Before they begin the
new part of their journey, they would worship GOD and start.

Scientific Reason:
Gopuram acts as a lightning arrest. A metallic object mounted on top of a building,
electrically bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface with ground or
"earth" through an electrode, engineered to protect the building in the event of
lightning strike. If lightning targets the building it will preferentially strike the rod

37
and be conducted to ground through the wire, instead of passing through the
building, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution.
The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives
cosmic energy to the main deity in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam
acts like an antenna and receives the cosmic energy from the space and through an
underground channel it is connected to the main deity in the Garbha-graha. The
cosmic energy constantly flows through the Jathuskambam to the idol and energies
the it. Secondly, the celestial power drawn through the dome gives the deity
effulgence and metaphysical powers. The cosmic-energy is further maintained by
sound waves (Vedic chants) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like structure
helps to amplify and preserve the cosmic energy. These are the reasons for anyone
to feel a positive energy, goodness, calmness or divinity when we approach the
inner sanctum.
The copper plate has the tendency to suck part the Ether when that penetrates
through the copper and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic energy that
penetrates through the skin to cure the human, and that’s why the copper plate is
put on the temple tower.

GO PURAM-
COW SHED
Gates: Gopurams act as a gates to the temple-town. Speaking from the context of
Tamil Nadu, there are a lot of temple-towns (like Chidambaram, Rameshwaram,
Palani etc..) . In these towns, almost the entire population is concentrated in the
area around the temples. During the ancient times, the temples were used not just
as a place of worship, but also a place of learning (schools), a place for trade
(markets ) and also as a Dharamshala (resting place for tired travelers). You need to
be adequately protected as forts were not an intricate part of Tamil architecture
back then. The four gopurams, one facing each direction acted as a gate.
Watch-towers: As another answer pointed out, gopurams are also used as a
watch-towers by the kings to watch out for any invading enemy. As I said, forts
were a recent addition and before that, it was the temples which did a good job.
Architecture: I am a novice when it comes to art and architecture, but the
gopurams were also a show-case of creativity . It is also proof that ancient India
had supreme building artists and designers. A classic case is the gopuram of the
Thanjavur main temple.
Impressionistic: Tall gopurams are a way of creating a first impression for any new
comer entering the city. Before the advent of modern buildings, the temple
gopuram is usually the tallest building in the town that could be seen at a distance
of even more than 10 kms. Even today, when you take a drive along National
Highway-45, near Trichy, you can see the gopuram of Srirangam temple from the
Kaveri bridge. Even though the Kaveri is completely dry, the sight of gopurams
would not be lost on someone who admires Tamil Nadu’s rich history.
Srirangam gopuram as seen from the bridge, a distance of more than 5 kms.

38
Showcasing the history: Gopurams show-case the history is pics or by statues.
Thats what the statues of the gods are for. They show case the mythology and the
history behind that place.
A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure
of brick and pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof
crowned with a row of finials.
When viewed from top, the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With sculptures and
carvings of Yalis and mythical animals located in the outer enclosure. Humans and
divine beings are in the inner enclosures. The peak of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is
at the centre of the Mandala

ETMOLOGY: The Sanskrit word, गोपुर, is often translated as "town gate".

Separately, it consists of two words go, with the possible meanings of "cow" or
"sky", and pura, meaning city. The word was borrowed into Tamil where it is
pronounced kopuram and given a folk etymology of derivation from the two words:
(Kō) and (puram) meaning 'King' and 'exterior' respectively.It originates from the
Sangam age when it was known as meaning 'Imperishable gateway'.Adhering to the
orthodox grammar of sankattamiḻ (Classical Tamil), it would be pronounced koh-
puram as the velar is always voiceless in the Tamil language.

By means of seeing the Gopuram’s from distance, passengers calculated the

approximate distance of their destination from their location. Further, temples
served as the main shelter for travelers. When people travel between places, they
stay at the temple premises to take rest.In ancient days, Temples served as the
major landmarks of the land. A place was identified either using the palaces or
temples. In order to facilitate the traveling folk to identify the locations easily, the
Gopuram’s of the temples have to be built at high.

PHYSICAL IMPORTANCE:
Gopuram acts as a lightning arrest. A metallic object mounted on top of a building,
electrically bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface with ground or
"earth" through an electrode, engineered to protect the building in the event of
lightning strike. If lightning targets the building it will preferentially strike the rod
and be conducted to ground through the wire, instead of passing through the
building.

Symbolism of ‘Gopuram’
Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the
deity. A devotes bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the
temple and proceeds towards the sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradict
ions. n the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to
represent the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and
intelligence-that envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material
world. The Gopuras are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as
one enters the temple and proceeds toward the central shrine. Gopuras appear to
have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. The spaces around the
shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the main shrine, the
lesser was its eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of a more utilitarian or a
secular nature – shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the
temple from a purely place of worship to the hub of a vibrant living city.

A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri

Rangam, which has seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras,
the seventh, the outer most enclosure encloses an area of about six hundred acres.

39
 Chidam
baran

Meenakshi Temple,Madurai 7 GOPURAMS

Decorations: Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and
painted with a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology, particularly
those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the gopuram is
located. EPILOGUE:A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level
wooden doors, often richly decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering
gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower
narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial.

Form: The form began rather modestly in the 10th century, as at Shore Temple,
Mahabalipuram, with the 11th century Brihadeeswarar Templein Thanjavur
marking a crucial step forward with two multi-storey gopurams from that period,
much larger than any earlier ones, though much smaller than the main tower of
the temple. The four gopurams of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are
important early examples, begun in the mid-13th century but completed over a
longer period.

It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine

has more than one gopuram.They also appear in architecture outside India,
especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat.The gopuram's origins can be

40
traced back to early structures of the Tamil kings Pallavas; and by the twelfth
century, under the Pandyarulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a
temple's outer appearance. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu
temples of the Dravidian style.They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone
finial. A Gopura (singular) (Sanskrit: गोपुर) or Gopuram (plural) is a monumental
tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India.

Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the outer gopurams, with
the exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous
as the temple complex itself. The Ananda Nilayam gopuram- vimanam of the
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple is a famous example where the gopuram of the
main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and identity.A
koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers
around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having four gopura-vimanas, one each on every side, situated exactly in
the center of each wall. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central
deity's shrine) are also called the vimanam.

Tallest Gopurams:
Murudeshwara Temple 236 FT Annamalaiyar Temple 216 FT Srivilliputhur Andal
Temp 193 FT Tallest gopurams :
Ulagalantha Perumal Temple 192 FT Meenakshi Amman Temple 170 FT
Rajagopalaswamy Tem 154 FT

An example of a Gopiram with exquisite design is found at Thirukkurungudi in

Thirunelveli District is famous as it is home to a large and beautiful temple for
Vishnu dedicated to Azhagiyanambi. This temple is a Divya Desam (sacred
abodes of Vishnu sung in praise of by the Azhvars or important Vaishnava
devotees). The deity has been praised in the Tamil verses (Pasuram) of
Nammazhvar, Periazhvar, Thirumazhisai Azhvar and Thirumangai Azhvar. At the
entrance is a gopuram which is incomplete.
Advertisement: 3:36
Next is the Chittirai gopuram which has many unique sculptures on the stone
base and wood carvings inside. In front of this gopuram is a mandapam, which
has exquisite stone sculptures which are part of the huge monolithic pillars.
Azhagiyanambi, the principal image, in a standing posture is made of stucco
(sudhai) and painted in the traditional mode (varna kalapam). This image is a
very beautiful one about whom Nammazhvar has waxed eloquent.
There are two more sanctums in this temple for Vishnu in seated and reclining
postures also. The image in a seated pose is known as Veetrirunda Narayanan
and is seen with Goddesses Sridevi and Bhudevi. Pallikonda Nambi is Vishnu
reclining on Adisesha with Brahma seated on the lotus emanating from Vishnu’s
navel. Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped as Thirukkurungudi Nachiyar. The image
of Andal here is unique as this deity is seen with four hands.
The upper hands hold lotuses while the lower right hand is in abhaya hasta and
lower left hand is in varada hasta. In the Thirunelveli region, Andal is generally
seen like this. Ramanujacharya, the famous Sri Vaishnava preceptor (Acharya)
had a close connection with this temple. This temple is associated with a moving
episode of Nampaduvan, a devotee of God Nambi who sung before this deity
every day. He was so sincere that he was prepared to give himself up to a
Brahmarakshasa (evil sprit). This is mentioned in the Kaisika Puranam and
celebrated during the Kaisika Ekadasi in this temple.

41
Three forms of Vishnu
The standing, seated and reclining forms of Vishnu are worshipped in this
temple
Ramanujacharya
This preceptor had a close connection with this temple
Inscriptions
Many epigraphs mentioning donations are found here.
Vijayanagara-era ‘gopuram’ in a state of neglect

A view of the ‘Gopuram’ near Chandragiri fort. | Photo

Credit: SpecialArrangementower may collapse because it has developed a six
inch-wide vertical crack

An ancient ‘gopuram’ in the vicinity of the famed Chandragiri fort symbolising the
architectural grandeur of the Vijayanagara era is in a state of neglect, indicative of
both
civic indifference and official apathy.
The 100-ft tall structure is made of granite stone up to the roof, with brick
and lime mortar forming part of the super structure. The tower has developed
a six inch-wide vertical crack, the plastering has peeled off and the stucco
sculpture is in a bad shape, not to mention the wild growth of shrubs in the
vicinity of the ‘uncared for’ structure. The Gopuram is located near
Reddivaripalle village in Chandragiri mandal, dotted with such dilapidated
structures of the Vijayanagara era, many of them built when the dynasty
ruled the region with Chandragiri as its capital.
This Reddyvaripalle was known as Siddhankuttai in the erstwhile Valanadu
district. The link has been established by noted archaeologist E. Sivanagi
Reddy, Chief Executive Officer of ‘The Culture Centre of Vijayawada and
Amaravati’. The village finds a mention in an inscription engraved on the
outer wall in the first precincts (Prakara) of Tirumala temple, which dates
back to 1433 AD during the reign of Sri Veera Pratapa Devaraya II (Praudha
Devaraya).
According to Gopi Krishna, a senior research scholar on the TTD temples, the
inscription records an agreement among Sri Venkateswara temple treasury,
the temple authorities and the Mahajanas of the village. It grants 50% of
revenue of Siddhankuttai village in Kottala Sthalam within Vaikuntha

42
Valanadu district to the 24 Mahajanas of the Srinivasapuram Agraharam for
performing Veda Parayanam in Srivari temple, on condition of having two
persons among them each day in the presence of the deity of
‘Tiruvenkatamudaiyan’ (the Tamil name for Lord Venkateswara).
“Based on this inscription, we have identified Siddhankuttai as
Reddivaripalli,” Dr. Sivanagi Reddy told The Hindu. Under the scheme
‘Preserve heritage for posterity’, he recently visited the site along with heritage
activist B.V. Ramana and ‘Sthapathi’ Dr.P. Subramani. Interestingly, the
‘Kottala Sthalam’ mentioned in the inscription is the current day Kotala, the
nearest railway station on the Tirupati-Pakala route, located 3 km from the
ruins.

Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house

The Quincunx of Towers at the centre of Angkor Wat

43
 CHAPTER
HINDU SOUTH INDIAN INSPIRED TEMPLE OF
ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat is a very elaborate temple, built on three levels, and it is very
difficult to envision from written descriptions. This tour takes you through
the temple in the fashion you are most likely to encounter it on a tour. Let
us begin with a general description of the complex Vertically speaking,
Angkor Wat is built upon three levels, with the third level leading to its
famous five peaks. When viewed architecturally and functionally, the
complex can be divided into two areas:

 The outer courtyard: extending from the moat to the wall complex
shown above, including the cruciform platform (Figure 1 in the both
the diagram above and below)

 The inner temple complex: the main area enclosed by the complex
walls, divided into two squares:

o a cruciform cloister and libraries near the western entrance on

the second level

o a larger cruciform terrace on the third level that includes offices

and the temple itself.

The numbers on the tour below correspond to the path most visitors take
when visiting Angkor Wat. Tours begin by turning right at the cruciform
platform, following the terrace on level one. Angkor Wat boasts the world's
largest bas-relief, extending all the way around the temple, protected by a
covered walkway. Upon returning to the entrance, visitors can ascend the
stairs to the cruciform cloisters on the second terrace. Stairs from the
cloisters lead to the third terrace and the cruciform terrace that contains the
main temple.

44
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a
Buddhist temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built.
Hence, this great Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism
and Buddhism were brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early
Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.

The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept
of Mandala. In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the
symbol of Mandala. This concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been
brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas
were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted through its great temple.

Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the
entrance of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this
structure at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the

45
Khmer.Empire.

In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.

Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national
symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the
Khmer Empire from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity
of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.

Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of
Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as
the four gates on the outermost wall.

46
47
ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist
temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great
Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were
brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the
Khmer Empire.

The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala.
In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This
concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast
Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire,
and depicted through its great temple.

GOPURAS in Temples N0.

Of
Gopuras

1 Angkor Wat 5

48
2 A 24
Phom Bakheng

3 South Gate of Angkor 1

Thom

4 Bayon 1

5 Bauphon 1

6 Terrace of the Elephants 0 Terrace

7 Terrace of the Leper 0 Terrace

Kings

8 Preah Khan 1

9 Banteay Prei 1

10 Thommanon 1

11 Choasay Tevada 1

12 Ta Keo 1

13 Neak Pean 1

14 Ta Som 2

15 Banteay Srei 1

16 East Mebon 1

17 Pre Rup 4

18 Sras Srang 0 reservior

19 Prasat Kravan

20 Banteay Kdei

21 Ta Prohm

22 Victory Gate 0 Gate

49
Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance
of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure
at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer
Empire.

In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.

Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national
symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the
Khmer Empire from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity
of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.

The layout of Angkor Wat closely resembles that of a mandala, although it

deviates from the conventional form of a mandala. Angkor Wat's layout
retains the core elements of a mandala, namely the presence of concentric
shapes, the T-shaped gates at the 4 cardinal points and also a "central
being", which is represented by a tower.

The quincunx (the arrangement of 5 elements where 4 elements are

placed as the corners of a square and the 5th in the centre) of towers in
Angkor Wat is a symbolic representation of the five peaks of Mount Meru.
This sacred mountain is regarded in both Hinduism and Buddhist
cosmology to be the centre of all physical, metaphysical and spiritual
universes, and the abode of the gods. As such, the quincunx represents
enlightenment and ascension to a higher spiritual level, which may be
why as the closer you move to the centre of the mandala in the picture as
shown, the taller the towers are. This represents the idea of ascension.
The placement of towers also represent the mandala. They are placed
diagonally, such that it creates the visual impression of something
radiating outwards.

50
Thommanon consists of a simple layout of a central cruciform sanctuary
(as introduced at Ta Keo) with a gopura attached to the main entrance (as
introduced at Banteay Srei). It was the similarities of the apsara carvings
with those of Angkor Wat, however, that helped archaeologists date this
temple.

51