 What is the need of computer networks?

a)Resource sharing: A network is needed because of the desire to share the sharable
programs, data, and equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to the
physical location of the resource and the user. You can also share processing load on various
networked resources.

b) High reliability: A network may have alternative sources of supply (e.g., replicated files,
multiple CPUs, etc.). In case of one resource failure, the others could be used and the system
continues to operate at reduced performance. This is a very important property for military,
banking, air traffic control, and many other applications.

c) Cost-benefit advantage: A network may consist of many powerful small computers, one
per user. You can keep the data and applications on one or more shared and powerful file
server machines. This is called the client-server model. Such model offers a much better
price/performance ratio than old mainframes. At present many server services have been
moved to Internet based resources set up by a third party and shared by many (called cloud).
This allows users to use powerful server applications and data services without maintaining
servers. Such system may bring down the cost further. However, such models still have
several issues that are being debated.

d) Scalability: The ability to increase system performance gradually by adding more

processors (incremental upgrade).

 Data Communication System

In the connected world, a computer does not work as a standalone system but as part of a
communication system. Besides computers, most of the large/complex systems like the
navigation systems for ships or aircraft or rockets, the satellites and many other systems rely
on the communication system. In the most fundamental sense, communication involves
implicitly the transmission of data or information (the information is derived from data) from
one point to another through a succession of processes.

Modes of Data Transmission:

There are 3 modes of data communication:
Simplex
Half duplex
Full duplex

Simplex Mode : In simplex mode of data communication, data flow is uni-directional. This
means that data travels only in one direction i.e., from a sender to a receiver. The receiver
cannot respond back to the sender. An example of simplex mode is keyboard, or a television
station telecasting a program.

Half Duplex Mode : Half duplex communications occurs when data flows in both directions;
although in only one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex system is a Walkie-
Talkie system used a two-way radio normally by Police. You may use the word "Over" to
indicate the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time. In such
systems sender and receiver both transmit on the same frequency.
 Full Duplex Mode: In full duplex mode of data transmission, data is transmitted in both the
direction simultaneously. This means that both the devices in a network can send and
receive the data at the same time. It is like a two lane road with traffic moving in both
directions at the same time. In this mode signals going in either direction share the capacity.
Half of the bandwidth is used for sending data in one direction, while the other half is used
for receiving data from other direction. An example is a telephone conversation.

 DATA TRANSMISSION CHANNELS

a) Guided Channels
b) Unguided Channels

Guided Media Guided media provide a physical connection between two devices. A signal
traveling through guided media is directed and contained within the physical limits of the
medium. There are several different Guided media, however we define only the most
popular as given below:
a) Twisted pair cable
b) Optic Fiber cable

 Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is still the most common transmission media. A twisted pair cable
consists of two conductors which are normally made of copper. Each conductor has its own
plastic insulation typically 1 mm thick. These cables are twisted together. The wires are
twisted in a helical form, similar to a DNA molecule. Twisting is done to reduce crosstalk.
Twisted Pairs (Figure 1.3) are very effective for relatively short distances (a few hundred
feet), but can be used for up to a few kilometers

 Optical Fiber

An optical fiber consists of two concentric cylinders: an inner core surrounded by a cladding. Both
the core and the cladding are made of transparent plastic or glass material as shown in the Figure
1.4, which transmit signals in the form of light. Optical fiber use reflections to guide light through a
channel. The density of the core and cladding must differ sufficiently to reflect the beam of light
instead of refracting.

 Unguided Media
Unguided media is used for transmitting the signal without any physical media. It transports
electromagnetic waves and is often called wireless communication. Signals are broadcast through air
and received by all who have devices to receive them. It can be categorized as follows:

a) Radio waves

Radio Waves Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 Kilo-Hertz and 1 Giga-Hertz
are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are easy to generate and can travel long distances and
can penetrate buildings easily, therefore widely used for communication. These are omni-directional
which implies that these travel in all directions from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do
not have to be carefully aligned physically.

b) Micro waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging from 1 to 300 Gigahertz are called microwaves. Microwaves are
unidirectional that is the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

Microwave is by far the most widely used form of radio transmission. It operates in the GHz range
with data rates in order of hundreds of Mbps per channel. Telecommunication carriers and TV
stations are the primary users of microwave transmission.

c) Infrared
Infrared signals range between 300 Giga-Hertz to 400 Tera-Hertz. These can be used for short
range communication. High range infrared rays cannot be used for long range communication as
it cannot penetrate walls. This also helps in avoiding interference. Infrared signals are generated
and received using optical transceivers. Infrared systems represent a cheap alternative to most
other methods, because there is no cabling involved and the necessary equipment is relatively
cheap. Data rates similar to those of twisted pairs are easily possible. However, applications are
limited because of distance limitations (of about one kilometer).

 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network Topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes,
etc.) of a network interconnection between the nodes. It also determines the strategy for
physically expanding the network, in future. Topologies can be physical or logical

1):- Bus Topology

Bus topology is a single common communication to which all the computers are connected. It has a
single length of cable with a terminator at each end as shown in the Figure 1.7. It is a passive
topology which means only one computer at a time can send a message. Hence, the number of
computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the network. A computer
must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. Each node is connected to others nodes. The
network operating system keeps track of a unique address of each node and manages the flow of
data between machines.

Advantages
a) It is simple, reliable, and easy to be used in a small sized local area network.

b) It requires least amount of cable to connect computers together and is therefore less expensive
than other cabling arrangements.

c) It is easy to implement and extend using connectors.

d) If one computer on the bus fails, it does not affect the rest of the traffic on the bus.

Disadvantages

a) In this topology, no two computers can transmit data at the same time.

b) It does not cope well with heavy load which can slow down a bus considerably.

c) Performance degrades as additional computers are added.

d) Terminators are required at both ends of the cable.

 Ring Topology

Ring topology is also known as circular topology. This layout is similar to the linear bus, except that
the nodes are connected in a circle as shown in Figure 8. In this topology, each node is connected to
two and only two neighboring nodes. The ring does not have an end. It is made of short segments
that connect one PC to the next PC and so on Data is accepted from one of the neighboring nodes
and is transmitted onwards to another node .Therefore data travels in only direction from node to
node around the rings.

Advantages

a) It is an orderly network where every device has access to the token (control signal) and the
opportunity to transmit – because every computer is given equal access to the token, no computer
can monopolize the network.

b) It performs better than a star topology under heavy network load.

c) It can create much larger network using Token Ring.

d) It does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers.
Disadvantages

a) Network adapter cards and Multi Access Units used in this topology are much more expensive
than Ethernet cards and hubs used in bus topology.
b) It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.

c) It is difficult to troubleshoot.

d) One malfunctioning node or bad port

 Star Topology

In star topology, each computer on a network communicates with a central hub (also called as a
concentrator) that re-sends the message either to all the computers or only to the destination
computer. A hub expands one network connection into many. For example, a four-port hub connects
up to four machines. A single hub is sufficient for a small network; however large networks require
multiple hubs. But, it increases hardware and cabling costs.

Advantages

a) It is more reliable (if one connection fails, it does not affect others) –The centre of a star network is
a good place to diagnose network faults and if one computer fails whole network is not disturbed.
Hub detects the fault and isolates the faulty computer.

b) It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices, problem can be easily detected-It is
easier to modify or add a new computer without disturbing the rest of the network by simply
running a new line from the computer to the central location and plugging it to the hub.

c) Use of multiple cables types in a same network with a hub.

d) It has good performance

Disadvantages

a) It is expensive to install as it requires more cable, it costs more to cable a star network because
all network cables must be pulled to one central point, requiring more cable length than other
networking topologies.

b) Central node dependency, if central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. c) Many star
networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch the network traffic.

 NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
 LAN (Local Area Network)
  2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network
 WAN (Wide Area Network)


Local Area Network (LAN) LAN (Figure 1.10) is a group of computers located in the same room, on
the same floor or in the same building that are connected to form a single network as to share
resources such as disk drives, printers, data, CPU, fax/modem, applications etc.

LAN is generally limited to specific geographical area less than 2 Km., supporting high speed
networks. A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have more recently
become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet system based on the bus
topology

Characteristics of LAN

It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.

LANs are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls. For the Wireless LANs
there are additional regulations in several countries.

LANs operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN (.2 to 100 MB /sec).

There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Bus
based Ethernet, Token ring.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, are large computer network that spans a metropolitan area
or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. They typically use wireless
infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites. A MAN is optimized for a larger
geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also
depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and
operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations.
MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities or privately owned. They will often
provide means for internetworking of local networks. Metropolitan area networks can span up to
50km, devices used are modem and wire/cable.

Characteristics of MAN

1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)

2) It is developed in 1980s.

3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fiber cables, however it may use other media
too

. 4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (Figure 1.12) is a network system connecting cities, countries or continents, a
network that uses routers and public communications links. The largest and most well-known
example of a WAN is the Internet.

WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers
in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built
for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide
connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At
each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on
the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built
around public network or Internet.

REFERENCE MODELS

OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model

The OSI model is an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol
design open system means that it can communicate with any other system that follows the specified
standards, formats and semantics. Protocols give the rules that specify how the different parties may
communicate. In its most basic form, it divides network architecture into seven layers which from
top to bottom are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, DataLink, and Physical
Layers.

Application Layer: This layer is the layer for user interaction. We must have application software for
dealing with the data.

Presentation Layer: It converts the data into suitable format. It does tasks like compression,
decompression, encryption and decryption.

Session Layer: This layer manages connections between different application layers. Transport Layer:
This layer converts data into segments and re-assembles the data stream. TCP and UDP are the
protocols used in this layer. In this layer, data is converted into so called segments.

Network Layer: This layer translates logical address into physical address. This layer also fixes the
route for data path. Router works in this layer. In this layer data is called a packet.
Data-Link Layer: This layer provides physical identification of a device using Media Access Control
Address. It adds source and destination address to packets and convert them into frames. This is the
layer that provides error free transmission.

Physical Layer: This layer provides the functional requirements for activating a physical link. In this
layer, data is carried from one device to another

INTERNET ADDRESSES:-
Network devices:-
Switch
Modem
Repeater
Gateway
Bridge
Network Interface Card
Router
Hub
 E -LEARNING:-
E-learning is one of the most used terms on the Internet that describes any form of
learning that is facilitated academically by the electronic means. Such means may
be in the form of multimedia rich contents, web based lectures and web based
tutorials or training programmes. In general, E-learning is strongly supported
electronically by the administrative, academic and assessment processes. Some of
the activities that may be done using such electronic form using web sites include
providing multimedia based contents, providing assignments, conducting on line
tests, lectures or discussions through web conferencing, feedback on students
work, student progress report to faculty etc.
Some of the major advantages of E-learning are:
It allows creation and fast update of online contents.
You may use the contents at your own pace and convenience.
E-learning also provides a possibility of standardization of contents that can be
changed much faster.
It has the potential of providing new learning opportunities.
It has the possibility of student’s interaction.
Flexibility of programme/course management such as student may choose
courses of their choices.
Allows creative development of new courses in specific areas.
E-learning brings people together and allows sharing their experience and
thoughts.
You can do an e-learning programme from anywhere in a much easier way.
 It allows expanding boundaries and gain knowledge without having to leave
home.
Overall, in general e-learning allows saving of resources.

E- Learning Processes Since, any e-learning project checks your achievements

against a learning outcome, therefore, it starts with identification and verification
process. The common process used for this purpose is the use of Username and
Password. You are asked to login to the e-learning system before you start using it.
Once you are successfully logged in to the system. The e-leaning topics or contents
are presented to you topic by topic. This content may include text, graphics, video,
audio, animation, link to other references. In general, such content may be
followed by some quiz or questions that try to access your understanding about
the topic that you have studies. The e-learning systems may be a Learning
Management System (LMS) or Content Management System (CMS) running as the
base system.

 E-Learning Content Development Process

Developing E Learning contents is a specialised activity. The quality of e-learning
relates to achievements of the objectives of the content by the learners. Better
quality e-learner content can be created if you follow a proper process of e-content
generation.
 Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE)
MOODLE is a free and open-source e-learning software platform. It provides
feature for Learners and content management. In the past decade, it has become
very popular for the delivery of e-learning content and student management. You
can get access to information related to Moodle for the website
http://www.moodle.org (Please refer to Figure 3.5). Alternatively, you may
download the Moodle software and create your own server having Moodle.

To access the MOODLE and learn about it from the Moodle website, you may need
to create an account. The process of creation of an account with Moodle is
somewhat similar to what you do for creating any Internet based account like email
account. The popularity of MOODLE may be attributed primarily to the fact that it
is free and it allows dynamic content creation facilities. It has a number of tools
available for managing a number of students online. In addition to content
management, MOODLE provides a number of tools for building interaction among
the learning community. Thus, allowing collaboration and peer to peer learning in
the learning communities.

Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Learning Before we discuss about advantages

and disadvantages of e-learning, you should know that e-learning is just another
model for learning. It is not that it can replace all other forms of learning models.
However, it provides several opportunities that may be of benefit for creating
certain learning instances.

Some of these opportunities are:

 It allows possibilities of course material but that require constant support of a
course team.
The level of participation of student in learning may improve as it provides
anytime, anywhere learning, but in any case the student has to be motivated by
the course team from time to time.
E-learning does improve the IT skills of individuals and may improve their time
management skills.
The content like recorded lectures may be viewed by a student at any time,
however, the interactive support that requires teacher at the other end may still be
available in slotted time only.