Material, type,

size and
Calculation Drawing detailing
configuration of
the structure

To ensure the structure is safe and suitable for

occupancy with minimum cost
a. Fitness for purpose
b. Safety and reliability
c. Economy
d. Maintainability
 Environmental
Client factor
summary Imagination
Lab test
Economic Site
factor Phase 1 survey
Planning

Equilibrium Stress &

Phase 2 strain
Forces in Structure
member Elastic
analysis modulus

Deflection

Phase 4 Phase 3
Codes of Drawing
Construction practice
Member detailing
design
 Project
manager

Architect

Consulting
engineer

Mechanical and Quantity Civil and

electrical surveyor structural
engineer engineer

Contractor
Reinforced concrete is concrete strengthened with steel bars or
reinforcements

Concrete is a mix of cement, sand, aggregate and water. High

compression strength but lower in tension.

Steel reinforcement has high tension strength

Concrete Steel
Higher Higher Reinforced
compressive tensile concrete
strength strength
The Eurocode Family (58 all together)
EN 1990 Eurocode Basis of structural design
EN 1991 Eurocode 1 Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures
EN 1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9 Design of aluminium alloy structures
EUROCODE 2 : DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

EN 1992-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings

EN 1992-1-2 General rules – Structural fire design

EN 1992-2 Concrete bridges – design and detailing rules

EN 1992-3 Liquid retaining and containment structures

 Eurocodes Title Superseded standards
EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1- Section 2
EN 1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and BS 6399: Part1 and BS 648
imposed loads

EN 1991-1-2 Action on structures exposed to -

fire

EN 1991-1-3 Snow loads BS 6399: Part 2

EN 1991-1-4 Wind loads BS 6399: Part 3
EN 1991-1-5 Thermal actions -
EN 1991-1-6 Actions during execution -
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental actions -
 Eurocodes Title Superseded standards
EN 1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88

EN 1991-3 Actions induced by crane and -

machinery
EN 1991-4 Silos and tanks -
EN 1992-1-1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1, 2 and 3
EN 1992-1-2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1 Table 3.2
structures BS 8110: Part 2 Sect. 4

EN 1992-2 Bridges BS 5400: Part 4

EN 1992-3 Liquid-retaining and containment BS 8007
structures
 Eurocode British Standard
Action Force or imposed displacement
Verification Check
Resistance Capacity
Execution Construction
Permanent action Dead load
Variable action Live load or imposed load
Isostatic Primary
 MAIN CODE

Can be downloaded at:

http://web.utm.my/psz/
NATIONAL ANNEX

Can be downloaded at:

http://web.utm.my/psz/
 2.3 Design working life

Logi Rawatan Air Jambatan

Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
A condition where failure of an element or the whole structure
e.g. collapse, overturning, buckling

Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

A condition where the structure is not suitable or comfortable
for living e.g. cracking and large deflection
Section 3 : Principle of Limit States Design (EN 1990)
3.2 Design Situations

Persistent: Design situation during a period of the same order as he design working life of
the structure. Represents normal use

Transient: Design situation during a period much shorter than the design working life of
structure, e.g. during execution or repair

Accidental: Design situation involving exceptional conditions for structure, e.g. Fire,
explosion, impact etc

Seismic: Design situation involving exceptional conditions for structure during seismic
event.
 Design strength, Xd = Characteristics strength, Xk / Partial Safety Factor, γm

Design Situations γc for Concrete γs for Reinforcing Steel

Persistant & Transient 1.5 1.15
Accidental 1.2 1.0
 Material Characteristics Strength

Mean strength, fm

Characteristics strength
Characteristics
strength

= Mean strength – 1.64s

Probability density

Example:
To get concrete with
Area = 0.05 characteristics strength of 30
N/mm2 and s = 5 N/mm2, the
mean strength will require
38.2 N/mm2
Strength

1.64s
fck is the concrete compressive cylinder strength at 28 days. Strength
value or grade concrete is usually 25, 30, 40 and 50 N/mm2
Actual Test Curve
Design Curve

αfck = 0.85fck = 0.567fck

γc 1.5
Concrete strength Characteristics Characteristics cube Modulus of
class cylinder strength, fck strength, fck Elasticity, Ecm
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (kN/mm2)

C20/25 20 25 30
C25/30 25 30 31
C30/37 30 37 33
C35/45 35 45 34
C40/50 40 50 35
C45/55 45 55 36
C50/60 50 60 37
C55/67 55 67 38
C60/75 60 75 39
fyk is the yield strength of the steel

High strength steel (H); fyk = 500 N/mm2

Mild strength steel (R); fyk = 250 N/mm2
Steel fabric (BRC); fyk = 485 N/mm2
Actual Test Curve
Design Curve
fyk = fyk = 0.87fyk
γs 1.15
Ribbed high yield bars may be classified as:

Class A: which is normally associated with small diameter (≤ 12 mm) cold

worked bars used in mesh and fabric

Class B: which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars

Class C: high ductility which may be used in earthquake design or similar

situations

e.g. HA, HB, HC

Section 4 : Basic variables

4.1 Actions and environmental influences

4.1.1 Classification of actions

(1)P Actions shall be classified by their variations in time as follows:

Permanent actions (G): e.g. Self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and road
surfacing, and indirect actions caused by shrinkage and uneven settlements;

Variable actions (Q): e.g. Imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, wind
actions or snow loads;

Accidental action (A): e.g. Explosion, or impact from vehicles.

For each variable actions there are four representative values:

1. Characteristic Value, (Qk) – An upper value with an intended

probability of not being exceeded or a lower value with an
intended probability of being achieved, during some specific
reference period
2. Combination Value, (ψoQk) – Value intended to take account of
a reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two or
more variable actions.
3. Frequent Value, (ψ1Qk) – value such that it should be exceeded
only for a short period of time and is used primarily for the
serviceability limit states and also accidental limit state.
4. Quasi-permanent Value, (ψ2Qk) – value may be exceeded for a
considerable period of time; alternatively it may be considered
as an average loading over time. It is used for a long term
effects at the SLS and also accidental and seismic ULS.
 Recommended Values of ψ Factors for Buildings
Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2

Imposed loads in buildings (see EN 1991-1-1)

Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category H: roof (see EN 1991-1-1: Cl. 3.3.2) 0.7 0 0
Wind loads on buildings (see EN 1991-1-4) 0.5 0.7 0.7
Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see EN 1991-1-5) 0.6 0.7 0.7
 Table A1.2(B) : Design values of actions – Ultimate limit states for persistent and transient
design situation

Accompanying variable
Permanent actions Leading
Combination actions
variable
Expression
Unfavourable Favourable actions Main (if any) Others

Exp. (6.10) γGj,sup Gkj,sup γGj,inf Gk,j,inf γQ,1Qk,1 γQ,i ψ0,i Qk,i
Exp. (6.10a) γGj,sup Gkj,sup γGj,inf Gk,j,inf γQ,1 ψ0,1 Qk,1 γQ,i ψ0,i Qk,i
Exp. (6.10b) ξγGj,sup Gkj,sup γGj,inf Gk,j,inf γQ,1Qk,1 γQ,i ψ0,i Qk,i
Notes:
1. The choice between 6.10, or 6.10a and 6.10b will be in the National annex.
2. The γ and ξ values may be set by the National annex. The following values for γ and ξ are
recommended when using 6.10, 6.10a and 6.10b.
γGj,sup = 1.35, γGj,inf = 1. 0, γQ,1 = 1.50 where Unfavourable (0 where favourable)
γQ,i = 1.50 where Unfavourable (0 where favourable), ξ = 0.85
 Design values of actions, ultimate limit state-persistent and transient design situations

Permanent actions Leading Accompanying variable actions

Combination
variable
Expression
actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others

Exp. (6.10) 1.35Gk 1.0Gk 1.5Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk,i

Exp. (6.10a) 1.35Gk 1.0Gk 1.5ψ0,1Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk,i
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925x1.35Gk 1.0Gk 1.5Qk 1.5ψ0,iQk,i

Note:
1. Design for either Exp.(6.10) or the less favourable of Exp. (6.10a) and (6.10b)
2. The terms favorable and unfavorable refer to the effect of the action on the design situation under consideration.
For example, if a beam, continuous over several spans, is to be designed for largest sagging bending moment it
will have to sustain any action that has the effect of increasing the bending moment will be considered
unfavorable whilst any action that reduces the bending moment will be considered to be favourable.
 Design values of actions, serviceability limit states

Permanent actions Variable actions

Combination Example of use
Unfavourable Favourable Leading Others

Characteristic 1.0Gk 1.0Gk Qk,1 ψ0,iQk,i

Cracking –
Frequent 1.0Gk 1.0Gk ψ1,1Qk,1 ψ2,1Qk,i prestressed
concrete
Quasi-
1.0Gk 1.0Gk ψ2,1Qk,1 ψ2,1Qk,i Deflection
permanent
 P P

P P
b εcc fcc 0.567fck
ηfcd = 0.567fck
Fcc

s = 0.8x
x

d N. A
z

εst fst < 0.87fyk fyd = 0.87fyk Fst

Strain Stress diagram Stress diagram EC2 stress diagram at
diagram at service at ultimate ultimate
εcc / x = εst/(d – x)  x = d/ [1 + (εst / εcc)]

At failure at ultimate limit state, steel and concrete reached maximum stress and strain;
Concrete strain, εcc = εcu2 = 0.0035 for concrete class ≤ C50/60
Steel strain, εst = Stress / Elastic Modulus
= (fyk / γm) / Es
= (fyk / 1.15) / 200 × 103
= (4.35 × 10-6)fy

For high tensile steel (T), fy = 500 N/mm2

εst = 4.35 × 10-6 (500) = 0.00218

and x = d/ [1 + (0.00218 / 0.0035)] = 0.617d