BHABHA UNIVERSITY

MEd - Semester - II, 2023

RESEARCH DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION- I
Assignments Paper-2

Q 1. Define questionnaire and describe the characteristics, uses and limitations of questionnaire.

Ans.

Definition:
A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions designed to obtain information from the respondents
or the subjects selected for a study. It is an instrument that is generally handed over to the respondents
and filled in by them with no help from the interviewer or any other person.
A questionnaire is a specific type of survey instrument that consists of a set of questions designed to
gather information or data from individuals or groups. It is a structured tool used to collect responses
systematically and standardized. In essence, a questionnaire is a type of survey that uses a standardized
set of questions.

Characteristics:
A questionnaire has three specific characteristics.
1. It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents
can and will answer.
2. It must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondents to become involved in the interview
and complete the interview.
3. It should minimize the response as well as other types of errors.

Types of Questionnaires in Research

There are various types of questionnaires in survey research, including:

 Postal: Postal questionnaires are paper surveys that participants receive through the mail.
Once respondents complete the survey, they mail them back to the organization that sent
them.
 In-house: In this type of questionnaire, researchers visit respondents in their homes or
workplaces and administer the survey in person.
 Telephone: With telephone surveys, researchers call respondents and conduct the
questionnaire over the phone.
 Electronic: Perhaps the most common type of questionnaire, electronic surveys are presented
via email or through a different online medium.
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Uses of questionnaire:

The main and most common purpose of making use of a questionnaire is to gather data from a
respondent (such as a company employee). It’s an advantageous method since it’s a quick way to
gather data even if the researcher isn’t present to collect them firsthand. This advantage is especially
common in self-administered questionnaires.

Advantages of Questionnaires

Some of the many benefits of using questionnaires as a research tool include:

 Practicality: Questionnaires enable researchers to strategically manage their target audience,

questions and format while gathering large data quantities on any subject.
 Cost-efficiency: You don’t need to hire surveyors to deliver your survey questions — instead,
you can place them on your website or email them to respondents at little to no cost.
 Speed: You can gather survey results quickly and effortlessly using mobile tools, obtaining
responses and insights in 24 hours or less.
 Comparability: Researchers can use the same questionnaire yearly and compare and contrast
research results to gain valuable insights and minimize translation errors.
 Scalability: Questionnaires are highly scalable, allowing researchers to distribute them to
demographics anywhere across the globe.
 Standardization: You can standardize your questionnaire with as many questions as you want
about any topic.
 Respondent comfort: When taking a questionnaire, respondents are completely anonymous
and not subject to stressful time constraints, helping them feel relaxed and encouraging them
to provide truthful responses.
 Easy analysis: Questionnaires often have built-in tools that automate analyses, making it fast
and easy to interpret your results.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Questionnaires also have their disadvantages, such as:

 Answer dishonesty: Respondents may not always be completely truthful with their answers —
some may have hidden agendas, while others may answer how they think society would deem
most acceptable.
 Question skipping: Make sure to require answers for all your survey questions. Otherwise, you
may run the risk of respondents leaving questions unanswered.
 Interpretation difficulties: If a question isn’t straightforward enough, respondents may struggle
to interpret it accurately. That’s why it’s important to state questions clearly and concisely,
with explanations when necessary.

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 Survey fatigue: Respondents may experience survey fatigue if they receive too many surveys or
a questionnaire is too long.
 Analysis challenges: Though closed questions are easy to analyze, open questions require a
human to review and interpret them. Try limiting open-ended questions in your survey to gain
more quantifiable data you can evaluate and utilize more quickly.
 Unconscientious responses: If respondents don’t read your questions thoroughly or
completely, they may offer inaccurate answers that can impact data validity. You can minimize
this risk by making questions as short and simple as possible.

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Q 2. What are the characteristics of a good research tool?

Ans.

Research Tools can be defined as vehicles that broadly facilitate research and related activities. They
enable researchers to collect, organize, analyze, visualize and publicized research outputs.
Research Tools consists of a hierarchical set of nodes. It has four main nodes:
1. Searching the literature,
2. Writing a paper,
3. Targeting suitable journals, and
4. Enhancing visibility and impact of the research.
Data collection is an important part of research. To collect the requisite data for any theme of research
you must devise appropriate tools and use suitable measuring techniques and decide on the relevant
attributes of the samples drawn. There are several research tools, varying in design. operation,
complexity of features, and interpretation. In certain situations, you may select from a list of available
tools. In other situations, you may find that existing research tools do not suit your purpose or
objective of research and, therefore, you may like to modify them or develop your own. Each tool is
appropriate for collecting a particular type of data or information which lends itself to a particular type
of analysis and interpretation for drawing meaningful conclusions and generalizations. For this, you
need to familiarize yourself with the nature, merits, and limitations of various research tools. In this
and the subsequent unit we shall focus on the characteristics, types, uses and limitations of some
commonly used research tools - Questionnaires, interviews, observations, rating scales. attitude scales
and tests.
Characteristics of a good research tool
There are mainly three characteristics of a good research tool. These include validity, reliability, and
usability. In selecting tools for collecting data a researcher should evaluate them in terms of these
characteristics. Let us discuss these one by one.
Validity
A tool used for collecting data must provide information that is not only relevant but free from
systematic errors. In other words, it must produce only valid information and measure what it claims to
measure. For example, an achievement test in nutrition must measure knowledge of students in
nutrition alone. It should not turn out to be a language test. If a question on food frequency
questionnaire is asked, and a certain student well versed in the English language writes a good 'essay'
on it, the researcher should not end up measuring the language ability of the student.
A tool, however, does not possess universal validity. It may be valid in one situation out not in another.
The tool useful in deciding in a particular research situation may have no use at all for a different
situation. So, instead of asking, "Is this research tool valid?" It is important to ask the more pertinent
question, "How valid a particular tool is for collecting information which the researcher needs to
gather? Or, more generally, "For what decision is this tool valid? There are three types of validity,

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  content validity - Content validity relates to the relevance of the content of a research tool to
the objective and nature of a research problem. For example, in the case of tests of
achievement (for example nutrition knowledge test), content validity refers to the effectiveness
of the test items in measuring the basic nutrition knowledge and estimated by evaluating the
relevance of the test items to the instructional objectives, the actual subject studied, and the
knowledge acquired individually and as a whole. Content validity of a research tool is based on
the judgment of several experts in the field concerned, careful analysis of objectives of the
subject of research and the hypotheses, if any, to be tested. Content validity is also known as
rational or logical validity or face validity.
 criterion-related validity - In decision making situations, selection or classification is based on
an individual's expected performance as predicated by a research toll. For example, a
psychological test or rating scale which predicts the kind of behavior it was intended to predict,
is said to possess 'predictive validity'. The prediction may be regarding eating behavior or
feeding practice. This validity refers to the association between present result as indicated by a
particular research tool and future behavior. In order to determine the predictive validity of a
tool, the results from it must be compared with the actual performance or outcome in the
future. For example, if a test is designed to select students for a certain medical course, scores
on the test must indicate a significant positive relationship with their ultimate success in the
medical profession. A researcher studies predictive validity if his or her primary interest is in
the outcome which he or she wants to improve by some professional decisions.
 construct validity - A construct is a trait, attribute or quality that cannot be observed directly,
but that can be inferred from testing. Construct validity is concerned with the extent to which a
test measures a specific trait, attribute, or construct. This type of validity is essential for those
tests which are used to assess individuals on certain psychological traits and abilities. Examples
of common constructs are anxiety, intelligence, motivation, attitude, critical thinking etc.
Construct validity is established by relating a presumed measure of a construct with I some
behavior that it is hypothesized to underlie.
Reliability
A tool used for data collection must be reliable, that is, it must have the ability to consistently yield the
same results when it is repeatedly administered to the same individuals under the same conditions. For
example, if an individual records his/her response on various items of a questionnaire and thus
provides a certain type of information, he/she should provide approximately the same type of
responses when the questionnaire is administered to him/her on the second occasion. If an
achievement test is administered to learners and then readministered after a gap of fifteen days
without any special coaching in that subject, within these fifteen days, the learners must show similar
range of scores on re-administration of the test. Repeated measure of an attribute, characteristic or a
trait by a tool may provide different results. They may be due either to a real change in the individual's
behavior attributes/measures or to the unreliability or inconsistency of the tool itself. If the variation in
the results is due to a real change in attribute being studied, the reliability of the tool is not to be
doubted. However, if the variation is due to the tool itself, then the tool is to be discarded.
There are various procedures to assess the reliability of a tool. These include,
 the test-retest method - In this method the same tool is re-administered to the same sample of
population shortly after its first administration. The relationship or agreement between the
information or data sought through the two administrations provides the measure of reliability
of the tool. To illustrate, in a research study to assess the hemoglobin levels using the
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 cyanmethemoglobin method, the researcher, may collect two samples from the same
subject(s) and assess the agreement between the two samples and analyzed: The chief
disadvantage of this method is that if the time between two administrations of the tool is
short, the immediate memory effects, practice and the confidence induced by familiarity with
the tool may give a wrong measure of its reliability. This is true for a tool designed to assess
nutrition knowledge. On the other hand, if the interval is too long. the real changes in behavior
in terms of growth may underestimate the reliability of the tool. However, this type of
measurement is commonly used with questionnaires, observations, and interview.
 the equivalent or parallel-form method - This method requires that two equivalent or parallel
forms of tool be prepared and administered to the same group of subjects. The items in these
tests are parallel. Then, the results in terms of two sets of measures obtained using the tool are
correlated to measure the level of its reliability. An example of this method would be to assess
the nutrient intake of a group of subjects using the 24-hour recall method and the food
frequency questionnaire. The result obtained from these two sets of measures arc correlated
to measure the level of reliability of the tool under consideration. In developing the parallel
forms of a tool, care must be taken to match the tool material with the content, the difficulty
level, and the form. The parallel-form method is widely used for determining reliability of a
research tool. The reliability of psychological tests and attitude scales is usually estimated by
this method.
 the split half method - In this method, the tool is first divided into two equivalent 'halves'. If
there are 50 items in a test, two equivalent halves are made of 25 items each. It may be done
by having alternate items. The measure of the first half of the tool is correlated with the
measure of the other half. The measures are correlated to find the reliability of tests and
attitude scales. The main limitation of this method is that a tool can be divided into two halves
in several ways and. thus, the estimate of the reliability may not have a unique value.
 the rational equivalence method - This method of measuring reliability is free from the
limitations of the other methods discussed so far. Two forms of a tool are defined as equivalent
when their corresponding contents are interchangeable.
Usability
The usability of a tool depends on its objectivity, cost effectiveness, the time and effort required to
administer it, and how easy it is to analyze and draw conclusions through its use.
A tool should yield objective information and results. In other words, the results should be independent
of the personal judgment of the researcher. If it cannot yield objective data, we say that it is not usable.
If the tool can be administered in a short period of time, it is likely to gain cooperation of the subjects
and save time of all those involved in its administration. The cost of construction and administration of
the tool should be reasonable. The simplicity and ease of administration, the scores and interpretation
are also important factors to be considered while selecting a tool, particularly, when the expert advice
is not easily available. The tool should interest and fascinate the subjects so that it may gain their
cooperation.

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Q 9. Differentiate between reliability and validity.

Ans.

Simply, the validity of the measuring instrument represents the degree to which the scale measures
what it is expected to measure. It is not same as reliability, which refers to the degree to which
measurement produces consistent outcomes.
For the purpose of checking the accuracy and applicability, a multi-item measurement scale needs to
be evaluated, in terms of reliability, validity, and generalizability. These are certain preferred qualities
which gauge the goodness in measuring the characteristics under consideration. Validity is all about the
genuineness of the research, whereas reliability is nothing but the repeatability of the outcomes. This
article will break down the fundamental differences between validity and reliability.
Definition of Validity

In statistics, the term validity implies utility. It is the most important yardstick that signals the degree to
which research instrument gauges, what it is supposed to measure.

Simply, it measures the point to which differences discovered with the scale reflect true differences,
among objects on the characteristics under study, instead of a systematic and random error. To be
considered as perfectly valid, it should not possess any measurement error.

Definition of Reliability

Reliability is used to mean the extent to which the measurement tool provides consistent outcomes if
the measurement is repeatedly performed. To assess reliability approaches used are test-retest,
internal consistency methods, and alternative forms.

VALIDITY RELIABILITY
Validity implies the extent to which the Reliability refers to the degree to which assessment tool
research instrument measures, what it is produces consistent results, when repeated
intended to measure. measurements are made.
It refers to the ability of the instrument/test to It refers to the reproducibility of the results when
measure what it is supposed to measure repeated measurements are done
It relates to the correct applicability of the
instrument/test/procedure in a needed It relates to the extent to which an experiment, test or
situation any procedure gives the same result on repeated trials.

Can relate to question of ‘Does it measure what Can relate to question, ‘How representative is the
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it is supposed to measure’? measurement’?
Answers, ‘Is it the right instrument/test for Answers, ‘Can the results obtained be replicated if the
what I need to measure?’ test is repeated?’
Validity looks at accuracy Reliability looks at repeatability/consistency
Reliability mainly focuses on maintaining consistent
Validity mainly focuses on the outcome result
Influencing factors for validity are: process,
purpose, theory matters, logical implications, Influencing factors for reliability are: test length, test
etc. score variability, heterogenicity, etc.
Validity has more analysis and is harder to Reliability is comparatively easier and yields faster
achieve. results.
There cannot be validity without reliability There can be reliability without validity.
Even if validity of an instrument is poor (for When reliability/repeatability is poor, validity may also
certain test), it can have high reliability (for be poor. Thus, usefulness of a test/experiments are
other tests) negligible.
If the results are not valid, the test is of no use
at all If the results cannot be replicated, the test is of little use
Examples of different types of validity are:

Face validity

Construct validity

Content validity Examples of different types of reliability are:

Criterion validity Test-retest reliability

Concurrent validity Parallel forms reliability

Convergent validity Intra rater reliability

External validity Internal reliability

Internal validity etc. External reliability etc.

Face validity is when the tool appears to be
measuring what it is supposed to measure with Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained
the content of test matching instructional by administering the same test twice over a period of
objectives. time to a group of individuals.
Construct validity seeks the implications Parallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability
between a theoretical concept and a specific obtained by administering different versions of an
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 assessment tool (both versions must contain items that
measuring device. It includes constructs like probe the same construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to
concepts, ideas, theories, etc. the same group of individuals.
Content validity is qualitative measure where Intra rater reliability is a measure in which the same
the actual content matches the measurement assessment is completed by the same rater on two or
which is a logical method of measurement. more occasions.
Criterion validity is the measure where there is Internal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability
correlation with the standards and the used to evaluate the degree to which different test items
assessment tool and yields a standard outcome. that probe the same construct produce similar results.

Key Differences Between Validity and Reliability

To sum up the following points explains the fundamental differences between validity and reliability:

1. The degree to which the scale gauges, what it is designed to gauge, is known as validity. On the
other hand, reliability refers to the degree of reproducibility of the results, if repeated
measurements are done.
2. When it comes to the instrument, a valid instrument is always reliable, but the reverse is not
true, i.e. a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument.
3. While evaluating multi-item scale, validity is considered more valuable in comparison to
reliability.
4. One can easily assess the reliability of the measuring instrument, however, to assess validity is
difficult.
5. Validity focuses on accuracy, i.e. it checks whether the scale produces expected results or not.
Conversely, reliability concentrates on precision, which measures the extent to which scale
produces consistent outcomes.

Conclusion

To conclude, validity and reliability are two vital test of sound measurement. Reliability of the
instrument can be evaluated by identifying the proportion of systematic variation in the instrument. On
the other hand, the validity of the instrument is assessed by determining the degree to which variation
in observed scale score indicates actual variation among those being tested.

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Q 10. What is SPSS? Explain.

Ans.

Data analysis is one of the most flourishing fields right now as businesses around the world are trying to
make sense of their data. However, there are several data analysis tools available in the market. Here,
we will discuss about the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

What is SPSS Software?

It is a suite of software programs that analyzes scientific data related to the social sciences. SPSS offers
a fast-visual modeling environment that ranges from the smallest to the most complex models. The
data obtained from SPSS is used for surveys, data mining, market research, etc.

SPSS was originally launched in 1968 by SPSS Inc., and IBM acquired it in 2009. SPSS is popular because
of its simplicity, easy-to-follow command language, and well-documented user manual. Government
entities, educational institutions, survey companies, market researchers, marketing organizations,
health researchers, data miners, and many others use it for analyzing survey data.

Core Features of SPSS

The core functionalities offered in SPSS are:

 Statistical program for quantitative data analysis – It includes frequencies, cross-

tabulation, and bivariate statistics.
 Modeler program that allows for predictive modeling. It enables researchers to build
and validate predictive models using advanced statistical procedures.
 Text analysis helps you derive insights from qualitative inputs through open-ended
questionnaires.
 Visualization Designer allows researchers to use their data for a variety of visual
representations.
Apart from the above four functionalities, SPSS also provides data management solutions. Its data
management solutions like FHIR enable researchers to perform case selection, create derived data, and
perform file reshaping.

Unique features that make SPSS a popular analysis tool:

SPSS is a popular tool for research, experimentation, and decision-making. It is one of the most widely
used statistical software worldwide in the world for its attractive features. Here are some of them:

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 1. Using SPSS features, users can extract every piece of information from files for the
execution of descriptive, inferential, and multiple variant statistical procedures.

2. Thanks to SPSS’ Data Mining Manager, its users can conduct smart searches, extract
hidden information with the help of decision trees, design neural networks of artificial
intelligence, and market segmentation.

3. SPSS software can be used to solve algebraic, arithmetic, and trigonometric operations.

4. SPSS’s Report Generator feature lets you prepare attractive reports of investigations. It
incorporates text, tables, graphs, and statistical results of the report in the same file.

5. SPSS offers data documentation too. It enables researchers to store a metadata

directory. Moreover, it acts as a centralized information repository in relation to the
data – such as relationships with other data, its meaning, origin, format, and usage.

Statistical methods that can be leveraged in SPSS:

 Descriptive Statistics – It includes methodologies such as cross-tabulation, frequencies,
and descriptive ratio statistics.
 Bivariate Statistics – It includes methodologies such as means, nonparametric tests,
correlation, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
 Predicting numeral outcomes such as linear regression
 Methodologies such as cluster analysis and factor analysis which is great for predicting
for identifying groups.

There are two SPSS types:

1. Variable View
2. Data View

Variable View
 Name: It is a column field that accepts a unique ID that helps in sorting the data. Some
of the parameters for sorting data are name, gender, sex, educational qualification,
designation, etc.
 Label: It gives the label and allows you to add special characters.
 Type: It is useful to differentiate the type of data that is being used.
 Width: The length of the characters can be measured here.
 Decimal: It helps us understand how to define the digits required after the decimal.
 Value: The user enters the value here.
 Missing: Data that is unnecessary for analysis will be ignored.
 Align: As the name suggests, it is for alignment-left or right.
 Measure: It measures the data that is being entered in the tools, such as cardinal,
ordinal, and nominal.

Data View
The data view is displayed as rows and columns. You can import a file or add data manually.

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Advantages of Using SPSS
The statistical analysis tool makes it possible to import and export data files from other programs.
Some of its data handling procedures are excellent, as its ability to merge files, no matter whether it is
the same subjects and different variables or different subjects and the same variables, is excellent.

In SPSS, users are not forced to work with syntax, even though syntax files can be saved and modified
as needed. When there are saved syntax files, it helps immensely with documentation and also gives an
idea of how the new variables were calculated and how values that were missing were handled.

 It offers reliable and fast answers.

 It’s dynamic and has useful tables and graphs.

 Since it offers a wide variety of languages, a lot of people can access.

 Effective data management

 Doesn’t require a lot of effort to start using the software.

 Useful for both quantitative and qualitative data

 The chances of errors are little with SPSS.

 One of the easiest statistical tools to analyze data.

 SPSS users can select the graph type which matches their data distribution requirement.

Limitations of Using SPSS

One of the biggest disadvantages of using SPSS is that you cannot use it to analyze a big data set. There
are certain fields where there is a huge trove of data present. In such industries, using SPSS might not
be the best option out there.

If researchers collect data using faulty or biased methods, then the resulting statistical analysis will not
give the right answers. If the gap between the sample and the actual population is negligent, then
there is no issue. But if the difference is big, then it will produce misleading data.

When researchers do not measure the exact thing that they want to measure, then the SPSS analysis
will not fail.

One more issue with using a statistical analysis tool such as SPSS is that it ends up giving you simple
answers for complex issues.

Conclusion
SPSS helps scientists, researchers, business analysts, managers, and marketers during the entire
analytics process, starting from planning, data collection, data analysis, report creation, and
deployment. No matter what your business objectives are if you have a bunch of data that you want to
analyze, SPSS is one of the best statistical analysis tools that you can use.
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Q 15. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research?

Ans.

Research is the most widely used tool to increase and brush-up the stock of knowledge about
something and someone. In the field of marketing, business, sociology, psychology, science &
technology, economics, etc. there are two standard ways of conducting research, i.e. qualitative
research or quantitative research. While the qualitative research relies on verbal narrative like spoken
or written data, the quantitative research uses logical or statistical observations to draw conclusions.

In qualitative research, there are only a few non-representative cases are used as a sample to develop
an initial understanding. Unlike, quantitative research in which a sufficient number of representative
cases are taken to consideration to recommend a final course of action.

There is a never-ending debate on, which research is better than the other, so in this article, we are
going to shed light on the difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

Definition of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is one which provides insights and understanding of the problem setting. It is an
unstructured, exploratory research method that studies highly complex phenomena that are
impossible to elucidate with the quantitative research. Although, it generates ideas or hypothesis for
later quantitative research.

Qualitative research is used to gain an in-depth understanding of human behavior, experience,

attitudes, intentions, and motivations, on the basis of observation and interpretation, to find out the
way people think and feel. It is a form of research in which the researcher gives more weight to the
views of the participants. Case study, grounded theory, ethnography, historical and phenomenology
are the types of qualitative research.

Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a form of research that relies on the methods of natural sciences, which
produces numerical data and hard facts. It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship between
two variables by using mathematical, computational, and statistical methods. The research is also
known as empirical research as it can be accurately and precisely measured.

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The data collected by the researcher can be divided into categories or put into rank, or it can be
measured in terms of units of measurement. Graphs and tables of raw data can be constructed with
the help quantitative research, making it easier for the researcher to analyse the results.

Key Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be drawn clearly on
the following grounds:

1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social
sciences, to find the way people think and feel. A scientific and empirical research method that
is used to generate numerical data, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical
technique is called quantitative research.
2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is particularistic.
3. The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the researcher is intimately involved,
whereas the approach of quantitative research is objective, as the researcher is uninvolved and
attempts to precise the observations and analysis on the topic to answer the inquiry.
4. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research which is conclusive.
5. The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is inductive whereas in the case
of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.
6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample size is selected with
a view to get a thorough understanding of the target concept. On the other hand, quantitative
research relies on random sampling; wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order
to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative research
measurable data is gathered.
8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-oriented, which is not in the case of quantitative
research.
9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and objects while that
of quantitative research is numerical data.
10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering ideas used in the
ongoing processes. As opposed to quantitative research the purpose is to examine cause and
effect relationship between variables.
11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. In
contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative research are structured interviews and
observations.
12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative research
recommends a final course of action.

Conclusion

An ideal research is one, which is conducted by considering both the methods, together. Although,
there are some particular areas which require, only one type of research which mainly depends on the
information required by the researcher. While qualitative research tends to be interpretative,
quantitative research is concrete.

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