Chapter 3: The Z – Transform and its Application to

the Analysis of LTI System

The z-transform of the discrete-time system x(n) is
defined as the power series

Where z - complex variable.

It sometimes called the direct z-transform.
The inverse procedure is called the inverse z-transform.
X(z) ≡ Z { x(n) } (3.1.2)
z
x(n) ↔ X(z) (3.1.3)
The region of convergence ( ROC) of X(z) is the set of
all values z for which X(z) attains a finite value .
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 3.1 The z-transform
Let us express the complex variable z in polar form as
z = r ejθ (3.1.4)
r = |z| and θ = z , Then

In the ROC of X(z), | x (z) | < ∞ , then

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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
Figure 3.1 Region of convergence for X(z) and its corresponding
causal and anticausal components.
ROC for the first sum consists of all points in a circle of some
radius r1 < ∞.
Im  (z)

z-­‐  plane
r1
Re(z)

Region  of  convergence  for  

(a)
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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
ROC for the second sum consists of all points outside a
circle of radius r > r2
Im(z)

z-­‐  plane
r2
Re(z)

Region  of  convergence  for  

(b)
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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
ROC of X(z) is generally specified as the annular region in the z-
plane , r2 < r < r1,
Im  (z)

z-­‐  plane
r2
Re(z)
r1

Region  of  convergence  for  |

X(z)|  r2  <  r  <  r1

(c)
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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
A discrete–time x(n) is uniquely determined by its z-
transform x(z) and the region of convergence of x(z).
Table 3.1Characteristic Families of signal with
their corresponding ROC.

Signal   ROC

Finite-­‐  Dura3on  Signal  

Causal  
En3re  z-­‐plane    
except  z=0

0 n

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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform

An3causal
En3re  z-­‐plane    
except    z  =  ∞
0 n

Two-­‐sided
En3re  z-­‐plane    
except  z  =  0    
and    z  =  ∞
0 n

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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
Infinite  –  Dura3on  Signals
Causal

r2 |z|  >  r2

0 n

An3causal

r1
|z|  <  r1
0 n

Two  -­‐sided

r2
r2  <  |z|  <  r1
0 n r1

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 3.1.1 The direct z-transform
These types of signal are called right-sided,
left-sided, and finite-duration two-sided,
signals.
If there is a ROC for an infinite duration two-
sided signal, it is a ring (annular region) in
the z-plane.
The one-sided or unilateral z-transform
given by

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 3.1.2 The Inverse z-Transform
The procedure for transform from the z-domain
to the time domain is called the inversion z-
transform.
Cauchy integral theorem.
We have

then

Where C the closed contour in the ROC of X(z).

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 3.1.2 The Inverse z-Transform
or

Figure 3.1.5 Contour C for integral in (3.1.13)

Im  (z)

r2 C

r1 Re  (z)

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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform
+ Linearity
z z
if x1(n) ↔ X1(z) and x2(n) ↔ X2(z)
then
z
x(n) = a1x1(n) + a2x2(n) ↔ X(z) = a1X1(z) + a2X2(z) (3.2.1)

+ Time shifting
z
if x(n) ↔ X(z)
z
then x(n-k) ↔ z-k X(z) (3.2.5)

+ Scaling in the z-domain

z
If x(n) ↔ X(z), ROC: r1 < |z| < r2
z
then an x(n) ↔ X(a-1z), ROC: | a|r1 < |z| < |a|r2 (3.2.9)
for any constant a, real or complex.
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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform
+ Time reversal
z
if x(n) ↔ X(z), ROC: r1 < |z| < r2
z
then x(-n) ↔ X (z-1), ROC: 1/r2 < |z| < 1/r1 (3.2.12)

+ Differentiation in the z-domain

z
if x(n) ↔ X(z)
z
then nx(n) ↔ -z dX(z) ⁄ dz (3.2.14)

+ Convolution of two sequences

z z
if x1(n) ↔ X1(z), x2(n) ↔ X2(z),
z
then x(n) = x1(n) * x2(n) ↔ X(z) = X1(z) X2(z) (3.2.17)
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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform
+ Correlation of two sequences
z z
if x1(n) ↔ X1(z), and x2(n) ↔ X2(z)
then

+ Multiplication of two sequences

z z
if x1(n) ↔ X1(z), x2(n) ↔ X2(z)
then

C – closed contour that encloses the origin and lies within the
region of convergence common to both X1(v) and X2(1/v)
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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform
+ Parseval’s relation
If x1(n) and x2(n) are complex-valued sequences , then

provided that r1lr2l < 1 < r1ur2u,

where r1l < lzl < r1u and r2l < lzl < r2u are the ROC of
X1(z) and X2 (z).
+ The initial value theorem
If x(n) is causal then

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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform

+ Table 3.2 Properties of the z-transform

Property Time  Domain   z-­‐  Domain     ROC

Nota=on            x  (n)                          X  (z)      ROC:  r2  <  |z|  <  r1
       x1  (n)                          X1  (z)      ROC1
x2  (n)                  X2  (z)                              ROC2
Linearity                      a1x1  (n)+                a1X1  (z)  +a2X2  (z)            At  least  intersec=on  of                                      
                       a2x2  (n)                          ROC  1  and  ROC2
Time  shiDing                          x  (n-­‐k)                    z-­‐k  X(z)      That  of  X  (z),  except  z=0  if                      
                 k=0  and  z  =  ∞  if  k  <  0
Scaling  in  the    an  x  (n)                  X    (a-­‐1  z)      |a|r2  <  |z|  <|a|  r1  
z  -­‐domain
Time  reversal        x  (-­‐n)                      X    (z-­‐1)      1/r1  <  |z|  <  1/r2      
Conjuga=on        x*  (n)                                                  X*  (z*)        ROC
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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform

Real  part          Re{x  (n)}  1/2[X  (z)+X*(z*)] Includes  ROC

Imaginary  part          Im{x  (n)} 1/2j[X  (z)  -­‐  X*(z*)] Includes  ROC
Differen=a=on  in          nx  (n)     r2  <  |z|  <  r1

Convolu=on                            x1  (n)  *x2  (n)                X1  (z)  X2(z)                                                  At  least,  the    intersec=on  
                         of    ROC  1  and  ROC2
Correla=on                              rx1x2  (l)  =                Rx1x2  (z)=  X1  (z)  X2  (z-­‐1)            At  least,  the    intersec=on  of          
                     x1  (l)  *  x2  (-­‐l)                                                                          ROC  1  of  X1  (z)  and  X2(z-­‐1)
Ini=al  value                        If  x  (n)  causal    x  (0)  =    lim  X(z)  
theorem          
           

   

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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform

Table 3.3 Some common z-transform pairs

Signal,  x(n) z-­‐  transform,  x(z) ROC
1          δ  (n)   1                                    All  z                              

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 3.2 Properties of the z–Transform

Signal,  x(n) z-­‐  transform,  x(z) ROC

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 3.3 Rational z- transforms
+ Poles and Zeros
The zeros of a z-transform X(z) are the
values of z for which X(z) = 0
The pole of a z-transform are value of z for
which X(z) = ∞

+ If X(z) is a rational function, then

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 3.3.1 Poles and Zeros
+ If a0 ≠ 0 , b0 ≠ 0

+ X(z) has M finite zeros at z = z1, z2,….,zM

N finite poles at z = r1, r2,…,rN

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 3.3.1 Poles and Zeros
+ We can represent X(z) graphically by a pole-zero
plot in the complex plane, which shows the location
of poles by crosses (x) and the location of zeros by
circles (o).
+ The z-transform X(z) is a complex function of the
complex variable z = Re(z) + jIm(z)
Im(z)
Figure 3.7 Pole-zero plot
for the causal exponential
ROC
signal x(n) = anu(n) a>0
ax z
Re(z) X ( z) = ROC: lzl > a
0 z−a

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 3.3.1 Poles and Zeros
+ |X (z)| is a real and positive function of z. Since z represents
a point in the complex plane, |X(z)| is a two-dimensional
function and describes a “surface”.
For example the z-transform
(3.3.3)
|X(z)|

Re z Im z
Figure 3.3.4 Graph of |X(z)| for the z-transform in (3.3.3)
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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals
+ We consider the relation between the z-plane
location of a pole pair and the form of the
corresponding signal in the time domain.
+ The circle |z| = 1 has a radius of 1, it is called
the unit circle.
+ For example

having one zero at z1 = 0 and the pole at p1 = a

on the real axis, (see fig. 3.7, fig.3.11)
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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal
signals
Figure 3.11 Time-domain behavior of a single-real pole causal
signal as a function of the location of the pole with respect to the
unit circle.

x  (n) x  (n)
z-­‐  plane z-­‐  plane

0 1 0 n 0 1 0 n

x  (n) x  (n)
z-­‐  plane z-­‐  plane

0 1 0 n 0 1 0 n

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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals

z-­‐  plane x  (n) z-­‐  plane x  (n)

0 1 0 n 0 1 0 n

The signal is decaying if the pole is inside the init circle,

fixed if the pole is on the unit circle, and growing if the pole
is outside the unit circle .
A causal real signal with a double real pole has the form :
X(n) = nanu (n) (see table 3.3)
A double real pole on the unit circle results in an unbound
signal (see Fig 3.3.6)
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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals
Figure 3.12 Time- domain behavior of causal signal corresponding
to a double (m=2) real pole, as a function of the pole location.
z-­‐  plane x  (n) z-­‐  plane x  (n)

m=2 m=2
0 1 n 0 1 0 n
0

x  (n)
z-­‐  plane z-­‐  plane x  (n)

m=2 m=2
0 1 0 n 0 1 0 n

x  (n) z-­‐  plane x  (n)

z-­‐  plane

m=2 m=2
0 1 0 n 0 1 0 n

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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals
Figure 3.13 illustrates the case of a pair of complex – conjugate
poles.
This configuration of poles results in an exponentially weighted
sinusoidal signal.
The amplitude of the signal is growing if r > 1, constant if r = 1
(sinusoidal signals), and decaying if r < 1.
Figure 3.13 A pair of complex- conjugate poles corresponds to
causal signals with oscillatory behavior.
z  -­‐  plane x  (n)
rn
r
ω0
0 1 0 n

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3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals
z  -­‐  plane x  (n) r=1

1
ω0
0 1   n
0

rn
z  -­‐  plane x  (n)
r
ω0
0 1 0 n

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 3.3.2 Pole location and time- domain
behavior for causal signals
Fig 3.14 shows the behavior of a causal signal with a double pair
of poles on the unit circle.
A signal with a pole near the origin decays more rapidly than one
associated with a pole near the unit circle.
Everything we have said about causal signals applies as well to
causal LTI systems.
Figure 3.14 Causal signal corresponding to a double pair of
complex – conjugate poles on the unit circle.
z  -­‐  plane x  (n)
m=2
r
ω0
0 1 0 n
m=2

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 3.3.3 The system Function of a Linear Time-
Invariant System
Y(z) = H(z)X(z) (3.3.4)
Y (z) - the z-transform of the output sequence y(n).
X (z) - the z-transform of the input sequence x(n).
H (z) - the z-transform of the unit sample response h(n).

H(z) is called the systems function.

We have linear constant- coefficient difference equation:

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3.3.3 The system Function of a Linear Time-
Invariant System
By applying the time-shifting property, we obtain.

Or

+ If ak = 0 for 1 ≤ k ≤ N, then

H(z) contains M zeros, M th-order at the origin z = 0

It is called an all-zero system.
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 3.3.3 The system Function of a Linear Time-
Invariant System
System has a finite-duration impulse response (FIR), and it
is called an FIR system or moving average (MA) system.
+ If bk = 0 for 1 ≤ k ≤ M, then

H(z) consists of N pole, and an N th-order zero at the origin

z = 0. This system is called an all-pole system.
The impulse response of such a system is infinite in
duration, and hence it is an IIR system.
The general form of the system by (3.3.8) is called a pole-
zero system, with N poles and M zeros and in an IIR
system.
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 3.4 Inversion of the z-transform
The inverse z-transform is formally given by

C - a circle in the ROC of x(z) in the z-plane

+ There are 3 methods for the evaluation

1. Direct evaluation of (3.4.1), by contour integration.
2. Expansion into a series of terms, in the variables z,
and z-1
3. Partial-fraction expansion and table lookup.
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 3.4.1 Inverse z-transform by

contour Integration
+ Cauchy residue theorem
Let f(z) be a function of the complex variable z,
and C be a closed path in the z-plane.

If the derivative df(z)/dz exists on and inside

the contour C and if f(z) has no poles at z = z0,
then

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 3.4.1 Inverse z-transform by
contour Integration
If the (k+1) order derivative of f(z) exists and f(z) has no
poles at z = z0, then

f(z) has no pole inside the contour C

g(z) is a polynomial with distinct roots z1 ,z2,…,zn inside C
then

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 Chapter 3: Inverse z-transform by
contour Integration
Where Ai(z) = (z – zi)p(z) = (z-zi)f(z)/g(z)
(3.4.5)
{ Ai (zi)} are residues of the corresponding poles
at z = zi , i = 1,2,….,n.
In the case the inverse z-transform we have

If X(z)zn-1 has no poles inside the contour C for

one or more values of n, then x(n) = 0 for these
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 3.4.2 Inverse z-transform by
Power Series
Expansion
Given a z-transform X(z) with its
corresponding ROC , we can expand X(z) into
a power series of the form.

Which converges in the given ROC. Then, by

uniqueness of the z-transform, X(n) = Cn for
all n. When X(z) is rational, the expansion can
be performed by long division.

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 3.4.2 Inverse z-transform by
Power Series Expansion

For example
Determine the inverse z-transform of

Where ROC: |z| > 1

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 3.4.2 Inverse z-transform by
Power Series Expansion
Solution.
Since the ROC is the exterior of a circle , we expect
x(n) to be a causal signal.
Thus, we seek a power series expansion in negative
powers of z.

by comparing this relation with (3.11) we conclude that

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion
The function X(z) as a linear combination.
X(z) = α1X1(z) + α2X2(z) + …+ αKXK(z) (3.4.8)
Where X1(z) ,…Xk(z) are expressions with inverse
transform x1(n),… ,xk(n) available in a table of z-
transform pairs. Then,
x(n) = α1x1(n) + α2x2(n) + …+ αK xK(n) (3.4.9)
We assume that a0 = 1 , so that (3.3.1) can by
expressed as

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion
Any improper rational function (M ≥ N) can be expressed
as.

We perform a partial fraction expansion of the proper

rational function. From (3.4.10) with aN ≠ 0 and M < N
Then, we invert each of the terms.

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion
Distinct poles
Suppose that the poles p1, p2,…pN are all different .
Then we seek an expansion of the form

with z = pk,

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion

Multiple- order poles

If X(z) has of multiplicity l, that is, it contains

in its denominator the factor (z - pk)l, then the
expansion (3.4.15) is no longer true.
The partial factor expansion must contain the
terms.

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion
Now, first X(z) contains distinct poles.

From x(n) = Z-1{ X(z) }, then

With |z| > pmax where pmax = max {|p1|}

Then

If all poles are real, (3.4.29) is a linear combination of

real exponential signals.
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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion
If all poles are distinct but some of then are complex,

or

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 3.4.3 The inverse z-Transform by Partial-
Fraction Expansion

if the ROC: is |z| > |p| = rk

X(z) has multiple poles.

provided that the ROC is |z| > |p|

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3.4.4 Decomposition of Rational z-Transforms

If X(z) expressed as.

If M ≥ N, a0 ≡ 1, then

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 3.4.4 Decomposition of Rational z-Transforms

Where b0 = 2 Re(A) a1 = - 2 Re(p) (3.4.44)

b1 = 2 Re(AP*) a2 = |p|2

Where k1 +2k2 = N
Assuming for simplicity that M = N

Where b1k = - 2 Re(zk), a1k = - 2 Re(pk)

b2k* = |zk|2 a2k = |pk|2 (3.4.47)
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 3.5 The one-side z-Transform
Definition and properties

The one-sided or unilateral z-transform of a signal

x(n) is defined

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 3.5.1 Definition and properties

The one-side z-transform has the following

characteristics:

1. It does not contain information about the

signal x(n) for negative values of time.
2. It is unique only for causal signals, because
only these signals are zero for n < 0
3. The ROC of X+(z), is always the exterior
of a circle.
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 3.5.1 Definition and properties
Shifting Property

Case1: Time delay if

then

In case x(n) is causal, then

Z+{x(n-k)} = [x(-k)+x(-k+1)z-1 +…+x(-1)z-k+1]+z-kX+(z) k > 0 (3.5.4)

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3.5.1 Definition and properties

Case 2: Time advance if
then

Final value theorem

then

The limit in (3.5.6) exists if the ROC of (z-1) X+(z)

includes the unit circle.
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 3.5.2 Solution of Difference Equations
By reducing the difference equation relating the
two time-domain signals to an equivalent
algebraic equation relating their one-sided z-
transforms.

This equation can be easily solved to obtain the

transform of the desired signal.

The signal in the time domain is obtained by

inverting the resulting z- transform.
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 3.6 Analysis of Linear Time – invariant
System in the z-Domain
Response of system with rational system functions
If x(n) has a rational z-transform X(z) of the form

we represent
If the system is initially relaxed, that is
y(-1) = y(-2) = …= y(-N) = 0, then

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 3.6.1 Response of system with rational system
functions
If system contains simple poles p1,p2,…pN and z-transform of
the input signal contains poles q1,q2,…qL. Where pk ≠ qm ,
then

The inverse transform of Y(z) yields

Scale factors {Ak} and { Qk } are functions of both sets of

poles { pk } and { qk }.
The first part called the natural response of the
system. The second part is called forced response
of the system.
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3.6.2 Response of poles – zero system with
Nonzero Initial conditions
Suppose that X(n) is applied to the pole-zero system
at n = 0. (x(n) is causal)
Since the input x(n) is causal and output y(n) for n ≥ 0

Or

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3.6.2 Response of poles – zero system with
Nonzero Initial conditions
Where

Yzs(z) = H(z)X(z) (3.6.8)

Thus, y(n) = yzs(n) + yzi(n) (3.6.10)

Since A(z) has poles as p1,p2,…, pN, then

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 3.6.2 Response of poles – zero system with
Nonzero Initial conditions
This can be added to (3.6.4)

Where

The effect of the initial conditions is to alter the natural

response of the system though modifications of the
scale factors { Ak }
There are no new poles introduced by the nonzero
initial conditions.
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 3.6.3 Transient and Steady – state Responses
The natural response of a causal system has the form

Where { pk } , k = 1 , 2 … , N are the poles of the system.

{ Ak } are scale factors

The forced response of the system has the form

Where { qk } , K = 1, 2, … , L are the poles

{ Qk } are scale factors
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 3.6.3 Transient and Steady – state Responses

when the causal input signal is a sinusoid

the poles fall on the unit circle,
consequently the forced response is also a
sinusoid.
It is called the steady-state response of
the system.

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 3.6.4 Causality and Stability
A linear time- invariant system is causal if and
only if the ROC of the system function is the
exterior of the circle of radius r < ∞ , including
the point z = ∞.

A necessary and sufficient conditions for a

linear time-invariant system to be BIBO stable
is

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 3.6.4 Causality and Stability
H(z) must contain the unit circle within its ROC .

when on the unit circle (|z| = 1)

A linear time-invariant system is BIBO stable if and only if the

ROC of the system function includes the unit circle.
A causal linear time-invariant system is BIBO stable if and
only if the poles of H(z) are inside the unit circle.
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 3.6.5 Pole – zero cancellations

When a z-transform has a pole that is at the

same location as a zero, the pole is canceled
by the zero.

Pole-zero cancellations can occur either in the

system function itself or in the product of the
system function with the z-transform of the input
signal.

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3.6.6 Multiple–Order poles and stability

The input is bounded if its z-transform

contains pole { qk }, k = 1, 2, …, L
Which satisfy the condition | qk | ≤ 1 for all k.

Thus, the forced response of the systems is

also bounded , even when the input signal
contains one or more distinct poles on the unit
circle.

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3.6.8 Stability of Second–Order Systems
A causal two-pole system described by the
second-order difference equation.
y(n) = - a1y(n-1) – a2y(n-2) + b0x(n) (3.6.26)

for stability
| a 2 | = | p 1p 2| = | p 1| | p 2| < 1 (3.6.31)
| a1 | < 1 + a2 (3.6.32)
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 3.6.8 Stability of Second–Order Systems
Figure 3.15 Region of stability( stability triangle) in the ( a1, a2 )
coefficient plane for a second-order system.
a2

Complex-­‐  
conjugate  
Stability   poles a2  =  a1  -­‐  1
triangle
1
a2  =  1
Real  and  equal  poles
-­‐2 -­‐1 1 2 a1
-­‐1 Real  and  dis=nct  poles

a2  =  a1  -­‐  1

Problems : 3.1, 3.2, 3.5, 3.11, 3.15, 3.43, 3.47.

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