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MA8351 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

UNIT – I LOGIC AND PROOFS

PART – A
1. Get the contra positive of the statement “If it is raining then I get wet”
Ans: Let p: it is raining and q: I get wet
Given p → q. Its contra positive is given by  q →  p
That is “If I don‟t get wet then it is not raining”
2. Is it true that the negation of a conditional statement is also a conditional statement?
Ans: No, because  ( p → q) ≡  (  p  q) ≡ p   q
3. Find a counter example,if possible, to these universally quantified statements, whose the universe of
discourse for all variables consists of all integers.[November 2014]
(a)  x  y ( x 2  y 2  x  y ) .
(b)  x  y ( xy  x ) .
Ans: (a) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −2 and (b) 𝑥 = 17, 𝑦 = −1
4. Show that the propositions p  q and  p  q are logically equivalent.
Ans:
P q p p q pq
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
5. Show that p   q  r    p  q   r without using truth tables.
Ans: p  q  r    p   q  r    p   q   r    p  q   r   p  q   r
6. Show that   p    p  q  is a tautology.
Ans:  p    p  q   p   p  q    p   p   q  T  q  T
7. Write the truth table for the formula  p  q     p   q  [November 2012]
Ans:
P q p q pq pq
 p  q    p   q 
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F F
F T T F F F F
F F T T F T T

8. What are the negation of the statements x( x

2
 x ) and x ( x
2
 2)?
[November 2013]
Ans:
T h e n e g a t io n o f  x ( x  x ) is   x ( x  x )
2 2

x(x x)
2

x(x x)
2

T h e n e g a t io n o f  x ( x  2 ) is   x ( x  2 )
2 2

x(x 2)
2

x(x 2)
2
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9. Express in symbolic form, everyone who is healthy can do all kinds of work. [November 2012]
Ans: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is healthy and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 do all work
Symbolic form  x  P ( x )  Q ( x ) 
10. Write the negation of the statement “If there is a will, then there is a way”.
Ans: Let p: „There is a will‟ and q: „There is a way‟ Given p  q   p  q .
Its negation is given by p   q
So, the negation of the given statement is “There is a will and there is no way”
11. When do you say that two compound propositions are equivalent?
Ans: Two statement formulas A and B are equivalent iff A  B or A  B is a tautology. It is denoted
by the symbol A  B which is read as “A is equivalence to B”
12. Prove that  p  q   p q   p  q [November 2010]
Ans:
 p  q    p  q   q  p    p  q    q  p 
  p   q    p  p   q   q    p  q 

  p   q    p  q 
13. Rewrite the following using quantifiers “Every student in the class studied calculus”.
Ans: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is a student and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 studied calculus
Symbolic form  x P ( x )  Q ( x ) 
14. Check whether   p  q   r    p is a tautology.
Ans:
 p  q   r    p   p  q   r    p    p  q   r    p   p   q   r   p 
 r   p  p   r   p   q   T  r   p   q   r   p   q 
The given statement is not a tautology
15. Write the statement in symbolic form “Some real numbers are rational”.
Ans: Let (𝑥): 𝑥 is a real number and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is rational
Symbolic form:  x  R  x   Q  x   .
16. Show that (p  q) (q  r) and ( p  q )  r are logically equivalent. [November 2014]
Ans:For ( p  q )  ( q  r ) to be false, one of the two implications must be false, which happens exactly
when r is false and at least one of p and q is true, but these are precisely the cases in which p  q is true
and r is false. Which is precisely when ( p  q )  r is false. Since the two propositions are false in
exactly the same situations they are logically equivalent.

17. Define Compound statement formula.

Ans: An expression consisting of simple statement functions (one or more variables) connected by logical
Connectives are called a compound statement.

18. Write the statement in symbolic form “Some integers are not square of any integers”.
Ans: Let (𝑥): x is an integer and S(x): x is a square of any integer
Symbolic form:  x  I ( x )   S ( x )  .
19. Define Contradiction.
Ans: A propositional formula which is always false irrespective of the truth values of the individual
variables is a contradiction.

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20. Define Universal quantification and Existential quantification.

Ans: The Universal quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the proposition, denoted by  xP ( x ) that
is true if P (a) is true for all subject a.
The Existential quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the proposition, denoted by  xP ( x ) that is true
if P(a) is true for some subject a.
PART – B
1(a) What is meant by Tautology? Without using truth table, show that
(( P  Q )   (  P  (  Q   R )))  (  P   Q )  (  P   R ) is a tautology.
Solution: A Statement formula which is true always irrespective of the truth values of the individual
variables is called a tautology.
Consider  (  P  (  Q   R )   (  P   (Q  R )  P  (Q  R )  ( P  Q )  ( P  R ) (1)
Consider (  P   Q )  (  P   R )   ( P  Q )   ( P  R )   (( P  Q )  ( P  R )) (2)
Using (1) and (2)
(( P  Q )  ( P  Q )  ( P  R ))   (( P  Q )  ( P  R ))

 [( P  Q )  ( P  R )]   [( P  Q )  ( P  R )]  T

1(b) Prove the following equivalences by proving the equivalences of the dual
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P
Solution: It‟s dual is
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P
Consider,
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P Reasons
((PQ)(PQ))(PQ) (Demorgan‟s law)
((QP)(QP))(PQ)
(Commutative law)
(Distributive law)
((QQ)P)(PQ)
(PP T)
(TP)(PQ)
( P  T  P)
P(PQ)
(Absorption law)
P
2(a) Prove that ( P  Q )  ( R  Q )  ( P  R )  Q .
Solution:
(PQ)(RQ) Reasons

(PQ)(RQ) Since P  Q   P  Q

(PR)Q) Distribution law

Demorgan‟s law
(PR)Q

since P  Q   P  Q
PRQ

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2(b) Obtain DNF of Q  ( P  R )   (( P  R )  Q ) .

Solution:
Q  ( P  R )   (( P  R )  Q )
 ( Q  ( P  R ))  (  (( P  R )  Q ) ( D e m o rg a n la w )

 ( Q  ( P  R ))  ((  P   R )   Q ) ( D e m o rg a n la w )

 ( Q  (  P   R ))  ( Q   Q )  (( P  R )   P   R )  (( P  R )   Q )

( E x te n d e d d is trib u te d la w )

 (  P  Q   R )  F  ( F  R   R )  ( P   Q  R ) ( N e g a t io n la w )

 (  P  Q   R )  ( P   Q  R ) ( N e g a t io n la w )
3(a) Obtain Pcnf and Pdnf of the formula (  P   Q )  ( P   Q )
Solution:
Let S = (  P   Q )  ( P   Q )
P Q P Q PQ PQ S Minterm Maxterm

T T F F F F T PQ
T F F T T T T PQ
F T T F T T T PQ
F F T T T F F PQ

PCNF: P  Q and PDNF: ( P  Q )  ( P   Q )  (  P  Q )

3(b) Obtain PDNF of P   P   Q  P   .

Solution:

P P QP   ~ P  ( P  (~ Q  P ))

~P(P~Q)(PP)
 (~ P  T )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  P )
 (~ P  ( Q  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q ))  ( P  ( Q  ~ Q ))

 (~ P  Q )  (~ P  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  Q )  ( P  ~ Q )
 (~ P  Q )  (~ P  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  Q )

4(a) Without constructing the truth table obtain the product-of-sums canonical form of the formula
(  P  R )  ( Q  P ). Hence find the sum-of products canonical form.
Solution:
Let
S(PR)(QP)
 (  (  P )  R )  (( Q  P )  ( P  Q ))
(PR)(QP)(PQ)
 [( P  R )  F ]  [(  Q  P )  F ]  [(  P  Q )  F ]
 [( P  R )  ( Q   Q )  [(  Q  P )  ( R   R )]  [(  P  Q )  ( R   R )]
 ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R   Q )  (  Q  P  R )  (  Q  P   R ) 
(PQR)(PQR)
S  ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R   Q )  ( P   Q   R )  (  P  Q  R )  ( P  Q   R ) (Pcnf)

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 S  The remaining maxterms of P,Q and R.

  S  ( P  Q   R )  (  P   Q  R )  (  P   Q   R ).
 ( S )  Apply duality principle to  S
S  (PQ  R) (PQ R) (PQ  R) (PDNF)
4(b) Obtain the PDNF and PCNF of P  (  P  (Q  (  Q  R ))).
Solution:
P  (  P  ( Q  (  Q  R )))

 P  ( P  ( Q  ( Q  R )))

(PQR)
S(PQR)

S(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)

(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)

  S   ((  P  Q  R )  (  P   Q  R )  (  P   Q   R )

 ( P   Q   R )  (  P  Q   R )  ( P  Q   R )  ( P   Q  R ))

(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)

(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)(PQR)
5(a) Using indirect method of proof, derive p  ~s from the premises p  ( q r), q ~p, s ~r and p.
Solution:
Let ~ ( p  ~s ) be an additional premise.
~( p  ~s )  ~( ~p  ~s )  (p s)

1) p  ( q r) Rule P
2) p Rule P
3) ( q r) Rule T, 1,2
4) p s Rule AP
5) s Rule T,4
6) s ~r Rule P
7) ~r Rule T, 5, 6
8) q Rule T3,7
9) q ~p Rule P
10) ~P Rule T, 8, 9
11) p  ~p Rule T, 2,10
12) F Rule T, 11
5(b) Prove that the premises a  ( b  c ), d  ( b   c ), an d ( a  d ) are inconsistent.
Solution:

{1} ad Rule P

{1} a,d Rule T
{3} a  (b  c ) Rule P
{1,3} bc Rule T

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{1,3} bc Rule T

{6} d  (b   c ) Rule P
{6}  (b   c )   d Rule T
{6} (bc)d Rule T
{1,3,6} d Rule T
{1,3,6} dd Rule T
This is a false value. Hence the set of a premises are inconsistent

6(a) Use the indirect method to prove that the conclusion  z Q ( z ) follows from the premises
 x ( P ( x )  Q ( x )) and  yP ( y)
Solution:
1  z Q ( z ) P(assumed)
2  z  Q (z ) T, (1)
3  yP ( y) P
4 P (a ) ES, (3)
5  Q ( a) US, (2)
6 P ( a)   Q ( a) T, (4),(5)
7  ( P (a)  Q (a)) T, (6)
8  x ( P ( x )  Q (x )) P
9 P (a)  Q (a) US, (8)
10 P (a)  Q (a)   ( P (a)  Q (a)) T,(7),(9) contradiction
Hence the proof.
6(b) Show that R  S can be derived from the premises P  (Q  S ),  R  P & Q
Solution:
R Assumed premises
R P Rule P
R  P Rule T
P Rule T
P  (Q  S ) Rule P
Q  S Rule P
Q Rule P
S Rule T
R  S Rule CP

7(a) Prove that xPxQx, xRx QxxRxPx .

Solution:
Step Derivation Rule
1 xPxQx P
2 xRxQx P
3 RxQx US, (2)
4 Rx P ( assumed)
5 Qx T,(3),(4)

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6 PxQx US, (1)

7 Px T, (5),(6)
8 RxPx CP, (4),(7)
9 xRxPx UG, (9)

Hence the argument is valid

7(b) Show that (  x) (P(x)  Q(x))  (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x)
Solution:
1) (  x) (P(x)  Q(x)) Rule P
2) P(a)  Q(a) ES, 1
3) P(a) Rule T, 2
4) Q(a) Rule T, 2
5) (  x) P(x) EG, 3
6) (  x) Q(x) EG, 4
7) (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x) Rule T, 5, 6

8(a) Show that the following statements constitute a valid argument.

If there was rain, then traveling was difficult. If they had umbrella, then traveling was not difficult.
They had umbrella. Therefore there was no rain.
Solution:
Let P : There was rain Q : Traveling was difficult R : They had umbrella
Then, the given statements are symbolized as
(1) P  Q (2) R  ~Q (3) R
Conclusion : ~P
1) R Rule P
2) R  ~Q Rule P
3) ~ Q Rule T,1,2
4) P  Q Rule P
5) ~ P Rule T,3,4
Therefore, it is a valid conclusion.

8(b) Show that the following premises are inconsistent.

(1) If Nirmala misses many classes through illness then he fails high school.
(2) If Nirmala fails high school, then he is uneducated.
(3) If Nirmala reads a lot of books then he is not uneducated.
(4) Nirmala misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books.

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Solution:
E : Nirmala misses many classes
S: Nirmala fails high school
A: Nirmala reads lot of books
H: Nirmala is uneducated
Statement:
(1) E  S
(2) S  H
(3) A  ~ H
(4) E  A
Premises are : E  S , S  H , A~H,E A

1) E  S Rule P
2) S  H Rule P
3) E  H Rule T, 1,2
4) A  ~ H Rule P
5) H  ~A Rule T,4
6) E  ~A Rule T,3,5
7) ~ E  ~ A Rule T,6
8) ~(E  A) Rule T,7
9) E  A Rule P
10) (E  A)  ~ (E  A) Rule T,8,9
Which is nothing but false
Therefore given set of premises are inconsistent

9(a) Show that the hypotheses,”It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday,” ” We will
go swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not go swimming then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If
we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset “lead to the conclusion “we will be home by
sunset”.
Solution:
p – It is sunny this afternoon.
q- It is colder than yesterday
r- we will go swimming
s- we will take a canoe trip
t- we will be home by sunset
The given premises are  p  q , r  p ,  r  s & s  t
Step Reason
pq Hypothesis
p step 1
rp Hypothesis
r moduus tollens step 2 &3

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rs Hypothesis
s modus ponens step 4 &5
st Hypothesis
t modus ponens step 6&7

9(b) Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using contradiction.

Solution:

Let P: 2 is irrational.
Assume ~P is true, then 2 is rational, which leads to a contradiction.
a
By our assumption is 2  , where a and b have no common factors ---------------- (1)
b
2
a
 2 2
 2b2a2a
2
is even.  a = 2c
b
 b2  2c2
2b
2
4c
2
 b 2 is even  b is even as well.
 a and b have common factor 2 (since a and b are even)
But it contradicts (1)
This is a contradiction.
Hence ~P is false.
Thus P: 2 is irrational is true.
10(a) Let p, q, r be the following statements:
p: I will study discrete mathematics
q: I will watch T.V.
r: I am in a good mood.
Write the following statements in terms of p, q, r and logical connectives.
(1) If I do not study and I watch T.V., then I am in good mood.
(2) If I am in good mood, then I will study or I will watch T.V.
(3) If I am not in good mood, then I will not watch T.V. or I will study.
(4) I will watch T.V. and I will not study if and only if I am in good mood.
Solution:
(1) (  p  q )  r
(2)r(pq)
(3)r(qp)

(4)(qp)  r
10(b) Give a direct proof of the statement.”The square of an odd integer is an odd integer”.
Solution:
Given: The square of an odd integer is an odd integer”.
P: n is an odd integer.
Q:n2 is an odd integer
Hypothesis: Assume that P is true
Analysis : n=2k+1 where k is some integer.
n2=(2k+1)2=2(2k2+2k)+1
Conclusion: n2 is not divisible by 2.Therefore n2 is an odd integer.
P  Q is true.

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UNIT II COMBINATORICS
PART – A
1. State pigeon hole principle.
Ans: If (n+1) pigeons occupies n holes then at least one hole has more than 1 pigeon.
2. State the generalized pigeon hole principle.
m1
Ans: If m pigeons occupies n holes (m>n), then at least one hole has more than  1 pigeons.
 
 n 
3. Show that, among 100 people, at least 9 of them were born in the same month.
Ans: Here no.of pigeon =m= no. of people =100
No. of holes = n= no. of month =12
1001
Then by generalized pigeon hole principle,  1  9 were born in the same month.
 12 
 
4. In how many ways can 6 persons occupy 3 vacant seats?
Ans: Total no of ways = 6 c3= 20 ways.
5. How many permutations of the letters in ABCDEFGH contain the string ABC .
Ans: Because the letters ABC must occur as block, we can find the answer by finding no of permutation of
six objects, namely the block ABC and individual letters D,E,F,G and H . Therefore, there are 6! =720
permutations of the letters in ABCDEFGH which contains the string ABC.
6. How many different bit strings are there of length 7?
Ans: By product rule, 27=128 ways
7. How many ways are there to form a committee, if the committee consists of 3 educationalists and 4
socialist, if there are 9 educationalists and 11 socialist?
Ans: The 3 educationalist can be chosen from 9 educationalists in 9 c 3ways.
The 4 socialist can be chosen from 11 socialist in 11C4 ways.
By product rule, the no of ways to select, the committee is = 9C3.11C4 = 27720 ways.
8. There are 5 questions in a question paper in how many ways can a boy solve one or more questions?
Ans: The boy can dispose of each question in two ways .He may either solve it or leave it.
Thus the no. of ways of disposing all the questions= 2 5 .
But this includes the case in which he has left all the questions unsolved.
The total no of ways of solving the paper = 2  1 = 31.
5

9. If the sequence a n 3 .2 n , n  1 , then find the corresponding recurrence relation.

n
2 an
Ans: For n ≥ 1 an  3 . 2
n
, a n  1  3 .2 n  1  3 .  a n 1  2 a n 1  an
2 2
a n 2 a n1, for n≥1, with a 0  3 .
10. If seven colours are used to paint 50 bicycles, then show that at least 8 bicycles will be the same
colour.
Ans: Here, No. of Pigeon = 𝑚 = No. of bicycle=50
No. of Holes = 𝑛 = No. of colours = 7
501
By generalized pigeon hole principle, we have 18
 7 
 

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11. Find the recurrence relation whose solution is S ( k )  5 .2

k

5
Ans: Given S ( k )  5 .2 k  S ( k  1)  5 .2 k  1 = .2
k
 2 S ( k  1)  5 .2
k
S(k)
2
2 S ( k  1)  S ( k )  0 , w ith S ( 0 )  5 is the required recurrence relation.
12. Find the associated homogeneous solution for na  3a 2n.
n 1

Ans: Its associated homogeneous equation is na  3 a n  1  0

Its characteristic equation is r-3 =0  r =3

Now, the solution of associated homogeneous equation is a n A .3 n
13. Solve S ( k )  7 S ( k  1)  1 0 S ( k  2 )  0
Ans: The associated homogeneous relation is S ( k )  7 S ( k  1)  1 0 S ( k  2 )  0
Its characteristic equation is r 2  7 r  1 0  0  ( r  2 )( r  5 )  0  r =2,5
The solution of associated homogeneous equation is k S  A .2 k  B .5 k
14. Define Generating function.
Ans: The generating function for the sequence„s‟ with terms a0 , a 1, .........a …,of
n
real numbers is the


=  a xn .
n
n
infinite sum . G(x) = G(s,x) = a 0  a1 x  .........  an x  .....
n0

15. Find the generating function for the sequence „s‟ with terms 1,2,3,4……..

1
 ( n  1) x = (1  x )  2 
n
Ans: G ( x )  G(s,x)  =1  2 x  3 x 2  .......... .
(1  x )
2
n0

16. How many permutations of (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) end with a? [November 2014]

Ans: 6! 1!=720
17. Find the number of arrangements of the letters in MAPPANASSRR.
1 1! 3991680
Ans: Number of arrangements  
3!2 !2 ! 48
18. In how many ways can letters of the word “INDIA” be arranged?
Ans: The word contains 5 letters of which 2 are I‟s.
5!
The number of words possible =  60 .
2!
19. How many students must be in a class to guarantee that atleast two students receive the same score
on the final exam if the exam is graded on a scale from 0 to 100 points.
Ans: There are 101 possible scores as 0, 1, 2, …,100. By Pigeon hole principle, we have among 102
students there must be atleast two students with the same score. The class should contain minimum 102
students.
20 Show that among any group of five (not necessarily consecutive) integers, there are two with same
remainder when divided by 4.
Ans: Take any group of five integers. When these are divided by 4 each have some remainder.
Since there are five integers and four possible remainders when an integer is divided by 4, the
pigeonhole principle implies that given five integers, atleast two have the same remainder.

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PART – B
n
1(a) n(n1)(2n1)
Using Mathematical induction prove that  2
i 
i 1
6

Solution:
n ( n  1) ( 2 n  1)
Let P(n) : 12 + 22 + …..+ n2 =
6

1 (1  1) ( 2 .1  1)
(1) Assume P(1) : 12 = is true
6

k ( k  1) ( 2 k  1)
(2) Assume P(k) : 12 + 22 + …..+k2 = is true, where k is any integer.
6

k ( k  1) ( 2 k  1)
(3) P(k + 1) = 12 + 22 + …..+k2 + (k + 1)2 =  ( k  1)
2

( k  1) [ ( k  1)  1] [( 2 ( k  1)  1]
=
6

Therefore P(k + 1) is true.

n ( n  1) ( 2 n  1)
n

Hence,  i
2
 is true for all n.
i 1 6
1(b)
Use mathematical Induction to prove that 3n  7n  2   is divisible by 8, for n 1.
Solution:

Let Pn : 3n  7n  2  is divisible by 8.
(i) P1 : 31  71  2 8 is divisible by 8, is true.

(ii) Assume Pk  : 3k  7k  2 is divisible by 8 is true ------ (1)

Claim: Pk 1 is true
Pk 1  3k+1  7k+1  2
 33k 7 7k  2
 3.3k  37k  47k  6  4
   
 3 3k  7k  2  4 7k 1
 47k 1 is divisible by 8 and by (1) 33k  7k  2 is divisible by 8.

Pk 1  33k  7k  2 47k 1 is divisible by 8 is true.

2(a) Prove by mathematical induction that 6 n  2  7 2 n  1 is divisible by 43 for each positive integer n.
Solution:
S(1): Inductive step: for 𝑛 = 1,
12 21
6 7 =559, which is divisible by 43
So S(1) is true.
Assume S(k) is true (i.e) 6 k  2  7 2 k  1  4 3 m for some integer m.

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To prove S(k+1) is true.Now

k3 2k3 k3 2k1
7  6 7
2
6 .7
k2 2k1 2k1
6(6 7 )  4 3 .7
2k1
 6 .4 3 m  4 3 .7
2k1
43(6m7 )
Which is divisible by 43.
So S(k+1) is true. By Mathematical Induction , S(n) is true for all integer n.
2(b) Using mathematical induction ,prove that 2  2 2  2 3  .........  2 n  2 n  1  2
Let p (n) = 2  2 2  2 3  2 n .
Assume p (1): 21  21  1  2 is true.
Assume p(k) : 2  2 2  2 3  .........  2 k  2 k  1  2 is true
Claim p(k+1) is true.
P(k+1) : 2  2 2  2 3  ...  2 k  2 k  1 = 2 k  1  2  2 k  1 = 2 .2 k  1  2 = 2 k  2  2
P(k+1) is true.
Hence it is true for all n.
3(a) Suppose there are six boys and five girls,
(1) In how many ways can they sit in a row.
(2) In how many ways can they sit in a row, if the boys and girls each sit together.
(3) In how many ways can they sit in a row, if the girls are to sit together and the boy don‟t sit
together.
(4) How many seating arrangements are there with no two girls sitting together.
Solution:
1. There are 6 + 5 = 11 persons and they can sit in 11P11 ways.
11P11 = 11! ways
2. The boys among themselves can sit in 6! ways and girls among themselves can sit in 5! ways.They can
be considered as 2 units and can be permuted in 2! ways.

Thus the required seating arrangement can be done in = 2! x 6! x 5! ways

= 172800 ways
3. The boys can sit in 6! Ways and girls in 5! ways.
Since girls have to sit together they are considered as one unit. Among the 6 boys either 0 or 1 or 2 or 3
or 4 or 5 or 6 have to sit to the left of the girls units. Of these seven ways 0 and 6 cases have to be omitted
as the boys do not sit together.Thus the required number of arrangements = 5 x 6! x 5! = 432000 ways.
4. The boys can sit in 6 ! ways. There are seven places where the girls can be placed. Thus the total
arrangements are 7P5 x 6! Ways = 1814400 ways.
3(b) A bit is either 0 or 1 . A byte is a sequence of 8 bits. Find the number of bytes.Among these how many
are (i) Starting with 11 and ending with 00 (ii) Starting with 11 but not ending with 00.
Solution:
(1) Consider a byte starting with 11 and ending with 00.Now the remaining 4 places can be filled with
either 0 or 1 which can be done in 24.Hence there are 16 bytes starting with 00 and ending with11.
(2) Consider a byte starting with 11 and not ended with 00 Now there are 3 bytes which is not ended with
00(ended with 01,10 and 11).Now the remaining 4 places can be filled with either 0 or 1 which can be done
in 24ways.Hence there are 3×16=48 bytes starting with 00 but not ending with11
4(a) How many positive integers 'n ' can be formed using the digits 3,4,4,5,5,6,7 if 'n ' has to exceed
50,00,000 ?
Solution:
Consider a 7digit number p1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 , p 5 , p 6 , p 7 , in order to be a number ≥ 5000000 , p 1 is filled with

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either 5 or 6 or 7 (mutually exclusive)

6!
Case(1): p is1 filled with 5 and remaining 6 position are filled with 3, 4, 4(repeated),5,6,7 in =  360
2!
Case(2): p is1 filled with 6 and remaining 6 positions are filled with 3,4,4 (repeated) 5,5 (repeated), 7 in
6!
=  180
2!2!
Case(3) p is1 filled with 7 and remaining 6 position are filled with 3,4,4(repeated),5,5 (repeated), 6 in
6!
=  180
2!2!
All above 3 cases are mutually exclusive in total 360+180+180=720 ways.
4(b) Prove that in any group of six people there must be atleast three mutual friends or three mutual
enemies.
Proof:
Let the six people be A, B, C, D, E and F. Fix A. The remaining five people can accommodate into two
groups namely
(1) Friends of A and (2) Enemies of A
51
Now by generalized Pigeon hole principle, at least one of the group must contain  1  3 people.
 
 2 
Let the friend of A contain 3 people.(Let it be B, C, D)
Case(1) If any two of these three people (B, C, D) are friends, then these two together with A form three
mutual friends.
Case(2) If no two of these three people are friends, then these three people (B, C, D) are mutual enemies.
In either case, we get the required conclusion.
If the group of enemies of A contains three people, by the above similar argument, we get the required
conclusion.
5(a) A computer password consists of a letter of English alphabet followed by 2 or 3 digits. Find the
following :
(1) The total number of passwords that can be formed
(2) The number of passwords that no digit repeats.
Sol: (1) Since there are 26 alphabets and 10 digits and the digits can be repeated by the product rule the
number of 3-character password is 26.10.10=2600
Similarly the number of 4 character password is 26.10.10.10=26000
Hence the tool number of password is 2600+26000=28600.
(2) Since the digits are not repeated, the first digit after alphabet can be taken from any one out of 10, the
second digit from remaining 9 digits and so on.
Thus the number of 3-character password is 26.10.9=2340
Similarly the number of 4- character password is 26.10.9.8=18720
Hence the total number of password is 2340+18720=21060.
5(b) Show that among (𝒏 + 𝟏) positive integers not exceeding 2n there must be an integer that
divides one of the other integers.
Solution:
Let the (𝑛 + 1) integers be a1, a ,2 ...a n  1
Each of these numbers can be expressed as an odd multiple of a power of 2.
ki
i.e a i  2  m i
Where k i non negative integer
m i odd integer where i =1, 2,3,..., n +1.

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Here, Pigeon=The odd positive integers m , m , ...m

1 2 n 1
less than 2n
Pigeon= 'n ' odd positive integer less than 2n .
Hence by pigeon hole principle, 2 of the integers must be equal.
kj
Now a i  2 ki m i and a  2 m
j j
ki
ai 2
 ( m i m ) j
kj
aj 2
kj
Case-1: If k  k
i j
then 2 k divides 2 and hence a divides
i

i
a.
j

Case-2: If k  k then a divides a .

i j j i

6(a) In A survey of 100 students, it was found that 30 studied Mathematics, 54 studied Statistics, 25
studied Operations Research, 1 studied all the three subjects, 20 studied Mathematics and Statistics,
3 studied Mathematics and Operation Research and 15 studied Statistics and Operation Research.
Find how many students studied none of these subjects and how many students studied only
Mathematics?
Solution.
n(A) = 30; n(B) = 54;n(C) = 25;
n(AB) = 20; n(AC) = 3; n(BC) = 15;
n(ABC)=1
n(ABC) = n(A)+n(B)+n(C) – n(AB) – n(BC) – n(AC) + n(ABC) = 72
None of the subjects = 28.
Only mathematics = 8.
6(b) A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken a course in French, and 114
have taken a course in Russian. Further, 103 have taken courses in both Spanish and Russian, 23
have taken courses in both Spanish and French and 14 have taken courses in both French and
Russian. If 2092 students have taken atleast one of Spanish, French and Russian, how many students
have taken a course in all three languages?
Solution: S-Spanish,F-French, R-Russian
|S|=1232 |F|=879 |R|=114 |S∩R|=103 |S∩F|=23 |F∩R|=14
|S∪F∪R|=2092
|S∪F∪R=|S|+|F|+|R|-|S∩F|- |S∩R|-|F∩R|+|S∩F∩R|
 |S∩F∩R|=7
7(a) Find all the solution of the recurrence relation an = 5an–1 – 6 an–2 + 7n
Solution:
Given non-homogeneous equation can be written as an – 5an–1 + 6 an–2 – 7n = 0
Now, its associated homogeneous equation is an – 5an–1 + 6 an–2 = 0
Its characteristic equation is r2 – 5r + 6 = 0
Roots are r = 2,3
(h) n n
Solution is a n  c1 2  c 2 3
To find particular solution
Since F(n) = 7n, then the solution is of the form C.7n, where C is a constant.
Therefore, the equation an = 5an–1 – 6 an–2 + 7n becomes C7n = 5C7n–1–6C7n–2+7n ……(1)
Dividing the both sides of (1) by 7n–2.
n n 1 n2 n
C .7 5C7 6C7 7 49
(1)      C 
n2 n2 n2 n2
7 7 7 7 20

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(p)  49 
Hence the particular solution is a  7n
n  
 20 
n n  49  n
Therefore, a n  c 1 ( 2 )  c 2( 3 )   7
 20 
7(b) Find the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 &7.
Sol: Let A, B, C,D are the set of integers between 1 and 250 that are divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
250 250
 | A | [ ]  125 , | B | [ ]  83
2 3
250 250
| C | [ ]  50 , | D | [ ]  35
5 7
 250   250   250 
| A  B |      41
   
 LCM ( 2 ,3 )  2 3  6 
 250   250   250 
| A  C |       25
  
 LCM ( 2 ,5 )  2 5  10 
 250   250   250 
| A  D |       17
  
 LCM ( 2 ,7 )  2 7  14 
 250   250   250 
| B  C |       16
  
 LCM ( 3 ,5 )  53  15 
 250  250   2 5 0 
| B  D |        11
 L C M (7 , 3)  7 3  2 1 
 250  250   2 5 0 
| C  D |         7
 L C M ( 5, 7 )  5 7   3 5 
 250   250 
| A  B  C |      8

 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,5 )   2  3  5 
 250   250 
| A  B  D |      5

 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,7 )   2  3  7 
 250   250 
| A  C  D |      3

 LCM ( 2 ,5 ,7 )   2  5  7 
 250   250 
| B  C  D |      2

 LCM ( 3 ,5 ,7 )   3  5  7 
 250   250 
| A  B  C  D |     1

 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,5 ,7 )   2  3  5  7 
|ABCD||A||B||C||D||AB||AC||AD||BC|

|BD||CD||ABC||ABD||ACD|

|BCD||ABCD|
=125+83+50+35-41-25-17-16-11-7+8+5+3+2-1=193
The number of integers between 1 and 250 that is divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=193
Therefore not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=250-193=57.

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8(a) Solve the recurrence relation a n  2 ( a n  1  a n  2 ) where 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐 and a 0  1, a 1  2

a n 2 ( a n1 a n2)
a  2a  2a  0
n n 1 n2

The characteristic equation is given by

 220
2

2  4  4 (2) 2 i2
    1 i
2 2
   1  i ,1  i

 Solution  A (1  i )  B (1  i )
n n
is a
n

Where A and B are arbitrary constants

Now, we have
z  x  iy

 r [cos   i sin  ]
1  y
  tan 
 
 
x
By Demoivre‟s theorem we have,
n     n
(1  i )  [ 2  cos  i sin ]
 4 4 
n  n n 
 [ 2 ] cos  i sin 
 
 4 4 
n n  n n 
and (1  i )  [ 2 ]  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
Now,
n  n n  n  n n  
a n  A [[ 2 ]  c o s  i s in  ]  B [[ 2 ]  c o s  i s in ]
 4 4   4 4 
 n n 
[ 2]n (A B)cos  i ( A  B ) s in 
 
 4 4 
 n n 
a [ 2] n
C cos  C s in ] (1)
n  1 2 
 4 4 
Is the required solution. Let C 1 =𝐴 + 𝐵, C 2 =𝑖(𝐴 − 𝐵)
Since 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2

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Click Here for Discrete Mathematics full study material.

(1)  a  ( 2 )[ C cos 0  C sin 0 ]  0

0 1 2

1C
1

1   
a1  [ 2 ]  C 1 cos  C 2 sin  ]
 4 4 
 1 1 
2  2 C1  C 2 sin ]
 2 2 
2CC
1 2

 C 1
2
n  n n
 a [2] cos  sin ]
n  
 4 4 

8(b) Solve the recurrence relation of the Fibonacci sequence of numbers f n f n1 f n2, n  2

with initial conditions f 1  1, f 2  1 .

Sol: The sequence of Fibonacci numbers satisfies the recurrence relation
f n  f n  1  f n  2 ..... (1) and satisfies the initial conditions f 1  1, f 2  1 .
(1)  f  f  f  0 ...( 2 )
n n 1 n2

Let 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 be a solution of the given equation.

The characteristic equation is 𝑟2 − 𝑟 − 1 = 0
1 1 4
r 
2
1 5 1 5
Let r1  , r 2
2 2
 By theorem
n n
1 5   1  5 
f       ...( 3 )
n 1
 2  2
 2 
   
1 5   1  5 
f  1 f        1
1 1 1 
2  2 
2 
   
(1  5 )  (1  5 )  2 ...( 4 )
1 2

2 2
1 5   1  5 
f  1 f       1
2 2 1
2  2 
2 
   
(1  (1 
2 2
5) 5)
 1  2
1
4 4
 (1  5)   (1  5)   4
2 2
...( 5 )
1 2

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Click Here for Discrete Mathematics full study material.

( 4 )  (1  5 ) 

(1  (1  5 )  (1  5)   2
2
5)
1 2
(1  5) ...( 6 )

( 6 )  ( 5 )   (1  5 )[1  5 1 5]2 2 54

1

 (1  5)[25]225
1

 (1  5 ) [  2 5 ]   2 (1  5)
1

1
 
1
5
1
4 )  (1  5)  (1  5 ) 2  2
5
1
 1  (1  5 ) 2  2
5
1
(1  5 ) 2  2  1
5
1
 1 
5
5 1
(1  5 ) 2 
5
1
2 
5
n n
1 1  5   1 1  5 
( 3 )  fn   
 2   2 
5   5  

9(a) Solve the recurrence relation a n  6 a n  1  11 a n  2  6 a n  3 with a 0  2 , a 1  5 and a 2  15

[November 2014]
Solution:
The unique Solution to this recurrence relation and the given initial condition is the sequence { a n } with
an  1 2  2 .3
n n

9(b) A factory makes custom sports cars at an interesting rate. In the first month only one car is made, in
the second month two cars are made and so on, with n cars made in the nth month.
(1) Set up recurrence relation for the number of cars produced in the first n months by this factory.
(2) How many cars are produced in the first year?
Solution:
(i) a n  n  a n  1 , a o  0 ( a 1  1, a 2  2  a 1 , e tc )
(ii) By recursively a12  78
10(a) Solve 𝑺(𝒏 + 𝟏) − 𝟐𝑺(𝒏) = 𝟒𝒏, with 𝑺(𝟎) = 𝟏 and 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏
Solution: Given 𝑎𝑛+1 − 2𝑎𝑛 − 4𝑛 = 0
Multiply by x n , and sum over all n  0 to  .

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Click Here for Discrete Mathematics full study material.

a a  4x0
  
n1x 
n
2 nx  n nn

n0 n0 n0

1 3x
G ( x ) 
(1  2 x )(1  4 x )
1 1
By Applying Partial fractions we get A ,B
2 2
 
1 1
G ( x) 
2
 2 n xn  4
2 n0
n
xn
n 0

henceweget
n 1 n 1
an  2  2 ( 4)

10(b) Find the generating function of Fibonacci sequence.

Solution
Fibonacci sequence : fn  f n  1  f n  2 , n  2 with f  0 ,o f  1 1

Multiply by z n , and sum over all n  2 .

f

n
z   fn  1 z   f n 2 z
n n n

n2 n2 n2

G ( z )  f  f z  z ( G ( z )  f )  z ( G ( z ))
2

0 1 0

G ( z )   f nz 
n

n0

Where ( i.e ) G ( z )  z G ( z )  z G ( z )  f  f0 z  z 1f
2

z
G ( z ) 
1 z  z
2

UNIT III GRAPH THEORY

PART – A
01. Define Graph.
Ans: A graph G = (V,E) consists of a finite non empty set V, the element of which are the vertices of G,
and a finite set E of unordered pairs of distinct elements of V called the edges of G.
02. Define complete graph.
Ans: A graph of n vertices having each pair of distinct vertices joined by an edge is called a Complete
graph and is denoted by Kn.
03. Define regular graph.
Ans: A graph in which each vertex has the same degree is called a regular graph. A regular graph has k –
regular if each vertex has degree k.
04. Define Bipartite Graph with example.
Ans: Let G = (V,E) be a graph. G is bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two nonempty
disjoint subsets V1 and V2 , called a bipartition, such that each edge has one end in V1 and in V2 . For eg
C 6
V V
2 3

V1 V4

V6 V5

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

1(b) In any graph show that the number of odd vertices is even.
Let G = (V, E) be the undirected graph. Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the set of vertices of G of even and odd degrees
respectively. Then by hand shaking theorem,
2e =  d eg ( vi )   d eg ( v j ) . Since each deg(vi) is even,  d eg ( vi ) is even. Since LHS is even, we
v i  v1 v j v2 v i  v1

get  d eg ( v j ) is even. Since each deg(vj) is odd, the number of terms contain in  d eg ( v j ) or v2 is
v j v2 v j  v2

even, that is, the number of vertices of odd degree is even.

2(a) Prove that a simple graph with at least two vertices has at least two vertices of same degree.
Proof:
Let G be a simple graph with n  2 vertices.
The graph G has no loop and parallel edges. Hence the degree of each vertex is  n-1.
Suppose that all the vertices of G are of different degrees.
Following degrees 0, 1, 2, …, n-1 are possible for n vertices of G.
Let u be the vertex with degree 0. Then u is an isolated vertex.
Let v be the vertex with degree n-1 then v has n-1 adjacent vertices.
Because v is not an adjacent vertex of itself, therefore every vertex of G other than u is an adjacent vertex
of G.
Hence u cannot be an isolated vertex, this contradiction proves that simple graph contains two vertices of
same degree.
2(b) n ( n  1)
Prove that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with n vertices is nc 
2
2
Proof:
We prove this theorem, by the method of mathematical induction. For 𝑛 = 1, a graph with 1 vertex has
no edges. Therefore the result is true for n = 1.
For n = 2, a graph with two vertices may have atmost one edge. Therefore 2 (2 –1) / 2 = 1.
Hence for n = 2, the result is true.
k ( k  1)
Assume that the result is true for n = k, i.e, a graph with k vertices has atmost edges.
2
Then for n = k + 1, let G be a graph having n vertices and G be the graph obtained from G, by deleting one
vertex say, „v‟  V(G).
k ( k  1)
Since G has k vertices then by the hypothesis, G has atmost edges. Now add the vertex v to G.
2
„v‟ may be adjacent to all the k vertices of G.
k ( k  1) k ( k  1)
Therefore the total number of edges in G are +k= .
2 2
Therefore the result is true for n = k+1.
n ( n  1)
Hence, the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with „n‟ vertices is .
2
3(a) ( n  1 )( n  2 )
Show that a simple graph G with n vertices is connected if it has more than ed g es
2
Proof:
Suppose G is not connected. Then it has a component of k vertices for some k,
The most edges G could have is

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

k ( k  1)  ( n  k )( n  k  1)
C ( k , 2 )  C ( n  k , 2 ) 
2
n 2
n
 k 2  n k 
2
This quadratic function of f is minimized at k = n/2 and maximized at k = 1 or k = n – 1
Hence, if G is not connected, then the number of edges does not exceed the value of this function at 1 and
( n  1)(n  2 )
at n-1, namely .
2
3(b) If a graph G has exactly two vertices of odd degree, then prove that there is a path joining these two
vertices.
Proof:
Case (i): Let G be connected.
Let v1 and v2 be the only vertices of G with are of odd degree. But we know that number of odd vertices is
even. So clearly there is a path connecting v1 and v2, because G is connected.
Case (ii): Let G be disconnected
Then the components of G are connected. Hence v1 and v2 should belong to the same component of G.
Hence, there is a path between v1 and v2.
4(a) ( n  k )( n  k  1 )
Prove that a simple graph with n vertices and k components can have at most
2
edges.
Let the number of vertices of the ith component of G be 𝑛 , 𝑛𝑖 ≥ 1..
k k

 n i n   ( n i  1)  ( n  k )
i 1 i 1

2
Then    ( n i  1)  
k
 n  2 2n k  k 2

 i 1 

 (n n
k k
th a t is i  1)2  n2  2 n k  k 2
 i 2n  2 2n k  k  2 n 2 k

i 1 i 1

n ( n  1) 1 k
2 n

i i
Now the maximum number of edges in the ith component of G =  ni 
2 2 i 1 2

(n 2
2nk  k 2
 2n k ) n ( n  k )( n  k  1)
  
2 2 2
4(b) If all the vertices of an undirected graph are each of degree k, show that the number of edges of the
graph is a multiple of k.
Solution: Let 2n be the number of vertices of the given graph….(1)
Let n e be the number of edges of the given graph.
By Handshaking theorem, we have
2n

 degv i  2 ne
i 1

2 n k  2n (1)
e

n e n k
Number of edges =multiple of 𝑘.
Hence the number of edges of the graph is a multiple of k

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

5(a) Draw the graph with 3 vertices A,B,C, D & E such that the deg(A)=3,B is an odd vertex, deg(C)=2
and D and E are adjacent.
Solution:
d(E)=5 ,d(C)=2,d(D)=5 ,d(A)=3 d(B)=1

5(b) Draw the complete graph K

5
with vertices A,B,C,D,E. Draw all complete sub graph of K
5
with 4
vertices.
Solution:

complete sub graph with 4 vertices

6(a) Prove that a given connected graph G is Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G are of even
degree.
Solution:
Case (i) Prove If G is Euler graph→ Every vertex of G has even degree.
Case (ii) Prove If Every vertex of G has even degree.→ G is Euler graph ( by Contradiction Method).

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

6(b) Find the adjacency matrix of the given directed graph.

(i) (ii)

Answer:
0 2 0 0 0 0 
 
1 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 
 
 
0 0 
(i ) 0 0 0 1
(ii ) 
1 2 1 0

0 0 0 
0 0 0 1 1 2 0
  0 
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 1 3 
0 
 
7(a) Show that isomorphism of simple graphs is an equivalence relation. [November 2014]
Solution:
G is isomorphism to itself by the identity function, So isomorphism is reflexive. Suppose that G is
isomorphic to H.Then there exists a one –to-one correspondence f from G to H that preserves adjacency
1
and nonadjacency.It follows that f is a one-to-one correspondence from H to G that preserves adjacency
and non-adjacency.Hence isomorphism is symmetric.If G is isomorphic to H and H is isomorphic to K then
there are ono-to-one correspondences f and g from G to H and from H to K that preserves adjacency and
nonadjacency.It follows that g  f is a one-to-one correspondencies from G to K that preserves adjacency
and non-adjacency.Hence isomorphism is transitive.
7(b) Find the incidence matrix for the following graph.

(i) (ii)

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Answer:

1 1 1 0 0  0 1 0 1 
   
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
(i)   ( ii )  
1 0 0 0 1  0 1 0 1 
   
0 1 0 1 0  1 0 1 0 

8(a) Examine whether the following pair of graphs are isomorphic. If not isomorphic, give the reasons

u1 u2 v1
v2
v5
u3
u5 u4
v4 v3

Solution:
Same number of vertices and edges. Also an equal number of vertices with a given degree.
The adjacency matrices of the two graphs are

0 1 0 1 1 
  0 1 0 1 1 
1 0 1 1 1  
  1 0 1 1 1 
0 1 0 1 0  
and 0 1 0 1 0 
1 1 1 0 1  
  1 1 1 0 1 
1 1 0 1 0 
 
1 1 0 1 0 
since the two adjacency matrices are the same, the two graphs are isomorphic.

8(b) Prove that if a graph G has not more than two vertices of odd degree, then there can be Euler path in
G.
Statement: Let the odd degree vertices be labeled as V and W in any arbitrary order. Add an edge to G
between the vertex pair (V,W) to form a new graph G‟.

Now every vertex of G‟ is of even degree and hence G‟ has an Eulerian Trail T.
If the edge that we added to G is now removed from T, It will split into an open trail containing all edges of
G which is nothing but an Euler path in G

9(a) Show that K 7 has Hamiltonian graph. How many edge disjoint Hamiltonian cycles are there in K 7 ?
List all the edge-disjoint Hamiltonian cycles. Is it Eulerian graph ?

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

UNIT – IV GROUP THEORY

PART – A
01. Define Algebraic system.
Ans: A set together with one or more n-ary operations on it is called an algebraic system.
Example (Z,+) is an algebraic system.
02. Define Semi Group.
Ans: Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a semi
group, if the operation is associative. In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  S,
x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.
03. Define Monoid.
Ans: A semi group (M, *) with identity element with respect to the operation * is called a Monoid.
In other words (M,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  M, x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z and there exists an
element e  M such that for any x  M then e* x = x* e = x.
04. Define Group.
Ans: An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) G is closed with respect to *
(ii) * is associative.
(iii) Identity element exists.
(iv) Inverse element exists.
05. State any two properties of a group.
Ans: (i)The identity element of a group is unique.
(ii) The inverse of each element is unique.
06. Define a Commutative ring.
Ans: If the Ring (R, *) is commutative, then the ring (R, +, *) is called a commutative ring.
07. Show that the inverse of an element in a group (G, *) is unique.
Ans: Let (G,*) be a group with identity element e. Let „b‟ and „c‟ be inverses of an element „a‟
a * b = b * a = e, a * c = c * a = e.
b = b * e = b * ( a * c) = ( b * a ) * c = e * c = c
b = c. Hence inverse element is unique.
08. Give an example of semi group but not a Monoid.
Ans: The set of all positive integers over addition form a semi-group but it is not a Monoid.
09. Prove that the semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency.
Ans: Let a  S be an idempotent element.
 a*aa

g(a*a)g(a)

g(a)g(a)g(a)
This shows that g ( a ) is an idempotent element in T.
Therefore the property of idempotency is preserved under semigroup homomorphism.
10. Define cyclic group.
Ans: A group (G,*) is said to be cyclic if there exists an element a  G such that every element of G can
be written as some power of „a‟.

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

11. Define group homomorphism.

Ans: Let (G,*) and ( S , ) be two groups. A mapping f : G  S is said to be a group homomorphism if for
any a, b  G f(a*b) = f(a)  f(b).
12. Define Left Coset.
Ans: Let (H,*) be a subgroup of (G,*). For any a  G the set H is defined by aH = {a*h: h  H} is called
the right coset of H determined by a  G.
13. State Lagrange‟s theorem.
Ans: The order of the subgroup of a finite group G divides the order of the group.
14. Define Ring.
Ans: An algebraic system (R, +, *) is called a ring if the binary operations + and R satisfies the following.
(i) (R,+) is an abelian group
(ii) (R,*) is a semi group
(iii) The operation is distributive over +.
15. Define field.
Ans: A commutative ring (F, +, *) which has more than one element such that every nonzero element of
F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.
16. Define Integral Domain.
Ans: A commutative ring R with a unit element is called an integral domain if R has no zero divisors.
17. Let T be the set of all even integers. Show that the semi groups (Z,+) and (T,+) are isomorphic.
Ans: Define a function f: Z  T by f(n) = 2n where n1, n2  N.
f is a homomorphism since f(n1+ n2 ) =f n1) +f( n2).
f is one-one since f(n1) = f( n2).
f is onto since f(a) = 2a. therefore f is an isomorphism.
18. Show that the semi group homomorphism preserves the property of idempotency.
Ans: Let f : (M,*) → (H,Δ) be a semi group homomorphism. x is idempotent element in M.
x*x = x. f(x*x) = f(x) Δ f(x).
19. Let <M, *, eM> be a Monoid and aM. If a is invertible, then show that its inverse is unique.
Ans: Let „b‟ and „c‟ be inverses of „a‟. Then a * b = b * a = e and a * c = c * a = e.
Now b = b * e = b * ( a * c ) = ( b * a) * c = e * c = c.
20. If H is a subgroup of the group G, among the right cosets of H in G , prove that there is only one
subgroup H.
Ans: Let Ha be a right coset of H in G where a  G. If Ha is a subgroup of G, then e  Ha where e is the
identity element in G.Ha is an equivalence class containing a with respect to equivalence relation. So that e
 Ha => He = Ha. So Ha =H.
PART – B
1(a) Show that group homomorphism preserves identity, inverse and subgroup.
Proof:
Identity
Let g : ( G , *)  ( H ,  ) be a group homomorphism.
Now g ( e G )  g ( e G * e G )  g ( e G )  g ( e G )
Hence g ( eG ) is an idempotent element and g ( eG ) = e H is the identity element.

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Inverse
1 1
g(a*a )g(e)g(a *a)
G
1 1
g (a ) g (a ) e  g (a ) g (a )
H

Hence g ( a  1 ) is the inverse of g ( a )

subgroup
Let S be the subgroup of ( G , *)
(i) As e G  S then e H  g ( S )
1
(ii) If x = g(a)  S then x  1   g ( a )   g ( S)

(iii) If a, b S then g(a*b) g ( a * b )  g ( a )  g (b )  x  y  g ( S )

Hence g ( S ) is a subgroup of H.

1(b) Let (S, *) be a semi-group. Prove that there exists a homomorphism g: S  SS. where < SS, > is a
semi-group of functions from S to S under the operation f (left) composition.
Solution:
For any element a  S, let g(a) = fa, where fa  SS and fa is defined by fa(b) = a * b for any b S.
Now g(a * b) = f a*b, where f a*b (c) = (a * b) * c = a * ( b* c) = fa (fb (c)) = ( f a  f b ) (c)
Therefore, g(a* b) = f a*b = f a  f b = g(a)  g(b). Hence g is a homomorphism.
For an element a  S, the function fa is completely determined from the entries in the row corresponding to
a in the composition table of (S, *). Since fa = g(a), every row of the table determines the image under the
homomorphism of g.
2(a) Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup under the operation x * y = max {x, y}. Is it a
Monoid?
Proof:
Clearly if x, y  N then max{x,y} = x or y  N. Hence closure is true.
Now (x*y)*z = max {x*y, z} = max {x,y*z} = x*(y*z). Hence N is associative.
e =  is the element in N such that x*e=e*x=e.
Hence (N, *,  ) is Monoid.
2(b) Prove that if (G, *) is an Abelian group, if and only if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
Proof:
Let G be an abelian group.
Now (a * b)2 = (a * b) * (a * b) = a * (b * a) * b = a * (a * b) * b = a2 * b2.
Conversely, let (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a* b) * (a*b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
 (a * a) * (b * a) * (b* b–1) = (a–1 * a) * a * b * (b * b–1)  b * a = a * b.
–1

Hence G is abelian.
3(a) Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset H of a group (G, *) to be a
subgroup of G if a , b  H  a * b  1  H
Proof:
Necessary Condition:
Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself a group, we have if a, b  H implies a*b  H

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Since b  H then b-1  H which implies a * b-1  H.

Sufficient Condition:
Let a * b-1  H, for a, b  H
If a  H, which implies a* a-1 = e  H
Hence the identity element „e‟  H.
Let a, e  H, then e* a-1 = a-1 H
Hence a-1 is the inverse of „a‟.
Let a, b-1  H, then a* (b-1)-1 = a *b  H.
Therefore H is closed and clearly * is associative. Hence H is a subgroup of G.
3(b) Prove that intersection of two subgroups is a subgroup, but their union need not be a subgroup of G.
Proof:
Let A and B be two subgroups of a group G. we need to prove that A  B is a subgroup. i.e. it is enough to
1
prove that A  B   an d a,bABa*b AB .
Since A and B are subgroups of G, the identity element e  A and B.
 A  B  
Let a , b  A  B  a , b  A and a , b  B
1 1 1
a*b  A and a * b Ba*b AB

Hence A  B is a subgroup of G.
Consider the following example,
Consider the group, (Z, +), where Z is the set of all integers and the operation + represents usual addition.
Let A  2 Z  {0 ,  2 ,  4 ,  6 ,.......} and B  3 Z  {0 ,  3,  6 ,  9 ,.......} .
(2Z, +) and (3Z, +) are both subgroups of (Z, +).
Let H  2 Z  3 Z  {0 ,  2 ,  3,  4 ,  6 .......... }
Note that 2 , 3  H , but 2  3  5  H  5  2 Z  3 Z
i.e 2 Z  3 Z is not closed under addition.
Therefore 2 Z  3 Z is not a group
i.e. 2 Z  3 Z is not a subgroup of (Z, +).
Therefore (H, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +).
4(a) Show that the Kernel of a homomorphism of a group (G, *) into another group (H,  ) is a subgroup
of G.
Proof:
Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K  { x  G g ( x )  e } where e  the identity element
of H. is
Let x, y  K. Now
1 1 1
g(x*y )g(x)g(y )g(x) g(y)  e    e    1  e   e   e 
1
x*y K
Therefore K is a subgroup of G.
4(b) State and prove Cayley‟s theorem on permutation groups.
Statement:
Every finite group of order “n” is isomorphic to a group of degree n.

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Proof:
Let G be the given group and A(G) be the group of all permutations of the set G.
For any a  G , define a map f : G  G such that f(x) = ax and we have to prove the following things
(i) fa is well defined.
(ii) fa is one – one
(iii) fa is onto
Now let K be the set of all permutations and define a map  : G  K such that  ( a )  f a
Clearly  is one-one, onto and homomorphism and hence  is isomorphism which proves the theorem.
5(a) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof:
Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a  G and let H be the subgroup of G. If H contains
identity element alone, then trivially H is cyclic. Suppose if H contains the element other than the identity
element. Since H  G, any element of H is of the form ak for some integer k. Let “m” be the smallest
positive integer such that am  H. Now by division algorithm theorem we have
k = qm + r where 0  r < m. Now ak = aqm + r = (am)q. ar and from this we have ar = (am)- q. ar. Since am, ak
 H, we have ar  H. Which is a contradiction that am  H such that “m: is small. Therefore r = 0 and ak =
(am)q. Thus every element of H is a power of am and hence H is cyclic.
5(b) Prove that every cyclic group is an Abelian group.
Proof:
Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a  G.
Then for any two element x, y  G, we have x = an, y = am, where m, n are integer.
Now x*y = an * am = an + m = am + n = am * an = y * x
(G,*) is abelian.

6(a) State and Prove Lagrange‟s theorem

Statement:
The order of each subgroup of a finite group is divides the order of the group.
Proof:
Let G be a finite group and o(G) = n and let H be a subgroup of G and o(H) = m.
For x  G , the right coset of Hx is defined by H x  { h 1 x , h 2 x , h 3 x , ........... h m x } .

Since there is a one to one correspondence between H and Hx, the members of Hx are distinct. Hence, each
right coset of H in G has „m‟ distinct members.
We know that any two right cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.
i.e. let H be a subgroup of a group G. Let x , y  G . Let Hx and Hy be two right cosets of H in G. we need
to prove that either Hx = Hy or Hx∩Hy =  .
Suppose H x  H y   . Then there exists an element H x  H y
Thus by proving O(G)/O(m)=k
O(H) is a divisor of O(G) → O(H) divides O(G).
6(b) Let (G, *) and (H,  ) be groups and g : G  H be a homomorphism. Then the Kernal of g is a
normal subgroup.
Proof:
Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K  { x  G g ( x )  e } where e  the identity element
of H. is
Let x, y  K. Now

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1 1 1
g(x*y )g(x)g(y )g(x) g(y)  e    e    1  e   e   e 
1
x*y K
Therefore K is a subgroup of G. Let
xK,fG

1 1 1 1
g(f*x*f )g(f)*g(x)*g(f )g(f)e g(f) g(f) g(f)  e 
1
 f*x*f K
Thus K is a normal subgroup of G.
7(a) State and prove the fundamental theorem of group homomorphism
Statement:
If f is a homomorphism of G onto G  with kernel K, then G / K  G  .
Proof: Let f : G  G  be a homomorphism. Then K = Ker (f) = {x G f ( x )  e  } is a normal subgroup
and also the quotient set ( G / K ,  ) is a group.
Define  : G / K  G  given by  ( K a )  f ( a ) .
Now we have to prove
(i)  is well defined.
(ii)  is a homomorphism.
(iii)  is one – one.
(iv)  is onto.
From this proof‟s we have G / K  G 
7(b) Prove that intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group (G, *) is a normal subgroup of a
group (G, *)
Proof:
Let G be the group and H and K are the subgroups of G.
Since H and K are subgroups of G,
e  H and e  K  e  H  K . Thus H  K is nonempty.

1 1 1
Since ab  H and ab  K  ab HK

Since gxg  1  H and gxg  1  K  gxg  1  H  K

Thus H  K is a Normal subgroup of G.
8(a) Prove that every subgroup of an Abelian group is a normal subgroup.
Proof:
Let (G,*) be an abelian group and (N,*) be a subgroup of G. Let g be an element of G and n be an element
of N.
Now g * n * g  1  ( n * g ) * g  1  n * ( g * g  1 )  n * e  n  N

Hence for all g  G and n  N , g * n * g  1  N

Therefore (N,*) is a normal subgroup
8(b) Prove that a sub group H of a group is normal if x * H * x  1  H ,  x  G
Proof:
Letx*h*x1H

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 x*H*x1H,xG
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, let us assume that H is normal subgroup of G.
x*H*x1H,xG

Now x  G  x  1  G
1

i.e . x
1
* H* x  1
H,xG
1
x *H*xH
1 1 1
x*(x *H*x)*x x*H*x
 1
e*H*e  x*H * x
1
H  x*H * x
1
 x *H*x H
9(a) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is normal.
Proof:
We know that every cyclic group is Abelian.
That is x * y = y * x.
Let G be the cyclic group and let H be a subgroup of G.
Let x  G and h  H then
x * h * x 1  x *  h*x  x* x
1 1
*h  (x*x 1
)*he*hhH

1
Thus for x  G an d h H, x*h*x H
Thus H is a normal subgroup of G.
Therefore every subgroup of a cyclic group is normal
9(b) Prove that every field is an integral domain, but the converse need not be true.
Proof:
Let ( F ,  , ) be a field. That is F is a commutative ring with unity. Now to prove F is an integral domain itis
enough to prove it has non-zero divisor.
Let a , b  F such that a . b = 0 and let a  0 then a  1  F
Now
1 1 
a ( a b )  ( a a )ba
1
0  1 b

0b.
Therefore F has non-zero divisor
10(a) If R is a commutative ring with unity whose ideals are {0} and R, then prove that R is a field.
Proof:
We have to show that for any 0  a  R there exists an element 0  b  R such that ab = 1.
Let 0  a  R
Define Ra  {ra r  R }
Proof of Ra is an ideal
Since e  R  ea  R a  a  R a
 Ra  {0} (since a  0)

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Therefore the hypothesis of the theorem

Ra = R
This means that every element of R is a multiple of „a‟ by some element of R.
 x  R , x  ra , fo r so m e r  R
ForI R

1  b a , fo r so m e 0  b  R
 ab  1
10(b) Prove that {Zp, +p, *p}is an integral domain if and only if p is prime.
Solution:
Let us assume that Zp be an integral domain and to prove that p is prime.
Suppose p is not prime then p = mn, where 1< m < p, 1 < n < p. Hence mn = 0.
Therefore „m‟ and „n‟ are zero divisors and hence Zp is not an integral domain.
Which is a contradiction.
Hence p is a prime.
Conversely,
Suppose p is prime.
Let a , b  Z p and ab = 0
Then ab = pq where q  Z p then p divides ab
i.e p divides a (or) p divides b
therefore a = 0 (or) b = 0
thus Zp has no zero divisors. Also Zp is a commutative ring with identity.
Hence Zp is an integral domain.
UNIT-V LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
PART – A
01. Define lattice.
Ans: A partially ordered set (L,≤) in which every pair of elements has a least upper bound and greatest
lower bound is called a lattice.
02. Define lattice homomorphism and isomorphism.
Ans: If ( L1,  ,  ) a n d ( L ,2 , ) are two lattices, a mapping f : L  1L is called
2
a lattice
homomorphism from L 1 to L 2 , if for any a , b  L1 ,
f ( a  b )  f ( a )  f (b ) and f ( a  b )  f ( a ) * f (b ) .

If a homomorphism f : L1  L 2 of two lattices ( L1 ,  ,  ) a n d ( L 2 ,  , ) is objective i.e. one -one, onto,

then f is called an isomorphism.
03. Define sub lattice with example.
Ans: A non-empty subset M of a lattice ( L ,  ,  ) is called a sub lattice of L, if and only if M is closed
under both the operations  and  that is if a, b M, then a  b and a  b also in M. ( S n , D ) is a sub
lattice of ( Z  , D )
04. Define partial ordering on S.
Ans: A relation  on a set S is called a partial ordering on S if it has the following three properties S is
reflexive, anti-symmetric, transitive. A set S together with a partial ordering is called a partially ordered set
or poset.

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

05. Define Hasse diagram.

Ans: Hasse diagram of a finite partially ordered set S is the directed graph whose vertices are the elements
of S and there is a directed edge from a to b whenever a < b in S.
06. Simplify the Boolean expression a ' .b ' .c  a .b ' .c  a .b ' .c ' , using Boolean algebraic identities.
Ans: ' '
a .b .c  a .b .c  a .b .c
' ' '
= a ' .b ' .c  a .b ' .( c  c ' ) = a ' .b ' .c  a .b ' .1 = b ' .( a  a ' .c ) =
' ' ' '
b .( a  a )( a .c ) = a .b  b .c

07. Prove that D  {S D } is a complemented lattice by finding the complements of all the elements.
42 4 2,

Ans: D  {1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 7 , 1 4 , 2 1, 4 2}
42

The complement of 1 is 42, the complement of 2 is 21, the complement of 3 is 14, the complement of 6 is
7, the complement of 14 is 3, the complement of 21 is 2, the complement of 42 is 1. the complement of 7 is
6. Every element has a complement. Hence D 4 2  { S 4 2 , D } is a complemented lattice
08. In the poset ( Z  , /), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable? Are 5 and 7 comparable?
Ans: Since 3/9, the integers 3 and 9 are comparable.
For 5, 7 neither 5/7 nor 7/5. Therefore, the integers 5 and 7 are not comparable.
09. When a lattice is called complete?
Ans: A lattice <L, *, > is called complete if each of its non-empty subsets has a least upper bound and a
greatest lower bound.
10. Define direct product of lattice.
Ans: Let ( L , ,  ) and ( S ,  ,  ) be two lattices. The algebraic system ( L  S , ,  ) in which the binary
operation + and  on L x S are such that for any ( a1 , b1 ) a n d ( a 2 , b 2 ) in LxS
( a1 , b1 ).( a 2 , b2 )  ( a1  a 2 , b1  b2 )
( a1 , b1 )  ( a 2 , b2 )  ( a1  a 2 , b1  b2 )
is called the Direct product of the lattice ( L , ,  ) and ( S ,  ,  ) .

11. Prove that a  a b  a  b

Ans: a  ab= a  ab a b (a = a + ab)
= ab(aa)= ab
bcaandbc1
Since
baaandbab

Therefore b does not have any complement .the given lattice is not complemented lattice.
12. Check the given lattice is complemented lattice or not.
Ans:

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

13. 

Reduce the expression a . a b .



Ans: a . a b =0.b = 0
14. Prove the involution law ' '
(a ) a.

Ans: It is enough to show that a '  a  1 a n d a .a '  0

' '
By dominance laws of Boolean algebra, we get a  a  1 a n d a .a  0

By commutative laws, we get a  a '  1 a n d a ' .a  0 . Therefore Complement of a‟ is a ( a ' ) '  a

15. Determine whether the following posets are lattices.
(i) ({1,2,3,4,5},/) (ii) ({1,2,4,8,16},/)
Ans: ({1,2,3,4,5},/) is not a lattice because there is no upper bound for the pairs (2,3) and (3,5).
,2,4,8,16},/) is a lattice. Since every pair has a LUB and a GLB .
16. Reduce the expression a(a+c).
Ans: a(a+c)= aa+ac = a+ac = a(1+c) = a.
17 Show that the „greater than or equal to „relation (≥) is a partial ordering on the set of integers.
Ans: Since a≥ a for every integer a, ≥ is reflexive.
If a≥ b and b≥a,then a=b.hence „≥‟ is antisymmetric.
Since a≥b and b≥c imply that a≥c,‟ ≥‟ is transitive.
Therefore „≥‟ is a partial order relation on the set of integers.
18. Prove that any lattice homomorphism is order preserving.
Ans: Let f : L1  L 2 be a homomorphism.
Let a  b Then GLB{𝑎, 𝑏}= a  b =a, LUB{𝑎, 𝑏}= a  b =b
Now f ( a  b )  f ( a )  f ( a )  f (b )  f ( a )
i.e., GLB {(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏)} = 𝑓(𝑎). Therefore f(a)f(b)

If a  b implies f ( a )  f ( b ) . Therefore f is order preserving.

19. Is the poset ( Z  , /) a lattice.
Ans: Let a and b be any 2 positive integer.
Then LUB{a,b} =LCM {a,b} and GLB{a,b}= GCD{a,b} should exists in Z  .
For example, let a=4, b=20
Then LUB{a,b} = lcm {4,20} = 1 and GLB{a,b}=gcd{4,20}=4
Hence, both GLB and LUB exist. Therefore The poset ( Z  , /) is a lattice.
20. Which elements of the poset ({2,4,5,10,12,20,25},/ ) are maximal and which are minimal?
Ans: The relation R is R={(2,4) (2,10) (2,12) (2,20) (4,12) (4,20) (5,10) (5,20) (5,25) (10,20)}
Its Hasse diagram is

The maximal elements are 12, 20, and 25 and The minimal elements are 2 and 5.

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

PART – B
1(a) Draw the Hasse diagram for (i) P1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 12} and ≤ is a relation such that x ≤ y if x divides y
(ii) Let S = {a, b, c} and à = P(S) = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}} Consider the partial
order of set inclusion (⊆).
Answer:
(i) (ii)

1(b) Draw the Hasse diagram for D24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24},D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30},
D36 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36} considering the partial order divisibility.
Answer:

2(a) Show that every chain is a distributive lattice.

Solution:

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Let ( L ,  ) be a chain and let a, b, c  L , then a  b  c and abc .

When a  b  c , we have
a(bc)aca
also, ( a  b )  ( a  c )  a  a  a .
Thus a  ( b  c )  ( a  b )  ( a  c ).
Again a  ( b  c )  a  b  b . Also ( a  b )  ( a  c )  b  c  b
therefore a  ( b  c ) = ( a  b )  ( a  c ) .
 ( L , ,  ) is a distributive lattice.
When a  b  c , we have a  b  b and a  b  a
Now,
a(bc)abb

( a  b )  ( a  c ).  b  c  b

 a  ( b  c )  ( a  b )  ( a  c ).

Also ,

a(bc)(ac)a

(ab)(ac)(aa)a

a(bc)(ab)(ac)
Hence, ( L , ,  ) is a distributive lattice. This indicates that every chain is a distributive lattice.
2(b) State and prove Isotonicity property in lattice.
Statement:
Let ( L ,  ,  ) be given Lattice. For any a, b, c  L , we have,
b  c 

1) a  b  a  c

2) a  b  a  c
Proof:
Given b  c Therefore G L B {b , c}  b  c  b and L U B {b , c}  b  c  c
Claim 1: a  b  a  c
To prove the above, it‟s enough to prove G L B { a  b , a  c}  a  b
Claim 2: a  b  a  c
To prove the above it‟s enough to prove L U B { a  b , a  c}  a  c
3(a) Prove that the De Morgon‟s laws hold good for a complemented distributive lattice ( L ,  ,  ) .
Solution:
The De Morgon‟s Laws are
(1)  ab ' a ' b ' (2) a  b  '  a ' b ' , for all a,b B
Proof:
Let ( L ,  ,  ) be a complemented distributive lattice. Let a, b  L. Since L is a complemented lattice, the
complements of „a‟ and „b‟ exist.
Let the complement a be a ' and the complement of b be b '
Now

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }
 { a  ( b  a )}  { a  ( b  b )}

 { ( a  a )  b }  ( a  1)

 (1  b )  ( a  1)

11

1

( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }

 { a  ( b  a )}  { a  ( b  b )}

 { ( a  a )  b }  ( a  1)

 (1  b )  ( a  1)

00

 0
hence a  b  '  a '  b '
By the principle of duality, we have a  b  '  a '  b '
3(b) Show that direct product of any two distributive lattices is a distributive lattice.
Proof:
Let L1 and L2 be two distributive lattices. Let x, y, z  L1  L 2 be the direct product of L1 and L2 Then x =
(a1, a2), y = (b1, b2) and z = (c1, c2)
Now
x  ( y  z )  ( a1 , a 2 )   ( b1 , b 2 )  ( c1 , c 2 ) 

  ( a1 , a 2 )  ( b1 , b 2 )    ( a1 , a 2 )  ( c1 , c 2 ) 

  x  y    x  z 
Thus direct product of any two distributive lattice is again a distributive lattice
4(a) State and prove the necessary and sufficient condition for a lattice to be modular.
Statement:
A lattice L is modular if and only if none of its sub lattices is isomorphic to the pentagon lattice N5
Proof:
Since the pentagon lattice N5 is not a modular lattice. Hence any lattice having pentagon as a sub lattice
cannot be modular.
Conversely, let ( L ,  ) be any non modular lattice and we shall prove there is a sub lattice which is
isomorphic to N5.
4(b) Prove that every distributive lattice is modular. Is the converse true? Justify your claim.
Proof:
Let ( L ,  ) be a distributive lattice, for all a, b, c  L , we have
a  (b * c )  ( a  b ) * ( a  c )
Thus if a  c , th en a  c  c
 a  (b * c )  ( a  b ) * c
So if a  c , the modular equation is satisfied and L is modular.
However, the converse is not true, because diamond lattice is modular but not distributive.
5(a) In a lattice  L ,  ,   , prove that ( a  b )  (b  c )  ( c  a )  ( a  b )  (b  c )  ( c  a )

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Solution:
( a  b )  ( b  c )  ( c  a )  ( a  b )  [( b  c )  c ]  [( b  c )  a ]

 ( a  b )  [ c  [( b  c )  a ]

 [( a  b )  c ]  [( a  b )  [( b  c )  a ]

 [( a  b )  c ]  [( b  c )  a ]

 [ c  ( a  b )]  [ a  ( b  c }]

 [( c  a )  ( c  b )]  [( a  b )  ( a  c )]

 [ ( c  a )  ( b  c )]  [( a  b )  ( c  a )]

(ca)(bc)(ab)

(ab)(bc)(ca)
5(b) Prove that every finite lattice is bounded.
Proof:
Let ( L ,  ,  ) be given Lattice.
Since L is a lattice both GLB and LUB exist.
Let “a” be GLB of L and “b” be LUB of L.
For any x  L , we have
axb
G L B {a , x}  a  x  a

L U B {a , x}  a  x  x
and
G L B { x , b}  x  b  x
L U B{x, b}  x  b  b
Therefore any finite lattice is bounded.
6(a) In a lattice if a  b  c , show that
(i)abb*c

( i i ) ( a* b )  ( b * c )  ( a  b ) * ( a  c )  b
Proof:
(i) Given a  b  c
Since
a  b  a  b  b , a * b  a ... (1)

b  c  b  c  c , b * c b ... ( 2 )

a  c a  cc,a*c a ... ( 3 )
From (1) and (2), we have a  b  b  b * c
(ii) LHS ( a* b )  (b * c )  a  b  b
RHS ( a  b ) * ( a  c )  b * c  b
Therefore ( a* b )  (b * c )  ( a  b ) * ( a  c )  b
6(b) In a Distributive lattice  L ,  ,   if an element a  L is a complement then it is unique.
Proof:
Let a be an element with two distinct complement b and c. Then a*b = 0 and a*c = 0
Hence a*b = a*c
Also

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

a  b1 and a  c 1

abac
Hence b = c.
7(a) Show that in a distributive lattice and complemented lattice a  b  a * b   0  a   b  1  b   a 
Proof:
a  b  a * b   0  a   b  1  b   a 
Claim 1: a  b  a * b   0
Since a  b  a  b  b , a * b  a
Now a * b   (( a * b ) * b )  ( a * b * b )  a * 0  0
Claim 2: a * b   0  a   b  1
We have a * b   0
Taking complement on both sides, we have
 a * b     0   a   b  1
Claim 3: a   b  1  b   a 
a   b  1   a   b  * b   1 * b    a  * b     b * b    b    a  * b    0  b 

a  * b   b   b   a 
Claim 4: b   a   a  b
We have b   a  taking complement we get b   a   a  b
7(b) In a Boolean algebra prove that  a  b  '  a ' b '
Proof:
( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }

 { ( a  a )  ( b  a )}  { ( a  b )  ( b  b )}

 {1  ( b  a )}  { ( a  b )  1}

 b  b 

1

( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }

 { a  a   b }  { a  b  b }
 { 0  b }  { a  0}

 0
Hence proved.
8(a) In any Boolean algebra, show that ab   a b  0 if and only if a = b
Proof:
Let a = b
Now ab   a b  aa   a a  0  0  0
Conversely let ab   a b  0
Now
a b   a b  0  a b    a b  a b

and a  a .1  a ( b  b  )  a b  a b   a b  a b   a  a   b  1 .b  b

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

8(b)
Simplify ( i )  a * b    a  b  ( ii )  a  * b  * c    a * b  * c    a * b  * c  
Solution:
( i )  a * b    a  b    a  b    a * b 


  a  b   a   *   a  b   b    a  * b 
   

(ii )  a * b * c    a * b * c    a * b * c    ( a   a ) * (b  * c )  b  * c
9(a) In a Boolean algebra prove that ( i ) a *  a  b   a ( ii ) a   a * b   a for all a , b  B
Proof:
( i ) a *  a  b   ( a  0 ) *  a  b 

a(0*b)
a(b*0)a0a

Similarly by duality we have a   a * b   a

9(b) Show that in any Boolean algebra,  a  b    b  c    c  a     a   b   b   c   c   a 
Proof:
 a  b    b  c    c  a     a  b   0   b  c   0   c  a   0 
  a  b   cc    b  c   a a    c  a   b b  
  a  b   c  .  a  b   c   .  b  c   a  .  b  c   a   .  c  a   b  .  c  a   b  

  a   b   cc   b   c  a a    c   a  b b  
 ab0  b   c  0   c   a  0 
  a   b   b   c   c   a 
10(a) Show that in any Boolean algebra, a b  b c  c a  a b  b c  c a .
Solution:
Let (B, +, 0, 1) be any Boolean algebra and a, b, c  B.
a b  b c  c a  a b .1  b c .1  c a .1

ab(cc)bc(aa)ca(bb)

 a b c  a b c  ab c  ab c  a bc  a bc

 ( a b c  a bc )  ( ab c  a b c )  ( ab c  a bc )

(aa)bc(bb)ac(cc)ab

1.bc1.ac1.ab

 ab  bc ca

abbccaabbcca
10(b) Apply Demorgan‟s theorem to the following expression
(i) x  y  ( x  y) ( ii ) ( a  b  c )d

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 MA8351 Discrete Mathematics

Solution:
(i) xy (xy) xy (xy)

 x . y  x .y

 x . y  x .y

xy

( ii ) ( a  b  c ) d  a  b  c  d

a.b. c d

45