Block-3 - Environmental Management Techniques

ignou MEV-003
THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY Environmental Law
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and and Management
Trans-disciplinary Studies
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES 3
MEV-003
Environmental Law
and Management
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Block
3
TECHNIQUES
UNIT 1
Introduction to Environmental Management 5
UNIT 2
Environmental Auditing 22
UNIT 3
Management of Air and Water: Treatment Technologies 36
UNIT 4
Treatment of Solid Waste 54
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani Dr. Rachna Agarwal Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
Professor, National Institute of School of Vocational Education Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Urban Affairs (NIUA) India Habitat and Training, Indira Gandhi School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Centre New Delhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
New Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. R. Baskar University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Department of Environmental Prof. Daizy R Batish
Science & Engineering, Guru Department of Botany, Panjab Prof. Ruchika Kuba Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Jambheshwar University of University, Chandigarh School of Health Sciences, Indira School of Interdisciplinary and
Science & Technology, Hisar Gandhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Haryana Prof. M. Krishnan New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Vice Chancellor, Madurai Kamraj New Delhi
Prof. H.J. Shiva Prasad University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
Professor of Civil Engineering School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
College of Technology, G.B. Pant Dr. Chirashree Ghosh Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
University of Agriculture & Technology Department of Environmental Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand Studies, University of Delhi, University, New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi New Delhi
Dr. T.K. Joshi Dr. Shachi Shah
Director, Occupational & Mr. Ravi Agarwal Environmental Studies, Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
Environmental Programme, Centre Director, Toxic Link, Jangpura School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and
for Occupational & Environmental Extension, New Delhi Trans-disciplinary Studies Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Health, Maulana Azad Medical Indira Gandhi National Open Gandhi National Open University
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi New Delhi
College, New Delhi School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, New Delhi
Prof. Nilima Srivastava National Open University, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
School of Gender and Development New Delhi Environmental Studies
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Dr. B. Rupini School of Interdisciplinary and
Open University, New Delhi Environmental Studies, School Trans-disciplinary Studies
of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. S.K. Yadav University, New Delhi
School of Agriculture disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi National Open National Open University,
University, New Delhi New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Dr. Hardeep Rai Sharma, Dr. R. Mohanraj, Dr. Anoop Yadav, Dr. Anoop Yadav,
Dept of Environmental Sciences, Department of Environmental Central University of Haryana, Central University of Haryana,
Kurukshetra University, Management, Bharathidasan Mahendergarh, Haryana Mahendergarh, Haryana
Kurukshetra, Haryana University, Tiruchirapalli,
Tamil Nadu
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Ruchika Kuba
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of School of Health Sciences,
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University, University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan Prof Rajesh Dhankhar, Department of Environmental Science, Maharshi Dayanand
Environmental Studies, School of University, Rohtak, Haryana
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Prof. Ruchika Kuba, School of Health Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Studies , Indira Gandhi National Open New Delhi
University, New Delhi Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
National Open University, New Delhi New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance: Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU. New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. S. Burman Mr. Sudhir
Mr. Y. N. Sharma
Deputy Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Asst. Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Section Officer (P) IGNOU, New Delhi
February, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-
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Further information on the IGNOU courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi or the official website of IGNOU
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BLOCK 3 INTRODUCTION
Block 3 deals with Environmental Management Techniques and comprises
4 units
Unit 1 is Introduction to Environmental Management. This unit explained about
the basic concepts and principles of Environmental Management. In this Unit
the activities in any industrial setting is to reduce the quantity of pollutants released
into the environment, increase the usage of environmentally acceptable materials
and recycle and reuse products and by-products. The principles mainly based
on precautionary, uncertainty, polluter pays principles and also protection and
promotion of Health and Safety. It also explained about the importance of
ozone layer, Montreal Protocol.
Unit 2 deals with Environmental Auditing. This unit elaborated about the concept
and purpose of environmental audit. The Environmental Audit, basically a
Management tool which helps to achieve the environmentally stewardship which
in turn ensured the business stability. The detailed study of Environmental Audit
starts from systematic, documented, periodic and objective evaluation of how
well environmental organization, management and equipment are performing with
the aim of helping to safeguard the environment by facilitating management control
of practices and assessing compliance with company policies, which would
include regulatory requirements and standards applicable. It concluded by
bringing awareness about various types of audits, the audit protocol benefits
of environmental audit.
Unit 3 deals with Management of Air and Water Treatment Technologies. You
will be equipped with various technologies for the control and treatment of air
and water pollutants. It described about Air Quality Index (AQI) as a tool
for communicating the air quality status. It has six categories. This unit also
explained about control measures and treatment methods for air pollution. These
control measures also categorized based on source types. This unit highlighted
water quality and management, overview of standards of water in relation to
public health.
Unit 4 deals with Treatment of Solid Waste. This unit familiarized you about
various treatment methods for biodegradable solid waste, explained the process
and stages of bio gas generation and comprehends the physical, chemical,
biological and thermal methods for treating hazardous wastes. It provided the
information about aerobic and anaerobic treatments of solid wastes and
highlighted the composting methods. In treatment of hazardous waste, it
explained the current treatment methods like Ion exchange, vitrification and
plasma arc methods. While explaining treatment strategies for biomedical waste
it has provided updated information as on date. This unit has been concluded
by explaining the treatment and disposal of e-waste as level 1 level 2 and level
3 procedures.
Environmental
Management Techniques
4
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition and Scope
1.3 Goals of Environmental Management; Need for Environmental
Management
1.3.1 Approaches to Environmental Management
1.3.2 Participants in Environmental Management
1.4 Historical Perspectives

1.5 Environmental Management Principles
1.5.1 Precautionary Principles
1.5.2 Uncertainty Principle
1.5.3 Intra-Generational Equity
1.5.4 Inter-Generational Equity
1.5.5 The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)
1.5.6 User Pays Principle (UPP)
1.5.7 The Principle of Subsidiarity
1.5.8 Recognition and Preservation of Diversity
1.5.9 Internalization of Costs
1.5.10 The Prevention Principle
1.5.11 The Protection and Promotion of Health and Safety
1.5.12 The Principle of Multi-sectoral Integration
1.6 Protection of the Global Commons

1.7 Marine Environment
1.7.1 Global threats in Marine Environment
1.7.2 Law of the Sea
1.7.3 The Antarctica Treaty
1.8 Ozone Layer

1.8.1 Threats to ozone layer
1.8.2 Montreal Protocol
1.9 Atmosphere
1.9.1 Threats to Atmosphere
1.9.2 Climate Change
1.9.3 Treaties Regarding Climate Change
1.10 Check Your Progress

1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Key Words 5
Environmental
Management Techniques 1.13 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In simple terms, environment can be defined as the sum total of all the external
influences to which an organism is exposed to. According to the Environment
Protection Act, 1986 of India, environment includes water, air, land and the
interrelationship which exists among them and human beings, other living
creatures, plants, microorganisms and property. One definition of management
includes “to control” and that of management is “the art or science of control”.
In other words the art and science of controlling our surrounding for good can
be referred to as Environmental Management (EM). Our only environment
which comprise of four main components of atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere is changing due to population, pollution,
industrialization and unsustainable use of natural resources. Population
explosion leads to more urbanization, migration and exploitation of natural
resources. Also industries releasing various effluents into different environment
components cause pollution. The conversion of forest land to agricultural land
causes deforestation and soil erosion. Different human activities and changing
life styles of people ultimately lead to global climate change. To control and to
find solutions to all these problems, effective environmental management
practices are required. To begin with, it is important to understand EM, its
participants, approaches and principles along with global common problems
of our environment.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
 define environmental management;
 describe principles of environmental management;
 list various participants and organizations in environmental management;
 explain threats to marine environment; and
 explain threats to ozone layer and atmosphere.
1.2 DEFINITION AND SCOPE

In simple terms, environmental management can be defined as an approach to
finding practical ways for saving water, energy, and materials and reducing
negative environmental impacts (CAST, 2001). According to Lovei and Weiss
(1998) environmental management is a process in which different organizations
apply mechanisms to develop and implement a set of cost effective priority
actions on the basis of well-articulated societal preferences and goals for the
improvement of ambient environmental quality, the provision of
environmentally derived or related services and/or the conservation,
maintenance and enhancement of natural resources and ecosystems.
6
From the definition the scope of EM is mainly on environmental protection Introduction To
Environmental Management
and natural resource management in various fields like planning, policy-making,
projects implementation, industries, business and other related activities
consuming resources and producing environment emissions. EM involves the
management of both biotic and abiotic components of the environment.
1.3 GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT; NEED FOR
The main goals in any industrial settings, projects or major activities should
focus to:
 reduce the quantity of pollutants released into the environment;
 increase the use of environmentally acceptable materials;
 use better or advance equipment and technology in place of polluting
ones;
 recycle and reuse products and by-products;
 minimise the impact of all our activities on our surroundings;
 encourage environmental awareness amongst workers, users and nearby
communities.
1.3.1 Approaches to Environmental Management

There are a number of EM approaches in the market. Most of them were
developed especially by Northern Europe and Japan. In practice, almost all
EM approaches in some way or the other constitute an alternative to ISO 14001
and the European Commission Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS).
Almost all EM approaches reduces the required work for documentation
compared to EMAS/ISO-14001. Internal audits and the consideration of indirect
environmental aspects are also not usually required. The core elements of most
EM approaches include the commitment of the companies towards EM,
evaluation of the direct environmental effects, implementation of environmental
measures and the requirement of legal compliance. Worldwide Eco-mapping,
Ecoprofit and PRUMA (Profitable Environmental Management) are some of
the EM approaches in circulation. However in addition to above there are
other EM approaches in different countries namely Acorn Scheme/BS 8555
and Green Dragon Environmental Standard in United Kingdom, PIUS and
QuH (Environmental Certification for the Skilled Trades) in Germany,
EcoAction21 and Ecostage in Japan, Ecolighthouse in Norway, Ekoscan and
E+5 in Spain, Green Network “Growing responsibility” in Denmark, etc.
1.3.2 Participants in Environmental Management

(a) Community Participation: Participation is defined as a process where
individuals, groups and organisations decide to take an active role in
making decisions that affect them (Wilcox, 2003; Rowe et al. 2004).
Community participation means readiness on the part of both local
governments and the citizens to admit equal responsibilities and activities 7
Environmental
Management Techniques in managing their environment. Community participation calls for people
to participate in planning, implementing and managing their local
environment. Citizens or communities as a whole can participate in EM
in order to ensure success of various joint activities, pooling of resources,
and diverse skills and working strategies from within the community
(UNEP, 2004). Community participation will also ensure that checking
and curative action through monitoring/evaluation can be done by and
for the community itself. It also facilitates creative brainstorming
discussions among various participants that identifies ‘problems-behind-
problems’ and ensures ‘solutions-for-solutions’ thereby maximizing the
benefits derived by a small and available resource base. The age-old
traditions and experiences of these communities and indigenous people
can help in improving the efficiency of resource use and management.
(b) NGOs in Environmental Management: Various non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) at the international, regional and national levels
through campaigns and education programmes help’s in providing
knowledge, creating awareness, identifying remedial actions, and
motivating masses on different environment issues. These NGO’s along
with major public interest groups contribute towards sustainable
development through participation, advocacy, demonstration, monitoring
and research, as well as cooperation and networking with other
institutions, and similar interested groups.
(c) The National Environmental Council of India: It has five
representatives from NGOs as well as the National Consumers Federation.
The country promotes people’s participatory institutions like Panchayati
Raj institutions, co-operatives and self-help groups in different
environmental programmes. India’s Eco-Development Programme
involves local communities in the maintenance of designated buffer
regions surrounding protected areas. Eco-clubs at school levels in India
are doing good work in plantations, cleanliness and energy saving derives.
In another example, to tackle the problem of uncollected garbage everyday
in Bangalore city of India, the Centre for Environmental Education,
Southern Regional Cell (CEE South), conducted a hands-on education
programme to create awareness among urban people about the need to
reduce wastage of water, fuel and other natural resources. Volunteers
were trained on recycling, composting, health issues and anti-littering.
The joint efforts have resulted in increased awareness and participation
in waste reduction and litter clean-up.
(d) Women’s NGO’s: They have proved themselves as some of the most
potent environmental campaigners in many parts of the World. One of
the most well known success stories of women’s participation in
environmental protection is the Chipko movement in Uttarakhand state
of India. In this movement grassroots opposition to the destruction of
India’s forests was witnessed where villagers especially women hugged
and protected the trees through the Gandhian method of non-violence.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the movement achieved a 15-year ban on green
felling in the Himalayan forests of Uttarakhand and created pressure for
a natural resource policy.
8
Introduction To
1.4 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Environmental Management
The concept of EM is not a new one, and its roots were traced when
environmental problems began in different parts of the World mainly after
Industrial Revolution. Further different earlier environmental tragedies of
London smog of 1952 and fire accidents at Cuyahoga River in Northeast Ohio
in the United States in 1969 initiated the environmental movement in different
countries. The enactment of the United States National Environmental Policy
Act (USNEPA) of 1970 has triggered the development and implementation of
formal and informal environmental evaluation procedures in both developed
and developing countries. The United Nations conference on the Human
Environment during 1972 held at Stockholm in Sweden was also a major step
towards the development and use of EM. In India, the Tiwari committee
recommendations resulted in the setting of a separate Union Department of
Environment in 1980 to act as a nodal agency for environmental protection
and eco-development work and to carry out environmental appraisal of
developmental projects. Article 48 A and 51 A (g) in the Indian constitution
have specific provisions for environmental protection. In present there are about
two hundred Indian laws relating to environmental protection on different
environmental issues like air, water, forests, biodiversity, fly ash, hazardous
wastes, municipal wastes, noise, etc. As per World Bank report (2007), by any
scale, India has an extensive environmental management system with a
comprehensive set of environmental laws, specific statutory mandates,
regulatory instruments, and institutional frameworks to implement and enforce
environmental policy objectives.
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

PRINCIPLES
The main guiding principles for incorporating environmental concerns in to
decision making are:
1.5.1 Precautionary Principles
This is an effective principle for dealing with risks and uncertainties in
environmental management. In fundamental, the principle requires action to
prevent serious and irreversible damage even before harm can be scientifically
demonstrated or economically assessed. In order to protect the environment, a
concept which includes peoples’ ways of life and the integrity of their
communities, the precautionary approach shall be applied. The Precautionary
Principle was adopted by the UN Conference on Environment and Development
(the Earth Summit) in 1992. The principle means during threats of serious or
irreversible damage to environment, lack of scientific certainty should not be
used as to environment for postponing cost effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation. It can be applied under those conditions where
both the probability and value of irreversible environmental damage are
unknown.
1.5.2 Uncertainty Principle
It must be recognized that our knowledge of the social world and of social
processes is imperfect and that social knowledge can never be fully perfect
because the environment and the processes affecting it are changing constantly,
9
and vary from place to place and over time.
Environmental
Management Techniques 1.5.3 Intra-Generational Equity
To ensure equitable and secure access to environmental resources and quality
for all sections of society (including women and children), and in particular, to
poor communities, which are most dependent on environmental resources for
their livelihoods (NEP, 2006).
1.5.4 Inter-Generational Equity

This is the central principle in the definition of sustainable development and is
the basis of the environmental accounting measures of sustainable income.
According to the Brundtland Report (1987) sustainability means ‘meeting needs
of present generations without compromising the needs of future generations’.
Brundtland Report also known as “Our Common Future” published in 1987
was the outcome of the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED). The principle aims that development activities or planned
interventions should be managed so that the needs of the present generation
are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. This principle generally is considered with the trilogy of economic,
environmental and social objectives underlying sustainable development.
1.5.5 The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)

Greek Philosopher Plato quotes “If anyone intentionally spoils the water of
another ... let him not only pay damages, but purify the stream or cistern which
contains the water” (The Dialogues of Plato, 1953). In principle, the polluter
should, tolerate the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest,
and without distorting international trade and investment (NEP, 2006). The
PPP was first widely discussed in the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992
and was endorsed by all the attending representatives of the countries. The
PPP required that if the polluters have to pay for the cost of any pollution they
cause, market forces will then encourage polluters to change their activities
either by introducing new pollution control technologies or by switching to
more efficient production process. ‘Exxon Valdez’ case is the best quoted
example of Polluter Pays Principle when in 1989, an oil tanker owned by Exxon
spilled out over 3,00,000 barrels of crude oil into the sea and caused significant
environmental hazards. Exxon was forced to pay $125 million to the federal
government and the state of Alaska and $900 million into a fund for
environmental projects controlled by government, scientific research, and
habitat protection.
1.5.6 User Pays Principle (UPP)

It is also known as resource pricing principle according to which the
beneficiaries should pay for the full cost of using the resources and its related
services. The full cost includes the cost of loss for the future generations. Both
PPP and UPP are believed as equitable and both offer the prospect of achieving
efficiency. This principle can be more easily applied to the consumer of public
services involving the collection and treatment of effluents. The user-pays
principle is the variation of the polluter-pays principle that calls upon the user
of a natural resource to accept the cost of running down natural capital (Glossary
of Statistical Terms, 2007).
10
1.5.7 The Principle of Subsidiarity Introduction To
The general aim is to assure a degree of independence for a lower authority in
relation to a higher body or for a local authority in relation to central government.
It therefore involves the sharing of powers between several levels of authority,
a principle which forms the institutional basis for federal states (Raffaelli,
2017). It states that political decisions regarding setting standards and
interpreting risk should be taken by lowest possible levels of public authority
dependence with effective action. It recommended that these decisions are
made by the authorities that are closed to the population concerned. Decision
making power should be decentralized, with accountable decisions being made
as close to an individual citizen as possible.
1.5.8 Recognition and Preservation of Diversity

Communities and societies are heterogeneous. They are demographically
configured (age and gender), and they comprise different groups with diverse
value systems and different skills. Special attention is required to appreciate
the existence of the social diversity that exists within communities and to
understand the unique requirements of the special groups. Care must be taken
to ensure that planned interventions do not lead to a loss of social diversity and
social structure in a community.
1.5.9 Internalization of Costs

The full social and ecological costs of a planned intervention should be
internalized through the use of economic and other instruments or models.
These costs should be considered as part of the costs of the intervention, and
no intervention should be granted or regarded as cost effective if it achieves
this by the creation of hidden costs to current or future generations or the
environment. Environmental cost includes environment resource consumption
cost, maintaining environment quality investment and environment damage
cost.
1.5.10 The Prevention Principle

This allows action to be taken to protect the environment at an early stage. It is
generally preferable and economical in the long run to prevent ecological
damage and negative social impacts from occurring than having to restore
damages after the activity. In simple meaning: it is better to prevent than repair.
1.5.11 The Protection and Promotion of Health and Safety

Health and safety are vital. All planned interventions should be assessed for
their health impacts and their accident risks, especially in terms of assessing
and managing the risks from hazardous substances, technologies or processes,
so that their harmful effects can be minimized, including not bringing them
into use or phasing them out as soon as possible. Health impacts cover the
physical, mental and social wellbeing and safety of all people, paying particular
attention to more vulnerable and more likely harmed groups such as the
economically deprived, indigenous groups, children and women, the elderly,
the disabled, as well as to the population most exposed to risks arising from
the planned intervention.
11
Environmental
Management Techniques 1.5.12 The Principle of Multi-sectoral Integration
Multi-sectoral coordination refers to deliberate association among various
stakeholder groups (e.g., private sector, civil society, and government) and
sectors (e.g., environment, health, economy) to jointly achieve a policy outcome.
By engaging multiple sectors, partners can leverage knowledge, expertise, reach,
and resources, benefiting from their combined and varied strengths as they
work toward the shared goal of conserving environment and attaining
sustainable development (modified from Health Policy Project, 2014). Social
development, environmental requirements and the need to consider
environmental issues should be properly integrated into all projects, policies,
infrastructure programs and other planning activities.
1.6 PROTECTION OF THE GLOBAL COMMONS

Global commons are those important environmental problems which place all
countries at risk if no joint action is taken by them. There are many such issues,
including ozone layer depletion, air pollution, global warming, desertification,
persistent organic pollutants, the fate of Antarctica, and the environmental health
of the high seas and the seabed. Among these atmosphere, Antarctica and
international waters (the open seas of the world outside the territorial waters
of any nation), which cross national boundaries or not confined to one country
are part of the global or international commons. Let us now discuss three in
particular i.e. Marine environment, ozone layer and atmosphere.
1.7 MARINE ENVIRONMENT

It includes oceans, seas, bays, estuaries, and other major water bodies, covering
about 71% of the earth surface. They provide us food, oil, minerals, recreation
and contribute in the water cycle. They also act as highways for international
trade and regulate the world’s climate. Arctic, Antarctic, Atlantic, Indian and
Pacific are the oceans, while Mediterranean, Red, Black, Arabian, Caribbean,
Baltic are some seas.
1.7.1 Global Threats in Marine Environment

Overfishing, elevated temperature, plastic debris, pollution and waste dumping,
ocean acidification and destruction of habitats are the major threats to marine
environments. Some of the main sources of contamination in marine bodies
are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), sewage, agricultural run-off, and
hydrocarbons from operational and accidental oil spills. There were around
200 dead zone sites often vast areas of seasonal, occasional or even permanent
de-oxygenated water in world’s seas and oceans (Steiner, 2007). About 5.25
trillion pieces of plastic debris were reported in the oceans; out of that about
269,000 tons float on the surface, while some four billion plastic microfibers
per square kilometer are found in the deep sea (Parker, 2015). Degradation
and loss of habitat is also of major concern as 20% of global mangrove area
was lost from 1980 to 2005. Loss continues at about one per cent per year,
mainly driven by land clearing for development. Due to ocean warming and
acidification, more than half of warm-water coral reefs are projected to be at
high to critical risk by 2030 (IOC-UNESCO and UNEP, 2016). Direct physical
impact via dragging and swinging of large anchor cables and chains and
12 grounding of ships can harm oceanic habitats and wildlife. Hundreds of coral
colonies were abraded, fractured and toppled, apparently from the dragging of Introduction To
anchors or anchor cables and chains (NAV 47/3/1, 2001).
1.7.2 Law of the Sea

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which
incorporated a number of earlier agreements, was adopted in 1982 and entered
into force in 1994 having 157 signatories and 168 parties. The law is explained
in 17 parts and contains 320 articles on different aspects of oceans mainly to
facilitate international communication, to promote peaceful uses of the seas
and oceans, the equitable and efficient utilization of ocean resources, the
conservation of oceans living resources, and to study, protect and preserve
marine environment. Beyond creating exclusive economic zones, UNCLOS
stipulates that states must take action to control marine pollution from both
land-based sources and vessels at sea. It also sets up a global authority
responsible for the environmental health of the seabed (Oceans & Law of the
Sea, 2017).
1.7.3 The Antarctic Treaty

The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1st December 1959 in Washington, USA
by 12 countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica
during the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58. It entered into force in
1961 and has since been acceded to by 53 nations. Under Article IV of this
treaty no signatory country is allowed to assert its claims or make new ones.
Also, nations are not allowed to deploy military units (except in support of
scientific missions), dump radioactive waste, or explode nuclear devices on
the continent or in the surrounding seas. The treaty has aimed to protect seals,
the region’s unique marine living resources, and the Antarctic environment
(World Development Report, 1999).
1.8 OZONE LAYER

Ozone (O3) is an important constituent of stratosphere layer of atmosphere,
acting as a protective shield for living organisms on earth from biologically
active ultra-violet (UV) radiation (220-330 nm). The UV rays has three types
of wavelengths, UV-A: 400-320 nm; UV-B: 320-280 nm and UV-C: 280-220
nm. Ozone with oxygen aid filter out all the sun’s UV light in 220-290 nm
(UV-C). However, ozone can only absorb a fraction (70-90%) of the sun’s UV
light in 290-320 nm. The remaining 10-30% penetrates to the earth surface.
Neither ozone nor any other constituents absorbs significantly the UV range
i.e. 320-400nm, the least biologically harmful of UV light, does penetrate to
the earth surface. The ozone is very rare in our atmosphere, averaging about 3
molecules of ozone per 10 millions air molecules. About 90% of ozone resides
in the layer that begins 8-18 km above the earth surface and extends up to 50
km i.e. stratosphere. The remaining 10% is present in the troposphere which is
the lower region of atmosphere.
1.8.1 Threats to Ozone Layer

Sulphate aerosols emitted through volcanic eruptions and chimneys of several
industries, catalyse the transformation of ozone to oxygen (O2+O), thus
depleting its concentration. The increased destruction believed to be a combined
result of pollutants discharged from two volcanic eruptions in 1991 i.e. Mount 13
Environmental
Management Techniques Pinatubo in the Philippines and Mount Hudson in Chile. Any activity, which
release chlorine atoms into the atmosphere, can cause severe ozone destruction.
The chlorofluoro carbons (CFC’s) and Halons are the main ozone depleting
chemicals. CFC’s has their use in refrigeration (carbon tetrachloride and methyl
chloroform), air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronic components
as solvents, in fast food packing, in dry cleaning and for sterilizing surgical
instruments. Halons contain carbon, bromine and fluorine and have been used
in fire extinguishers. The CFC’s have long time in the stratosphere and chlorine
atoms from CFCs react with ozone to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen
molecule.
CF2Cl2 h (UV-C) ————— Cl  CClF2  (UV-C<280nm)
Cl + O3 ————— ClO + O2
ClO + O2 ————— Cl  + O2
Jet aircraft capable of operating at high altitude can release NOx molecules
directly into stratosphere. NOx compounds released at the earth surface get
converted into NO-NO2 molecules in the stratosphere and cause ozone depletion
through following reactions:
NO + O3 ————— NO2 + O2
NO2 + O3 ————— NO3 + O2
NO + O2 ————— NO2 + O
NO2 + O ————— N + O2
The first warning regarding ozone layer depletion came in September 1985
when explorers witnessed for the Ist time ever a dangerous drop in ozone
concentration in the atmosphere over Antarctica. Over some part of Antarctica
up to 60% of the total overhead amount of ozone (known as ozone column) is
depleted during Antarctic spring (September to November). This phenomenon
is known as Antarctic ozone hole. The maximum centrifugal force due to the
rotation of earth about its axis acts on ozone depleting substances and thereby
transporting them to Antarctica, where they cause ozone hole. Atmospheric
circulation in the lower stratosphere is strongest over Antarctica particularly
in the month of September when sun rise after very long night. The United
Nations general assembly (resolution 49/114) in the year 1995 designated
September 16 as an international day (ozone day) for the preservation of the
“Ozone Layer” which is dedicated for creating global awareness about the
dangers caused by the depletion of ozone layer.
1.8.2 Montreal Protocol

To regulate the production and use of chemicals that contribute to the depletion
of Earth’s ozone layer, an international treaty called the Montreal Protocol
was adopted on September 16, 1987 at a conference in Montreal in Québec,
Canada. The treaty is signed by 197 countries – the first treaty in the history of
the United Nations to achieve universal ratification and is considered by many
the most successful environmental global action (USEPA, 2016). According
to USEPA, due to the steps taken under the Montreal Protocol, emissions of
ozone depleting substances are reducing and the ozone layer is expected to be
14 fully healed near the middle of the 21st century.
Check Your Progress 1 Introduction To
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are four components of environment?
..............................................................................................................
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2. Define environmental management.
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3. Name some approaches to environmental management.
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4. Describe various concerns behind citizens or community participation in
environmental management?
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5. Explain inter-generational equity principle of EM.
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6. What is polluter pays principle?
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7. What are global commons important environmental problems?
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.............................................................................................................. 15
Environmental
Management Techniques 8. Explain different threats to marine environment.
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9. Which types of radiations are absorbed by ozone layer?
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10. Ozone day is celebrated on?
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1.9 ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a protective layer of mixed gases covering the earth, which
sustains life on earth and saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
The atmosphere play a key role in maintaining the heat balance of the earth,
through absorption of infrared radiation emitted by the sun and re-emitted
from the earth. Different gases present in atmospheric air (by volume) are
nitrogen 78.1%, oxygen 21.0%, 0.9% argon, and 0.04% carbon dioxide, and
1-3% water vapour. In addition, it contains a large variety of trace level gases
at levels below 0.002%, including ammonia, carbon monoxide, helium,
hydrogen, krypton, methane, neon, nitrous oxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, xenon,
and nitrogen dioxide. On the basis of temperature atmosphere is divided into
four layers i.e. Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermospshere
with a temperature change of 15 to -560C, -56 to -20C, -2 to -920C and -92 to
+20000C, respectively.
1.9.1 Threats to Atmosphere

Air effluents from different industries, burning forests for agriculture, burning
of wastes and crop residues, use of fossil fuels and raising livestock and growing
rice release different gases into atmosphere thereby changing its composition
and causing air pollution. Carbon dioxide, methane, NOx, and CFC’s are the
main green house gases (GHG’s) in the atmosphere which strongly absorb
infrared radiation and effectively block a large fraction of the earth’s emitted
radiation. The net result is the heating of the earth’s surface a phenomenon
called as green house effect and the net effect is the gradual heating of earth’s
atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming. Secondary
pollutants along with primary pollutants trigger different photochemical
reactions in the atmosphere which causes photochemical smog, acid rain, and
16 ozone layer depletion.
Introduction To
1.9.2 Climate Change Environmental Management
Climate change refers to a long term change in Earth’s climate i.e. a change in
Earth’s usual temperature (include both warming and cooling). According to
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992),
climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that changes the global atmosphere composition
and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods. Atmospheric-ocean interactions, ocean currents, volcanoes,
sunspots and solar activity, tidal forces, orbital variations, continental drift,
release
large amounts of methane from marine clathrates (belch from the deep),
catastrophes and the nuclear winter are the principal natural causes of climate
variability and climate change either to explain past events or to predict future
developments (Burroughs, 2007). Whereas, greenhouse gas emissions, dust
and aerosols, desertification and deforestation, ozone hole are the anthropogenic
causes for global climate alteration. Rise in sea level, ocean acidification,
melting of ice sheets and glaciers, mass extinction of species, spread of diseases,
extreme whether events and change in agricultural productivity are some of
the consequences of climate change. A one meter increase in the sea level
would force about 70 million people to move and would have a dramatic effect
on food security in Bangladesh (World Bank, 1998).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) created in 1988, is
the international body was set up by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) and UNEP to prepare assessments on all aspects of climate change
and its impacts. The role of the IPCC is to assess on comprehensive, objective,
open and transparent scientific, technical and socio-economic information
relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate
change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.
Restricting green houses gases emission, use of renewable sources and
reforestation are some of the preventive strategies while population migration,
redistribution of grains and resources and fortification are the adaptive strategies
of climate change.
1.9.3 Treaties Regarding Climate Change

International community took many initiatives time to time to control GHG
emissions to keep check on climate change. UN Conference on Human
Environment, Stockholm (1972) can be considered as the base of such treaties.
There are many noteworthy conventions and protocols held time to time in
different parts of world which directly or indirectly related with climate change.
We can include Vienna Convention (1985), Montreal Protocol (1989), Geneva
Convention (1990), UN Convention on Climate Change, New York (1992)
and UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil (1992) as the important one in this direction. The main treaties
related to climate change are the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan on 11
December 1997; the Copenhagen Accord in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009;
the Cancun Agreements on December 11, 2010 in Cancun, Mexico; the Doha
Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol in Doha, Qatar on 8 December 2012 and
the Paris Agreement on 12 December 2015.
17
Environmental
Management Techniques Check Your Progress 2
unit.
1. Name two gases having highest concentration in the atmosphere.
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2. What are the natural causes of climate change?
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3. Explain the role of IPCC.
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1.10 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we studied Environmental Management and our global common
environmental problems. Basically this unit laid emphasis that how we can
use and implements different approaches and principles to solve various
environmental problems. The problems can be solved by using different EM
principles and resources should be utilized keeping in mind the principles of
intra- and inter-generational equity. Further, community, NGO and especially
women participation is must to ensure success of the environmental
programmes. Reducing the use of ozone depleting substances, reducing GHG’s
concentration in atmosphere, checking the dumping of pollutants in the oceans
and controlling ocean oil spills, reforestation and effective implementation of
the treaties and policies is must to reduce different global common
environmental problems.
1.11 KEY WORDS

Environmental Management : is the management of our impact on the
environment, and the environment’s
impact on us.
Global Common : are those important environmental
problems which place all countries at
risk if no joint action is taken by them.
Marine environment : Waters that is saline and tide-affected e.g.
oceans, seas, bays, estuaries covering
18
about 71% of the earth surface.
Climate change : It refers to a long term change in Earth’s Introduction To
climate i.e. a change in Earth’s
usual temperature (include both warming
and cooling).
1.12 REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Burroughs, W.J. 2007. Climate Change A Multidisciplinary Approach (2nd
Edition). Cambridge University Press, New York.
Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST). 2001. Environmental
Management A Win-Win-Win Proposition. Available at:
h t t p : / / w w w. c a r i b b e a n h o t e l a n d t o u r i s m . c o m / d o w n l o a d s /
CHTAEF_Environmental.pdf (Accessed on 21.06.2017)
Environment (Protection Act), 1986. Legislative Department, Ministry of Law
and Justice, Govt. of India, No. 29, pp:1 7.
Francis, R. A. 2017. Environmental Management. The International
Encyclopaedia of Geography. pp. 1 12. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/
9781118786352.wbieg0646
Glossary of Statistical Terms. 2007. Available at https://definedterm.com/a/
document/11464 (accessed on 22.06.2017)
Health Policy Project. 2014. Capacity Development Resource Guide:
Multisectoral Coordination. Washington, DC: Futures Group, Health Policy
Project.
IOC-UNESCO and UNEP (2016). Large Marine Ecosystems: Status and
Trends, Summary for Policy Makers. United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), Nairobi.
Lovei M. and Weiss C. 1998. Environmental Management and Institutions in
OECD Countries. World Bank Technical paper no. 391. Pollution Management
Series. The World Bank, Washington. Section 2.1
National Environmental Policy (NEP). 2006. Ministry of Environment and
Forests. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
NAV 47/3/1. 2001. No anchoring areas in the Tortugas Ecological Reserve
and the Tortugas Bank in the Florida Keys, para. 10 available at Kachel, M. J.
(2008), http://www.springer.com/978-3-540-78778-5 (accessed on 23.06.2017).
Oceans & Law of the Sea. 2017. United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea of 10 December 1982 Overview and full text. Available at: http://
w ww. u n . o r g / d e p t s / l o s / c o n v e n t i o n _ a g r e e m e n t s /
convention_overview_convention.htm (accessed on 23.06.2017).
Parker, L. 2015. Ocean Trash: 5.25 Trillion Pieces and counting, but big
questions remain. National Geographic. Available at:
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/01/150109-oceans-plastic-sea-
trash-science-marine-debris/ (accessed on 23.06.2017).
19
Environmental
Management Techniques Raffaelli, R. 2017. The Principle of Subsidiarity. Fact Sheets on the European
Union – 2017, 5 pages. Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ftu/pdf/
en/FTU_1.2.2.pdf (accessed on 22.06.2017)
Rowe, G., Marsh, R., and Frewer, L.J. 2004. Evaluation of a deliberative
conference in science. Technology and Human Values. Vol. 29, 88–121.
Steiner, A. 2007. Reflections. In Symphony of the seas, the marine environment.
Our Planet, the magazine of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), pp.3.
The Dialogues of Plato: The Laws. 1953. Vol. 4, Book 8, section 485(e),
translated by Jowett B, Oxford : Clarendon Press (4th ed.).
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2004. Environmental
Management and Community Participation: Enhancing Local Programmes.
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, The-UNEP International
Environmental Technology Center. pp. 1 10.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 1992.
Available at: https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/
background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf (accessed on
26.06.2017).
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2016. Ozone Layer
Protection. International Actions - The Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-
protection/international-actions-montreal-protocol-substances-deplete-ozone-
layer (accessed on 24.06.2017).
Wilcox, D. 2003. The Guide to Effective Participation (online) available at:
http://www.partnerships.org.uk/guide (accessed 26.06.2017).
World Bank. 2007. India: Strengthening Institutions for Sustainable Growth-
Country Environmental Analysis, South Asia Environment and Social
Development Unit, South Asia Region, The World Bank.
World Bank. 1998. Fuel for Thought. A New Environmental Strategy for the
Energy Sector. Washington, D.C.
World Development Report. 1999. Entering the 21st Century. The World Bank.
Oxford University Press, Inc., New York.
1.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1. The four main components of environment are atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere.
2. Environmental management can be defined as an approach to finding
practical ways for saving water, energy, and materials and reducing negative
environmental impacts.
20 3. Eco-mapping, Ecoprofit, PRUMA (Profitable Environmental

Management), Acorn Scheme/BS 8555, Green Dragon Environmental
Standard, PIUS, QuH (Environmental Certification for the Skilled Trades), Introduction To
EcoAction21, Ecostage, Ecolighthouse, Ekoscan, E+5, and Green Network
“Growing responsibility”.
4. Different concerns behind citizens or community participation in
environmental management are quality of life and lifestyle, in order to
ensure success of various joint activities, pooling of resources, and diverse
skills and working strategies from within the community.
5. The principle aims that development activities or planned interventions
should be managed so that the needs of the present generation are met
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
6. According to this principle, the polluter should, tolerate the cost of
pollution, with due regard to the public interest, and without distorting
international trade and investment.
7. Problems which place all countries at risk if no joint action will be taken.
8. Global threats to marine environment are overfishing, elevated
temperature, plastic debris, contamination and waste, ocean acidification
and destruction of habitats.
9. Ultra-violet radiations (220-400 nm).
10. September, 16.
1. Nitrogen and Oxygen
2. Atmospheric-ocean interactions, ocean currents, volcanoes, sunspots and
solar activity, tidal forces, orbital variations, continental drift, release large
amounts of methane from marine clathrates (belch from the deep),
catastrophes and the nuclear winter are the main natural causes of climate
change.
3. The role of the IPCC is to assess on comprehensive, objective, open and
transparent scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant
to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate
change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.
21
Environmental
UNIT 2 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 What is Environmental Auditing?
2.3 Evolution of Environmental Audit
2.4 Type and Scope of Audits
2.4.1 Environmental Management Systems Audit
2.4.2 Environmental compliance Audit
2.4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment Audit
2.4.4 Environmental Due Diligence Audits
2.4.5 Waste Management Audit
2.4.6 Environmental Health and Safety Audit
2.4.7 Energy Audit
2.5 The Audit Protocol

2.5.1 Planning of Audit
2.5.2 Pre-Audit Activities
2.5.3 On-site Activities
2.5.4 Post Audit Activities
2.6 Benefits of Environmental Audit

2.6.1 Money Savings
2.6.2 Corporate Image and Marketing Opportunities
2.6.3 Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Costs
2.6.4 Environmental Concerns
2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.8 Key Words
2.9 References & Suggested Further Readings
2.0 INTRODUCTION
We all know about the significance of legal framework for operation of any
business or public administration. The government formulates the legal
framework in terms of laws, acts and a set of rules and regulations. For example,
if any individual or business firm violates this legal framework, they are bound
for penalties and punishment depending on the extremity of violation. In
addition, law breakers loose reputation in the society and invite criticisms.
One such incident happened on March 23, 2013, in industrial town of Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu - residents woke up to itchy eyes, burning throat and breathing
discomfort. Initially they suspected some gas leak in domestic LPG cylinders,
but later they came to know that an exorbitantly high emission of air pollutants
22 from the nearby industry was the culprit. Within few hours, many people started
Environmental Auditing
suffering from breathing troubles, nausea, and other respiratory problems.
People become panic-stricken and rushed to the nearby physicians, clinics and
hospitals. The issue was reported to the government officials and the Tamil
Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) realized the release of noxious gas
from the factory and after monitoring the air quality TNPCB reported high
levels of sulphur dioxide exceeding the safe permissible levels. Eventually
TNPCB issued a notice to close the factory until the air quality is reaches the
safe levels and the emission control equipments are rectified.
Let us see another case of preemptive and precautionary story in China. In
Early November 2017 dozens of huge steel mills in China stopped or reduced
their operations; many more cement plants in northern China are prepared to
shut down before Christmas. These measures were carried out as a part of a
preventive action plan that aims to cut down wintertime particulate air pollution
by 15% year-on-year over the next five months. These emission reductions are
envisaged as the immediate need as Beijing and the surrounding industrial
provinces are suffering from poor air quality reaching “very unhealthy” levels.
Lessons from the two incidents suggest that good environmental management
is crucial for the business sustainability. In a simple manner we can describe as
environmental stewardship: giving adequate attention to the waste and materials
used in the factory; consider reducing the wastes and emissions; how by-
products can be re-used; how energy can be saved; and making sure that
operations always run at maximum efficiency. An increasing number of
businesses and corporate organizations now widely recognize that good
environmental sense makes good business sense. Environmental stewardship
helps them to increase their market share because many customers and suppliers
are gradually shifting their attitude for green products and services. In today’s
businesses scenario, firms need to show they are serious about environmental
issues and sustainable development in order to be accepted as a legitimate
activity by society. Environmental audit is a management tool that helps to
achieve the environmental stewardship which in turn ensured the business
stability.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
 understand the concept and purpose of environmental audit;
 explain the evolution of audit;
 classify types of audit and its purpose;
 examine and formulate the audit protocol; and
 bring out the benefits of audit.
2.2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING?

In the introductory part, through the case analyses, we realized the relationship
between the organizational activities and its impact on the environment. A
number of environmental management practices have been adopted by the
corporate organizations to minimize such environmental impacts. In brief, 23
Environmental
Management Techniques Environmental Management Systems (EMS) is a comprehensive protocol
which comprises various activities within a firm to achieve environmental
betterment and protection. Accomplishment of the environmental stewardship
lies in strength and vision of the environmental policy of the firm. In this
pursuit, environmental auditing is a process whereby an organization’s
environmental performance is tested against its environmental policies and
objectives. These policies and objectives need to be clearly defined and
documented. However, in practice, first time environmental audits are often
done less rigorously, because of the absence of appropriate documentation at
this stage. Eventually, environmental audit helps to revamp the environmental
policy continually to meet the global green economy.
Let us begin with the most familiar term “audit” which generally means the
financial audit. Auditing, in general, refers to on-site verification activity, such
as inspection or methodical examination, of a process or quality system, to
ensure compliance to requirements. Environmental auditing is essentially an
environmental management tool for measuring the effects of certain activities
on the environment against set criteria or standards.
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) produced a definition in 1989
which is along the same lines.
“A management tool comprising systematic, documented, periodic and
objective evaluation of how well environmental organisation, management
and equipment are performing with the aim of helping to safeguard the
environment by facilitating management control of practices and assessing
compliance with company policies, which would include regulatory
requirements and standards applicable.”
The key concepts are:
 Verification: audits evaluate compliance to regulations or other set criteria.
 Systematic: audits are carried out in a planned and methodical manner.
 Periodic: audits are conducted to an established schedule.
 Objective: information gained from the audit is reported free of opinions.
 Documented: notes are taken during the audit and the findings recorded.
 Management tool: audits can be integrated into the management system
(such as a quality management system or environmental management
system).
2.3 EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT

You may be delighted to know that certain practices similar to environmental
auditing started as early in 1930’s by some private firms in the USA. Notably
SC Johnson, a family-owned company, undertook social and ecological audits
as a part of internal management operations in the 1930’s although it was not
widely publicized. At the same time, environmental issues gained its importance
after promulgation of the US National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA)
in 1969. Also the creation of Environmental Proetction Agency (EPA) in
24 December 2, 1970 was a great milestone in global initiatives towards
Environmental Protection. Birth of USEPA is in turn linked to the publication Environmental Auditing
of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (Box 1).
In the early 1970s, some of the industries independently started working on
environmental auditing programs as an internal management tool to review
and check the industrial operations compliance with i) local environmental
laws and regulations ii) national environmental laws and regulations and iii)
corporate policies. Later in 1979, US Environmental Protection Agency directed
the US regulators through a draft report to initiate independent, certified third
party environmental “auditors” who would visit plants, collect samples, perform
analyses and report back results to government authorities. Although the draft
report was not adopted, it emerged as a major impetus to debate on government
policies and the private sector. As a result, environmental auditing began to
appear in the mid 1980s and many firms undertook environmental audits as a
means of quantifying their environmental liabilities and prepare environmental
compliance reports.
Subsequently, environmental audit spread to rest of the world, largely influenced
by the initiatives of USA subsidiary companies operating abroad. American
operations in Europe and their interactions with European companies motivated
the concept of environmental auditing in chemical and petrochemical industries,
although they were involved in a similar kind of exercise in which they use to
document the intrinsic environmental hazards of their businesses. In the late
1980s, environmental auditing was widely recognized as a common
environmental management tool by industry in developed countries, and is
increasingly being applied in developing countries by both foreign and local
industry. With the advent of World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) in its report Our Common Future (otherwise known as
the Brundtland Report) in 1987 (WCED 1987), the concept of “Sustainable
Development - SD” was introduced; SD concept further emphasized the need
of industrial sector to minimize the extraction of earth’s resources and
environmental degradation.
“Sustainable development” later became a jargon in the developing economies
too putting pressure on individual businesses. As a consequence, among the
wide range of market conditions, environmental performance also emerged as
a competitive edge. Meanwhile, the emergence of the ISO 14000 series on
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) has resulted in many international
corporations seeking ISO 14001 certification. In order to improve the
environmental policy of an organization and to effectively implement EMS,
the environmental audit has become the integral part of the process. Today, no
businesses organization can neglect environmental issues in their operations.
Thus environmental audit as a tool provides information and facilitate
management control of the environmental aspects of the operation.
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and the Environmental Protection

Movement
Rachel Louise Carson (May 27, 1907 – April 14, 1964) was an American
biologist, whose book “Silent Spring” and other contributions instigated
global environmental movement. Carson began her career as an aquatic
biologist in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, and became a full-time nature
writer in the 1950s. As a bird-watcher, Carson feared that less and lesser 25
Environmental
Management Techniques number of birds would be singing each spring unless pesticide poisoning
was stopped. She portrayed the real-life story of how bird populations
across the country were suffering as a result of the widespread application
of the synthetic pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), which
was being used widely to control mosquitoes and others insects. Carson
reported that birds ingesting DDT tended to lay thin-shelled eggs which
would in turn break prematurely in the nest, resulting in marked population
declines. The problem drove bald eagles, our national symbol, not to
mention peregrine falcons and other bird populations, to the brink of
extinction, with populations plummeting more than 80 percent. Carson
believed that more and more birds were poisoned were caused by synthetic
pesticides. Silent Spring was met with fierce opposition by chemical
companies, it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy, which led to
a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides. It also inspired a grassroots
environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. She was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal
of Freedom by Jimmy Carter.
Source: https://blog.epa.gov/blog/tag/rachel-carson/
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rachel-carson-silent-spring-
1972-ddt-ban-birds-thrive/
2.4 TYPE AND SCOPE OF AUDITS

After reading the last two sections you may be clear how environmental audit
evolved as an important tool for environmental management. Now let us
understand different types audit and its scope. As discussed earlier, the type of
environmental audit mainly depends on the focus of the organization and the
activity. An environmental auditor will study an organization’s environmental
aspects and impacts in a systematic and documented manner and will produce
an environmental audit report. For example, if an organization needs know
whether the pollutants released by them into the environment are within the
limit prescribed by the government, then the auditor can choose the compliance
audit, which can reveal to what extent it has exceeded the safe limits.
2.4.1 Environmental Management Systems (EMS) Audits

The success of EMS depends on the effective implementation of EMS policies
and protocol. An EMS audit is the one which is specifically designed to check
and evaluate the effectiveness of environmental management systems (ISO
14001). An EMS audit examines several aspects beyond compliance. For
example, EMS audit assesses the robustness of environmental management
by analyzing procedural framework, work instructions, guidelines, specification,
training needs and monitoring systems being implemented by the employees
of the organization operating on the site. If these employees are not given
adequate instructions/training about EMS procedures, they cannot be expected
to carry out their work effectively. Thus, the first stage in auditing an operation
is to check the presence, absence and functioning of the environmental
management system. Ultimately EMS audit can give inputs to policies, training
needs and procedures, flaws in the implementation stage and even the
requirement of additional technology and man power.
26
2.4.2 Environmental Compliance Audits Environmental Auditing
As discussed earlier Environmental compliance (or performance) audits are

more focused on the legal and corporate compliance. This kind of audit checks
the compliance to environmental policies, objectives, laws, by-laws, ordinances,
regulations and standards. These types of audits will often also include more
numerical testing and specific checks on, for example, compliance with
requirements in water and air permits and licenses.
2.4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Audit

EIA audit is similar to compliance audit, where in focus is to ensure mitigatory
measures and management plan suggested by Environmental Impact
Assessment authority is adequately implemented and do complies with the
minimum legal requirements This kind of audit is in practice in many countries
for EIA quality control and to reduce unnecessary costs and inconvenience
should the EIA be appealed against.
2.4.4 Environmental Due Diligence Audits

Environmental due diligence audits look at the actual and potential
environmental liabilities of a site or operation. They are most commonly carried
out as a precursor to the purchase of property which has been or is likely to be
used for industrial or commercial purposes. Often, they form a part of a wider
financial due diligence audit which looks at the various business risks associated
with the purchase of property.
The kind of issues that can emerge from environmental due diligence audits
include past dumping or burying of hazardous waste which may result in
pollutants contaminating the groundwater. In such circumstances, the owner
of the land where the waste was buried could be held liable for the cleanup
costs. It is important, when purchasing property, to ensure that the new owner
is not taking over someone else’s hidden environmental liabilities.
2.4.5 Waste Management Audits

Waste audits typically focus on waste management component of an operation
or site. The boundary audit involves solid, liquid and gaseous waste/emissions.
In the audit protocol, various aspects of waste management will be reviewed
like the methods adopted, waste treatment procedures, systems function and
finally verification will be carried out. In certain cases where site management
are reluctant to undertake full site environmental audits, specialized waste audit
may be carried out to generate ready data for immediate actions which can
save money/penal actions.
A waste audit helps an organization to be better prepared to efficiently and
responsibly dispose of the waste that it generates every day. By designing a
more efficient waste disposal program through a waste audit, the organization
increases the recycling capability of paper, plastic, and metals that are being
used. This, in turn, decreases the amount of air and water pollution, which
helps curb global warming and conserves natural resources.
2.4.6 Environment, Health and Safety (Ehs) Audits

EHS audit is a tool for assessing regulatory compliance, identifying risk and
27
finding opportunities for process improvement. EHS audit process provides
Environmental
Management Techniques the company with a roadmap for taking advantage of the biggest opportunities,
correcting issues and proactively managing ongoing risk at each site. In addition,
an educational follow-up visit gave both on-site personnel and the corporate
EHS team a deeper understanding of the risks present in their respective
facilities.
Many companies have made the decision to combine non-financial audits such
as health, safety, environment and quality in an effort to reduce costs, disruption
and inconvenience in the workplace. This approach has both advantages and
disadvantages. The advantages include the fact that there are fewer audits and
less likelihood of reduced productivity in the workplace. A disadvantage would
be that by combining a number of audits, this could dilute the focus on the
individual components. If this were balanced by increasing the length of time
of the audit, this would then begin to increase the disruptive element of the
audit which may affect productivity. The negative effect of the audits could be
reduced if companies were to be able to utilise the “added value” from the
audits which normally result in reduced wastage, reduced risk, improved
performance and reduced incidents. It is not always possible to financially
quantify these benefits and so the perception still remains that audits are time
consuming and interfere with production.
2.4.7 Energy Audit

The energy audit is performed to implement an effective energy management
program primarily improve the energy efficiency and reduce the costs in energy
utilization of a facility. An energy audit examines following kinds of issues
 How a facility uses energy?
 What kind of fuel is used for heating?
 Is there a thermostat? Is it set to the correct temperature?
 Are there any draughts coming in from windows or doors?
 Are lights switched off where necessary?
 Are incandescent or large diameter fluorescent lights used?
 Are lamps, fitting and roof lights clean?
 Are light switches easy to find? Are they labelled with reminders to turn
off?
 Are exterior lights turned off when not needed?
 Do computers have built-in energy saving features? Are they activated?
 Are computers left on overnight?
 Are monitors switched off when not in use?
 Are photocopiers energy efficient?
 Are printers and photocopiers left on overnight / weekends?
 Are water coolers left on permanently?
After examination auditors will recommend program for changes in operating
28 practices or energy consuming equipment that will cost effectively save money
on energy bills. The audit process starts by collecting information about a Environmental Auditing
facility’s operation and about its past record of utility bills. This data is then
analyzed to get a picture of how the facility uses – and possibly wastes – energy,
as well as to help the auditor learn what areas to examine to reduce energy
costs. Finally, an EnergyAction Plan is created where certain ECM’s are selected
for implementation, and the actual process of saving energy and money begins.
Check Your Progress 1
unit.
1. What is environmental auditing?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2.5 THE AUDIT PROTOCOL

2.5.1 Planning of Audit
Planning and logistics is the crucial part of an audit to ensure the success of
the audit. Foremost step in planning is to identify the appropriate staff and
necessary people to answer audit questions. Next important step is to list out
the logistics requirement to carry out the full fledged audit (Figure 1). Meeting
with the top management and discussing the audit plan and protocol will enable
to express the seriousness of the audit. An assurance by the top management
will also ascertain the commitment of staff and facilitates an effective audit.
2.5.2 Pre-Audit Meeting
A pre-audit meeting is an important prerequisite for the audit because it is the
first opportunity to meet the auditee and deal with any concerns. Careful
planning at this stage will help to ensure success of audit exercise. Information
required at this stage includes detailed information regarding activities carried
at the site, the legal status of the facility including permits & monitoring data,
management structure and the scope of the organization or activity to be audited.
Pre-audit activities also include the selection of the audit protocol team and
the financing for the audit program. The meeting also presents the opportunity
to reinforce the scope and objectives of the audit and discuss practicalities
associated with the audit (e.g. access to key staff, photographs on site, site
tour, access to documentation, etc.).
Briefly Pre-audit includes following tasks
 Getting commitment from top management
 Defining audit scope, objectives and format
 Communication to the employees
 Choosing audit team
 Prioritizing the objectives 29
Environmental
Management Techniques  Issue pre-audit questionnaire
 Gather the additional information
Sometimes, if necessary second pre-audit meeting may be organized to clarify
the concerns, doubts and uncertainties.
2.5.3 On-site Audit

Before initiating audit, a meeting between the audit team and the management
of the organization or activity to review the purpose of the audit, the procedure
and the time schedule is an important task. This meeting would also enable to
refine the scope and allocate specific assignments to auditors and confirm details
and deadlines. Initial site inspection should follow the meeting. The audit team
will receive an overview of the organization and the operations and on this
basis can then focus on specific areas or processes that require attention. In
carrying out the site inspection, the audit team may discover matters which are
relevant to the audit but which were not identified at the planning stage. The
core work of the audit is working through the audit protocol, asking questions,
checking answers against site documentation (manuals, reports, monitoring
data, work instructions, procedures, training schedules etc.), reviewing
documentation against standards, policies and action plans and gathering
evidence to support the answers to the questions.
During on-site audit, following types of activities are carried out by audit team.
 Fill-In Forms- The simplest form of an audit uses fill-in forms based on
reports, which will be produced as an audit guide.
 Check List- This type of protocol is commonly used, providing a detailed
listing of all issues to be covered.
 Questionnaires- Questionnaires are used as an auditing protocol and the
list of questionnaires shall be completely replied by the auditor. In general
an auditor prepares a standardized format for conducting an audit compiling
the final report.
 Photographs - Photographs are taken to support findings and to highlight
good practices; remember to obtain the permission of the site management
and respect any safety requirements (e.g. use appropriate equipment in
flammable zones etc).
In brief, data and information collected during the environmental audit will
consist of the audit protocol, documentation provided by the owner of the
organization or activity, auditor’s notes and observation, the sampling and
monitoring results, photos, plans, maps, diagrams, working papers and other
related items. This information must be well documented to facilitate easy
retrieval. The prime purpose of data collection is to support the audit findings
and provide the basis for verification. An exit meeting should be organized by
the lead auditor to obtain feedback, elucidate primary findings, flaws need to
be addressed and the additional information necessary to prepare the audit
report.
2.5.4 Post Audit Activities

The information gathered by the audit team is consolidated and written up as a
30 draft audit report. The format, content and the extent of details contained in
the audit report will vary according to the scope of the audit, the requirements Environmental Auditing
of the client and the context of the audit. The reports may be prepared as simple
and as readable as possible for better understanding of all groups of people in
the firm. The most basic of audit reports consists of two columns headed
“Findings” and “Recommendations” and each finding is linked to a specific
question or heading taken from the audit protocol. Initially, this draft report
will then be circulated to the audit team and those directly concerned with the
audit. The purpose is to check the report for accuracy. After incorporating the
corrections the final audit report containing the findings and recommendations
of the audit will be communicated to the management. It will also form one of
the bases of future audits because the information it contains informs some of
the tests and analyses that need to be performed in the future. Since the
environmental audits gives input to the process of continuous improvement,
periodical auditing schedule should also be communicated to the management
and audit team to enable the efficiency of successive audits. For this reason,
follow up work in the form of analyses of recommendations and action plans
is a crucial part of an audit.
2.6 BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT

2.6.1 Money Savings
Cost savings are one among significant benefits of an environmental audit.
During the audit, opportunities for continuous improvements are constantly
being carried out and targets are set for savings in spending. For example,
waste management audit emphasizes the concept of reduce, recover and reuse
that results in new opportunities for waste management and ultimately saves
money. In many countries, companies are charged for disposing of waste into
licensed landfill facilities, particularly in the case of hazardous waste a special
treatment may be required before disposal. In such circumstances, reducing
the amount of waste produced can therefore lead to savings, if the organization
has to dispose only a smaller quantity. An obvious way of minimizing the
amount of waste generated is to minimize inputs. Adopting a more efficient
process could mean that fewer raw materials are required, and that the overall
cost of raw materials is therefore reduced. Reductions in the amount of water
required can also lead to savings, as organizations are almost always charged
for their water usage.
Waste management audit can identify the potential ways in which the by-
products of one process can be used in another. In many water-intensive
industries, the recycling of water, which may involve treating/cleaning/cooling
can also lead to a reduction in wastewater disposal costs. An issue audit will
often highlight the need for an ongoing programme of improvements. A waste
audit can lead to the implementation of a waste reduction programme, which
may feature the major redesign of products, or simply minor changes to working
practices. Organizations that carry out an environmental audit on regular basis
to establish compliance with environmental legislation, can benefit financially
in another way. Failing environmental compliance in India often invites penalty
and in many business have even suffered temporary closure of operations.
Huge financial loses can thus be avoided if an organizations has robust audit
practices.
31
Environmental
Management Techniques 2.6.2 Corporate Image and Marketing Opportunities
The careful and responsible management of the earth’s natural resources by
promoting environmental stewardship activities improves the organizations
image in the society. Very recently 41% of businesses say they will embed
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into strategy and way they do business
within 5 years; many citizens say it is important to incorporate SDGs in business.
Environmental audit finds new ways and strategies to improve the
environmental stewardship in line with the global sustainability goals.
Nowadays more and more organizations are realizing that there is real value in
presenting a responsible stance towards the environment. Increasing public
awareness of environmental issues and resulting consumer pressure means
that companies which present an „environmentally friendly image may be
able to obtain a market advantage. In an economic climate where any favourable
publicity is beneficial, a new competitive element has entered the marketplace.
As part of overall environmental management, environmental audits are an
important tool for any companies taking a proactive stance towards
environmental issues.
2.6.3 Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Costs

Business operations tend to cause significant hazards to natural environmental.
Insurance coverage can help them to protect with cost of environmental claims.
Organizations pay a premium to insure themselves against the potential costs
of environmental damage arising from their operations, for example, the costs
of remediation from pollution incidents such as oil spills. Insurance policies
can be a critical asset to protect against the increasingly expensive costs of
defending against, those claims and paying any resulting settlements or
judgments. A periodical environmental audit report may facilitate obtaining
the environmental claims from the insurance companies.
Insurers are in the business of assessing risks and, as the potential size and
scope of environmental risks have been recognized by insurers, it has become
increasingly difficult to obtain worthwhile insurance cover at an acceptable
cost. While it is still possible to find insurance cover for pollution, which is
sudden, accidental, and unforeseen, there are very few insurance companies
that will provide comprehensive general pollution cover. Environmental audits
are an important tool that can bring out the periodical compliance and
performance report that can help for insurance companies in the claim
assessment process.
AHMEDABAD: The Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) issued

fresh guidelines for chemical industries and common effluent treatment
plants (CETPs). The new guidelines have made it mandatory for industries
and CETPs to get an environment audit done by none else but members
of an audit team approved by the GPCB. Under the new GPCB policy, the
environment auditors should be approved by the Environment Audit
Committee of the board. It has further stated that the auditor in the case of
hazardous and chemical industries and also CETPs should hold a degree
in related disciplines such as microbiology, biochemistry, chemistry,
biotechnology, zoology, environment science, climate change, forensic
science or life science. The pollution control board’s new policy says that
32 the auditor should have experience of working in an analytical laboratory
Environmental Auditing
or a chemical laboratory. The CETPs, treatment, storage and disposal
facilities (TSDF), common incinerator plant, common biomedical waste
treatment facility (CBWTF) and industries shall have to submit
Environment Audit Reports (EARs). The report has to be submitted even
if the industry or the plants have undertaken production on a trial basis.
According to the policy, the audit has to be done by auditors decided for
the specific industry.
Source: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/
Gujarat-issues-new-environment-audit-guidelines/articleshow/
45896574.cms
2.6.4 Environmental Concerns

Employees of an organization are bound to have increased awareness on
environmental policies and responsibilities if they carry out periodical audit. It
does inculcate environmental ethics to employees and gradually feel
uncomfortable polluting the environment; employees do reflect eco-friendly
behavior in the society. Increasing awareness of the public people on the impacts
global warming, acid rain and air/water pollution also demands more tangible
actions from the government and corporate sector. Now many companies ask
themselves whether their way of operating is in line with the strong
environmental concern by the public (and the market). In this context,
environmental audit is very useful.
unit.
1. What are the benefits of environmental auditing?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied about environmental auditing and why it is of
importance. You have also learnt about the evolution of audit, audit protocol
and benefits of environmental audits. Environmental audit as a management
tool provides adequate knowledge to reduce emissions and necessary actions
to improve resource and energy efficiency.
2.8 KEY WORDS

Audit Protocol : A management tool comprising systematic,
documented, periodic and objective evaluation
of how well environmental organisation,
management and equipment are performing
with the aim of helping to safeguard the
33
environment.
Environmental
Management Techniques Compliance/Legislative : An audit which determines the degree of
Audit company compliance with current or
prospective legislation or standards.
Environmental Impact : The systematic identification and evaluation
Assessment of the potential impacts (effects) of proposed
projects plans, programmes or legislative
actions relative to the physical – chemical,
biological, cultural and socioeconomic
components of the total environment.
Environmental : A mechanism for systematically managing the
Management Systems environmental effects of an organization.
Sustainable Development : The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
Goals otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a
universal call to action to end poverty, protect
the planet and ensure that all people enjoy
peace and prosperity.
2.9 REFERENCES & SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
DEAT, Environmental Auditing, Integrated Environmental Management,
Information Series 14, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
(DEAT), Pretoria, 2004.
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING: A PANACEA FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY IN NIGERIA International Academy of Business Review,
Volume 3, Number 1, 2016
Marc J. Epstein Making Sustainability Work: Best Practices in Managing and
Measuring Corporate Social, Environmental, and Economic Impacts by
Published by Berrett-Koehler Publishers
http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/sterlite-s-pollution-
problem-113041801267_1.html
https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2017/10/30/china-starts-the-biggest-
shutdown-of-steel-factories-in-history/

1) Your answers must include the following points:
 Environmental auditing is a process whereby an organization’s
environmental performance is tested against its environmental policies
and objectives. These policies and objectives need to be clearly
defined and documented. However, in practice, first time
environmental audits are often done less rigorously, because of the
absence of appropriate documentation at this stage. Eventually,
environmental audit helps to revamp the environmental policy
34 continually to meet the global green economy.
 The key concepts are: Verification, Systematic, Periodic, Objective, Environmental Auditing
Documented, Management tool.
2) Your answers must include the following points:
The benefits include:
 Money Savings
 Corporate Image and Marketing Opportunities
 Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Costs
 Environmental Concerns
35
Environmental
UNIT 3 MANAGEMENT OF AIR AND
WATER: TREATMENT
TECHNOLOGIES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Air Quality Index
3.2.1 Need for Air Quality Indes
3.2.2 Criteria and Standards
3.2.3 Control Measures and Treatment Methods
3.3 Water Quality and Management

3.4 Overview of Standards of Water in Relation to Public Health
3.5 Detection and Control of Microorganisms in Environmental Fresh
Waterand Drinking Water
3.6 Chemical and Biological Treatment
3.6.1 Stabilization Pond
3.6.2 Aerated Lagoon
3.6.3 Activated Sludge Process
3.6.4 Trickling Filter Anaerobic Treatment
3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Key Words
3.9 References and Suggested Readings
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution refers to the presence of undesirable substances in
any component of the environment (air, water and land), which can cause
adverse effects on human, other life forms or property. Environmental pollution
comes in various forms, such as: air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution,
etc. Pollution may result from human activity or it may occur naturally. Pollution
prevention is a major global concern because of the harmful effects of pollution
on human health and on the environment. So, pollution control is an important
component to avoid human health effects. Hence, the development of an
efûcient air and water quality prediction and early warning system is an obvious
and imperative need. In this unit our focus will be on the management of two
main components of environment i.e. air and water. The main objective of this
unit is to discuss various technologies for the control and treatment of air and
water pollutants.
36
Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
3.1 OBJECTIVES Technologies
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 describe the term Air Quality Index (AQI) and its need;
 explain thecontrol measures of various air pollutants; and
 describe the different chemical and biological treatment methods
wastewater.
3.2 AIR QUALITY INDEX

Air Quality Index(AQI) is a very important tool for communicating the air
quality status to people in a way in which people can easily understand it. To
calculate AQI the concentration of different types of pollutants recorded for a
specific period of time, with the help of air pollution monitoring equipment’s.
The concentration and time combine to represent the dose of the air pollutant.
Air pollutants vary in concentration and the function that is used to convert the
air pollutant concentration to AQI also vary. GenerallyAQI values are grouped
into different ranges. AQI converts complex air quality data of different health
effecting pollutants into a single number or value, color and nomenclature.
3.2.1 Need for Air Quality Index

As we all know with the prime requirement of land and water resources, air is
the most essential resource for maintenance of life. But during the 19th and 20th
century the fast advancement in industries and fossil fuel based technologies,
particularly in developed countries caused very heavy and noticeable air
pollution. Till the end of the 19th century, some of the major cities in Europe
had started to notice heavy air pollution and this air pollution was affecting a
vast number of people.
In December 1952, London was trapped in a deadly cloud of fog for almost
over a week. This smog is called London smog, in which about 4000 people
have died. Another similar incident took place in Los Angeles. Such incidents
have led the scientists and administrators to take quick actions to tackle the
problem if happen in future. As a result, lots of research took place in this
field. The main achievement was the technological advancements to detect
and control air pollution. A number of methods have been developed to generate
vast amounts of data about the different pollutants in ambient air and this data
are used to predict the quality of air in different regions. This large monitored
data neitherprovides any specific information about the quality of air to the
administrators and policy makers nor to the common people. As a large number
of sampling stations and pollution parameter increase, so, such data are very
confusing even to the technical and scientific community.
The common people are not capable to understand the statistical data, time
series plots and other complex findings to judge the air quality. Also, because
of this person may lose interest in state of air quality and faith in regulatory
agencies. But it is also important to know the exact daily levels of urban
pollution in the health of the people and the environment. So the air quality
must be calculated and communicated in a simple way, so that it is easy for the
local public to understand it. Also, the success and efforts to improve national
air pollution problem depends on the support of the local public.To solve this 37
Environmental
Management Techniques problem, the concept of AQI has been developed in the United States during
1970’s.
3.2.2 Criteria and Standards

In India, AQI has six categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately
polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe (Table 1). Each one of these categories is
decided based on the health impacts and the concentration values of the different
air pollutants that are put together in AQI. Every pollutant has a health
breakpoint concentration that is categorized in the AQ sub - index. There are
eight criteria pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb) which
are a part of AQ sub-index and for which short term National Ambient Air
Quality Standards are prescribed. Based on the measured ambient air pollutant
concentration, AQ sub-index is calculated, which is a linear function of
concentration.
At a monitoring location the data for individual pollutant is calculated by its
24-hourly average concentration value except for CO and O3, for these
concentrations is calculated 8-hourly bases. Also, it is not possible to monitor
all the eight pollutants at all locations. In such locations an overall AQI is
calculated if data is available for at least three pollutants out of which one
must be either PM10 or PM2.5.There are two types for system developed for
calculating the AQI, among them one is a web based system that is designed to
calculate the AQI on a real time basis. It is an automatic system that receives
data continuously from monitoring stations and display AQI. The second is
manual monitoring stations, for which an AQI calculator is developed in which
data can be inserted manually to get AQI value.
Table 1. The health breakpoints and AQI categories of the eight pollutants are as follows:
AQI Categories for the various readings of the pollutant based on the Associated health impacts of
Category health breakpoints or health impacts different categories
(Range)/
PM10 PM2.5 NO2 O3 CO SO2 NH3 Pb
Colour “
24-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr 8-hr 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr
(mg/m3)
Good (0-50)/ Green 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5 Minimal Impact
Satisfactory (51- 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.5 –1.0 May cause minor breathing discomfort
100)/ Yellow to sensitive people.
Moderately polluted 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1- 10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0 May cause breathing discomfort to
(101-200)/ Orange people with lung disease such as asthma,
and discomfort to people with
heart disease, children and older adults.
Poor (201-300)/ 251-350 91-120 181-280 169-208 10-17 381-800 801-1200 2.1-3.0 May cause breathing discomfort to
Red people with prolonged exposure,
and discomfort to people with
heart disease.
Very poor (301- 351-430 121-250 281-400 209-748* 17-34 801-1600 1200-1800 3.1-3.5 May cause respiratory illness to the
400)/ Purple people on prolonged exposure. The
effect may be more pronounced in
people with lung and heart diseases.
Severe (401-500)/ 430 + 250+ 400+ 748+* 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+ May cause respiratory impact even
Maroon on healthy people, and serious
health impacts on people with lung/
heart disease. The health impacts may
be experienced even during light
physical activity.
*One hourly monitoring (for mathematical calculations only)
Source:CPCB, 2014 (http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Air%20Quality%20Index.pdf)
38
3.2.3 Control Measures and Treatment Methods for Air Water: Treatment
Pollution Technologies
Air pollution is caused by both natural and anthropogenic sources. However,

it is not possible for us to control the air pollution caused by natural sources.
So the only option we have is to control the air pollution from anthropogenic
sources, instead of the human efforts to control the air pollution, our atmosphere
also has a number of built-in self-clearing phenomenon and processes such as
rain-washout, dispersion dilution, flocculation, absorption and gravitational
settling.
The control methods for air pollutants can be classified into two categories-
A) Control on the basis of source type.
1) Stationary or
2) Mobile source
B) Control on the basis of type of pollutants
1) Suspended particulate matter or
2) Gaseous pollutants
A) Control on the Basis of Source Type
Two types of sources are there, stationary and mobile sources. Stationary sources
include all the sources which are fixed at a position. As the source is stable at
a position so the control of pollution for such kind of sources is easier as
compared to the mobile sources. Stationary sources include manufacturing
and industrial processes. For e.g. Power generating plants, mining sites,
chemical plants,refineries, generators and industries.
Mobile sources are the sources which move from one location to another. So it
is very difficult to predict the pollution caused by mobile sources at a particular
location, Mobile sources air pollution include any air pollution that is emitted
by airplanes, ships, motor vehicles, locomotives and all the other equipment’s
and engines that can all the other equipment’s and engines that can move from
one place to another. Control measures for both the sources are as follows:
Control Measures for Stationary Sources
1) Emission rates should be restricted to a permissible level for every single
pollutant by each and every industry.
2) Continuous monitoring of the pollutants must be done to know the
emission levels.
3) By using green fuel or fuels with low sulfur and ash content.
4) Air pollution control equipment’s must be incorporated
5) Temporary shutdown of the source can be done for a period of time when
there is a danger of heavy accumulation of pollutants.
6) Good operational practices of the equipment may also play an important
role in reducing the formation of air pollutants.
39
Environmental
Management Techniques Control Measures for Mobile Sources
1) Encouraging people to walk, use a bicycle and to use public transport
instead of private vehicles.
2) Using unleaded petrol.
3) By using modified combustion processes in the engine of motor vehicles
for eg- Two stage combustion engine.
4) Catalytic converters should be used to control carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons in vehicles.
B) Control on the Basis of Type of Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are classified mainly into two categories; Suspended Particulate
Matter(SPM) and gaseous pollutants. Suspended PM includes a variety of
particles and aerosols that can stay suspended in the atmosphere for a short or
long period of time based on their particle size.
Gaseous pollutants are not classified on the bases of molecular size. Gaseous
pollutants are gases such as CO, oxides of sulphur (SOX), oxides of nitrogen
(NOX) and Hydrocarbons(HCs) which has direct and indirect negative impacts
on human health and the environment. Different methods used to control SPM
and gaseous pollutants are as follows:
Control of Suspended Particulate Matter-
Some common methods used to control particulates are to follow:
a) Dry type mechanical collectors
b) Wet type collectors
c) Electrostatic precipitator
d) Fabric filters.
Dry Type Mechanical Collectors
There are different techniques used for dry separation of particulates, some of
them are as:
Gravitational Settling ChambersThe settling chamber is the simplest type of
setup used for the collection of solid particulates.It is a large chamber which
allows its large volume to slow down the effluent gases, so that the settling of
dust and mist particulates can take place by the action of gravity. They are
generally used as a primary method to control air pollution. This device is
suitable only if the particles have a size greater than 50 ¼m.The efficiency of
this device depends on velocity of gas flow and volume of the chamber.
Cyclones
Cyclones are specially designed funnel type equipment’s that are used to remove
small size particles by the action of centrifugal force from the carrier gas. The
spinning dust particles move towards the peripheral wall by virtue of their
motion, and are collected in a receiver at the bottom of cyclone dust collected
in a receiver at the bottom of cyclone dust collected. Cyclones are mostly used
40 to remove particles above 10 ¼m.
Wet Collectors Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
Technologies
Wet collectors are generally used for clearing hot and moist gases, which are
difficult to treat by other methods and devices. These are also called scrubbers,
in which gases pass through liquid (mostly water) to remove contaminants.
Different wet collectors use different method of collection. In some methods
the liquid traps the particles and after collection that liquid is collected for
disposal. In another method, the effective size of the particles is increased by
conditioning them, so that they can be easily collected.
Some common types of scrubbers are:
1) Venturi Scrubbers
2) Wet impingement scrubbers
3) Wet centrifugal scrubbers
4) Gravity spray tower
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is one of the most efficient methods that are
used to collect particulates. In ESP the dust particles are passed through highly
charged electric field, by virtue of which they get charged and are collected on
the collector plates by electrostatic forces. ESP consists of a discharge wire
and collecting plates hold parallel to each other. These are kept in a chamber
with hopper at the base to collect the particulates. Proper inlet and outlet are
provided for dust laden gases.This device is capable of collecting particles
having size, even less than 1 ¼m.
Fabric Filter System
In fabric filter system, the dust laden gas is passed through fabric filter, which
retain the particles and allow clean gases to pass through.The complete filter
system consists of a number of fabric bags having defined poresize hanging in
an enclosure named as bag house.The dirty gas is allowed to enter through the
inlet and passes out from the bag sides, holding the particulates and clean gas
as effluent. The dust in the bags is periodically removed to maintain their
efficiency. Bag houses are more efficient than mechanical collectors.
Control of Gaseous Pollutants
Different methods can be used to control the gaseous pollutants. But the
selection of the method used to control gaseous pollutants depends upon the
properties of gas. Some common methods are as follows:
a) Absorption
b) Adsorption
c) Combustion
d) Condensation
Absorption
The process of absorption depends upon the contact between the pollutant and
gas. A gas may be soluble in liquid or can make complex with it.In this method 41
Environmental
Management Techniques the gases are passed through an absorbing liquid which can hold the pollutant
gas and allow the passage of clean gases.The absorbents can be classified into
two categories, namely, reactive and non-reactive.If the gas makes some
chemical reaction with the absorbent then it is called reactive absorbent and if
the gas is simply dissolved into it then it is called non-reactive absorbent.A
number of pollutant gases can be treated by absorption method. For example,
sulphur dioxide can be removed by calcium hydroxide and chlorine.
Gas Adsorption
Adsorption is a process in which gases are adsorbed on the surface of solid
adsorbents. Adsorption is of two types physical and chemical. In this method,
the pollutant gases pass through the packed columns of absorbent material in
such a way that maximum contact took place between the adsorbent and
gases.The efficiency of adsorption depends upon the available surface area of
adsorbent for reaction. The selection of adsorbent depends upon the type of
gas to be removed. For eg- activated carbon is used to remove non polar
compounds, SOX and NH3 can be adsorbed on polar adsorbents and water
vapors can be adsorbed on silica gel.
Combustion
Combustion is a very simple process that is used to control gaseous pollutants
which are of organic nature. During the combustion process, they are converted
into CO2 and water vapors. These are different methods of combustion
depending upon the concentration of combustible gases and their combustion
characteristics. Some common combustion methods are as:
a) Furnace combustion– In this method, the pollutant gases are burnt in a
chamber in the presence of oxygen. Fuel is required when the pollutant gases
are less combustible or otherwise direct flame combustion is used for highly
combustible gases. This method is suitable for Hydrogen sulphide, Methyl
sulphide, Methane etc.
b) Flare combustion- In this method, the pollutant gases are removed by burning
them on the top of a stack by providing a suitable burner in the open air. This
method is generally used by refineries and chemical plants for removal of
organic vapors, odor compound and hydrocarbons. This method is used for
burning HCN, NH3, H2 and toxic flammable gases.
c) Catalytic combustion- This method is used for the treatment of polluted
gases having low particulate matter. In this method the pollutants are treated at
a low temperature of about 300-400 °C, in the presence of some catalyst.
Combustion here is flameless. The effluent gases are oxidized by passing
through a catalyst and the rate of oxidation can be increased by increasing the
temperature.
Condensation
The condensation process occurswhen the temperature of a gaseous mixture is
reduced to its saturation temperature and its vapour pressure equals to its partial
pressure. Although condensation can be achieved by increasing pressure, but
this approach is normally not used in air pollution control. The two basic types
of condensation equipment’s used in air pollution control are surface and contact
condensers. In surface condensation process a cooling medium flows through
42
metal tubes and vapour (gas) condenses on the surface of the tubes. Here the Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
gas to be condensed is separated from the cooling medium (air or liquid) by Technologies
the metal tube. While in contact condenser, the vapour and cooling medium
are brought into direct contact. In this process, a spray of cold liquid (mainly
water) comes in direct contact with the gas stream. The cooled gases condense
and the gas-water mixture is removed from the bottom and treated.
unit.
1. Define the term particulates. Enumerate the various control devices for
the removal of particulate from waste gas streams.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2) What are the principal gases of concern in air pollution control? What are
the four primary types of treatment processes available for control of
gaseous pollutants?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.3 WATER QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT

Water quality is “the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water,
usually in respect to its suitability for a designated use.” The higher the water
quality, the more applications, it can be used for with minimal treatment.Water
resources are of major environmental, social and economic value and if water
quality becomes degraded this resource will lose its value. Water quality is
closely linked to the surrounding environment and land use.The water quality
is measured by determining the contaminants and characteristics of water. These
water quality indicators can be categorized as:
 Aesthetic: Odours, taints, colour and floating matter
 Biological: Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia
coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia
 Physical: Temperature, turbidity and clarity, colour, salinity, suspended
solids, dissolved solids
 Chemical: pH, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, nutrients
(including nitrogen and phosphorus), organic and (including toxicants),
metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese,
magnesium).
 Radioactive: Alpha, beta and gamma radiation emitters.
43
Environmental
Management Techniques The quality of water is a prevailing environmental factor of health. Drinking
water quality management has been a key pillar for the prevention and control
of waterborne diseases. A number of key actions which can be used for water
quality management include:
1. Mapping of Water Resources- mapping of water resources is very
important. Mapping includes both the surface and ground water resources.
With the help of mapping total available water for a particular location
can be calculated. This helps administration to take appropriate actions
for the utilization and distribution of water for different sectors such as
agriculture, industries.
2. Conservation of Water Resources- conservation is the most essential
and easiest step in water quality management. The available resources of
water must be conserved because they govern the life of humans and
ecosystem.
3. Ground Water Protection- ground water is most easily available water
resource. For the countries which do not have much surface water bodies,
ground water is lifeline for such countries. It includes the protection of
ground water aquifer from contaminants and toxic polluting elements.
The leaching from the agriculture and mining sector is the main reason
for ground water pollution.
4. Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem- this is the most important step that
can be taken to maintain quality of surface water bodies. Aquatic ecosystem
maintains the quality of water by a lot of biological and biogeochemical
processes. Also the quality of water ecosystem is indicative of the quality
of water in any water body.
5. Prevention and Control of Water Pollution- strict actions must be taken
for the prevention and control of pollution. The sources from which the
pollutants can accumulate in a water body must be identified. The source
and type of effluent must be noticed for different locations so that proper
water treatment processes can be used according to the characteristics of
wastewater. The main steps which can be taken for water pollution control
are:
 Pollution reduction at source
 Product and process change
 Recycling and recovery
 Effluent reuse
 Safe disposal of sludge
6. Standards for Water Quality- the standards must be specified by the
relevant government bodies for different purposes. Different standards
must be settled for drinking and effluent disposal. Strict actions must be
taken whosoever don’t follow the prescribed standards set for industries
and water distributors. Monitoring and surveillance networks must be
established for the detection of the source and type of pollution in water
resources.
44
3.4 OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS OF WATER IN Water: Treatment
Technologies
RELATION TO PUBLIC HEALTH
Water plays an important role in controlling human health; it has both the
positive and negative impacts on human health. A minimum amount of water
must be consumed by individuals on a daily basis for survival. However, the
quality of water has a great influence on human health. Water borne diseases
place a great burden on population and health services in developing countries.
Infectious and parasitic outbreaks are the major cause of mortality.However,
not all the water related diseases leads to epidemics.Water related diseases can
be classified on the basis of mode of transmission as: water-washed (as scabies,
skin ulcer, trachoma); water-based (as threadworm, bilharziosis, schistomiasis);
water borne (as typhoid, cholera, giardiasis); and water insect vectors (dengue,
yellow fever).
Quality water supply and sanitation can reduce incidence of mortality and
morbidity to a great extent. So, the governments all over the world are trying
to supply quality water to their people.The water contains a number of dissolved
species within it, some of these dissolved species are very important for human
grown such as; calcium and magnesium plays important role in bone formation,
iron plays very important role in transporting oxygen in blood, fluoride is very
important in maintaining dental health and pH and alkalinity affect odour and
taste of water. The table given below gives the detailed information about the
acceptable and permissible limits (IS: 10500) of different substances and their
possible health and resource impacts on humans (Table 2).
Table2: Water parameters as per IS- 10500:2012 and their effect on
human health
S. Parameter Required Permissible Undesirable
No. (desirable limit in the effect outside
limit) absence of the desirable
alternate source limit
1. Colour (hazen units), max 5 15 Above 5 consumer
acceptance decreases
2. Odour Unobjec - -
tionable
3. Taste Agreeable - -
4. Turbidity (NTU Units), 1 5 Above 5 consumer
max acceptance decreases
5. pH 6.5 to No relaxation Metallic or sour taste of
8.5 drinking water, may
affect mucous membrane
6. Total hardness(as CaCO3) 200 600 Beyond this limit water
mg/l, max may cause risk of
cardiovascular disease,
skin irritation, encrustation
in water supply structure
7. Iron (as Fe), mg/l, max 0.3 1.0 Beyond this limit taste/
appearance is affected,can
lead to hemochromatosis
and promote iron bacteria
8. Chloride (as Cl), mg/l 250 1000 Beyond this limit, taste,
corrosion and palatability
are affected, Fish and
aquatic communities
cannot survive 45
Environmental
Management Techniques 9. Fluoride (as F ), mg/l 1 1.5 Fluoride is essential for
teeth, but high fluoride
may cause fluorosis
10. Dissolved solids, mg/l 500 2000 Beyond this palatability
decreases and may also
cause gastro-intestinal
irritation
11. Calcium (as Ca) mg/l 75 200 Effect domestic use and
may cause encrustation in
water supply structure
12. Magnesium (as Mg), mg/l 30 100 Effect domestic use and
may cause encrustation in
water supply structure
13. Alkalinity mg/l 200 600 Taste become unpleasant
beyond this limit
14. Copper (as Cu), mg/l 0.05 1.5 Beyond this limit acute
exposure effects on the
gastrointestinal system are
observed
15. Nitrate (as NO2), mg/l 45 No relaxation High levels of nitrates cause
blue baby syndrome
16. Sulphate (as SO4), mg/l 200 400 Beyond this limit may cause
gastro-intestinal irritation
when sodium or magnesium
are present
17. Mercury (as Hg), mg/l 0.001 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
for human consumption
18. Selenium (as Se), mg/l 0.01 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
19. Cadmium (as Cd), mg/l 0.01 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
20. Arsenic (as As), mg/l 0.01 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
21. Cyanide (as CN), mg/l 0.05 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
22. Lead (as Pb), mg/l 0.05 No relaxation Beyond this water is toxic
23. Zinc (as Zn), mg/l 5 15 Beyond this limit it can
cause astringent taste and an
opalescence in water
24. Chromium (as Cr6+), mg/l 0.05 No relaxation Above this limit it is
carcinogenic
25. Polynuclear aromatic - - Above this limit it is
hydrocarbons (as PAH), g/l carcinogenic
26. Phenolic compounds 0.001 0.002 Beyond this may cause
(as C6H5OH), mg/l objectionable odour and
taste
27. Aluminium (as Al),mg/l 0.03 0.2 The cumulative effect is
reported to cause dementia
28. Pesticides, mg/l Absent 0.001 Toxic to human health
Bacteriological examinations
29. Coliform organisms, MPN/100 ml Less than 10 -
30. E- coli per 100 ml Absent - If present, the risk of
contracting a waterborne
illness is increased
Source: IS- 10500:2012 Drinking water- Specification, Bureau of Indian standards, New
46 Delhi. (http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/wq-standards.pdf)
3.5 DETECTION AND CONTROL OF Water: Treatment
Technologies
MICROORGANISMS IN ENVIRONMENTAL
FRESH WATER AND DRINKING WATER
As we know that safe drinking water is a fundamental human right and if
contaminated with opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, it may have health
implications for consumers. Human health should therefore be protected by
preventing microbial contamination of water that is intended for consumption.
Waterborne infections are caused by ingestion, airborne or contact with
contaminated water by a variety of infectious agents which includes bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and helminths. Some of the most common microbiological
contaminants are Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella
typhimurium and Pseudomonas fluorescens.
Although, a number of methods have been developed for detection of microbe
but the most popular method is based on detection of indicator organisms. The
major indicator organisms are a coliform group of bacteria. For instance,
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is an indicator of pollution of human or animal faecal
origin. The coliform is an aerobic or facultative anaerobic, gram negative and
non-spore forming bacteria that can ferment lactose. There are three basic
techniques for detection of coliform bacteria.
1. Fermentation tube technique – this test is based on production of gas by
fermentation of lactose by coliform bacteria. About 10 ml of water sample
is transferred to a fermentation test tube containing lauryl tryptose broth
(contains beef extract, peptone and lactose) and an inverted glass vial.
The fermentation tubes are placed in an incubator at about 35! for 48
hours. The production of gas bubble inthe inverted vial is an indicator
that coliform bacteria may present. For a negative test, no gas production
occurs.
2. Membrane filter technique – In this technique a fixed amount of water is
passed through a filter membrane with a pore size enough to trap bacteria.
After filtration, the filter membrane is kept in a culture dish in a growth
medium. The culture dish is incubated at 35°C for 24 hours. The basis of
the test is that each bacteria retained by filter membrane are capable to
form a small visible colony. The coliform value is expressed in terms of
number per 100 ml of water which is counted by counting the number of
colonies on filter membrane.
3. Standard Plate Count:This technique isgenerally used to determinethe
heterotrophic microbes (which needed an external source of organic carbon
for growth) in drinking water.
Some other detection methods for microorganisms are ELISA (Enzyme-Linked
Immuno Sorbent Assay), lateral flow tests (immune chromatographic assays),
SPR (Surface Plasmon Resonance), Western blots and chips, etc.
3.6 CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

In the process of water/wastewater treatment, first of all the coarse particles
are removed by using physical methods like bar screens and a primary settling
tank. After physical methods, the chemical and biological treatment methods 47
Environmental
Management Techniques are forced into action. Chemical treatment can be defined as the treatment of
wastewater by using the process which depends upon the chemical behavior
and properties of the components present in wastewater. In this method,
chemical materials react with a portion of impurities and heavy metals, but a
portion of polluting species remains unaffected. Also, the cost of chemical
treatment is higher and chemical additives also have a problem of disposing
large amount of chemical sludge. Mostly used chemical treatment processes
are adsorption, neutralization, chemical precipitation, ion exchange and
disinfection.
The biological treatment methods include the removal of suspended organic
solids by using microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In biological treatment processes, the
microbes use dissolved and suspended organic matter for their nourishment
and transform it into thick and dense biomass, which can be easily separated
by sedimentation process. Biological treatment methods are very efficient; it
can remove about 70-95% of the biological oxygen demand (BOD). The main
advantage of using biological treatment methods is that their end products are
stable and non- toxic. Also, these methods can be used in a variety of ways
depending upon the type of industrial or municipal wastewater. It is also possible
to recover energy stored in sludge in gaseous form by using the anaerobic
treatment method. Mainly used biological treatment methods are stabilization
pond, aeration tanks, activated sludge process, rotatory biological contractor,
trickling filters and anaerobic digesters. Some of the common methods are
described in detail in this section.
3.6.1 Stabilization Ponds
Wastewater which does not include high inorganic pollutants such as toxic
metals and chemical species can be effectively stabilized by using natural
biological processes that occurs in a shallow pond. A variety of
microorganismsexist in the environment which can act as natural purifiers of
wastewater. Small ponds can be designed with a water depth of 2-5 feet for
better mixing of wastewater and sunlight penetration. A stabilization pond is a
flat bottomed pond of any shape and with a depth not less than 2-3 ft. A
minimum of 2 ft. depth is required to prevent the growth of rooted aquatic
plants. Also, an operating depth greater than 5 ft. cannot be prescribed because
of anaerobic conditions may take place at such depths.Waste organics in
stabilization pond are metabolized by bacteria and protozoan as primary feeders.
Secondary feeders include higher animals such as crustaceans and
rotifers.Nutrients released by bacteria are consumed by algae for carrying out
photosynthesis. The overall process in stabilization pond is a combination of
the individual reactions of the bacteria, fungi and protozoan. The retention
time of stabilization pond is 3 to 6 months.Stabilization ponds are suitable for
small towns that don’t have extensive industrial expansion.
3.6.2 Aerated Lagoons

Aerated lagoons are pretreatment methods for some industrial and municipal
wastewaters. These are completely mixed ponds having depth about 10-12 ft.
Floating and fixed base aerator units are used for the purpose of aeration in
aerated lagoons. A floating aerator consists of an electric motor that floats
with a submerged water intake cone.Complete mixing and adequate aeration
48 is essential environmental conditions for the growth of BOD degrading biota.
The selection of equipment’s and design of lagoons depends upon the type of Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
wastewater to be treated.The oxygen transfer capacity of the aerators must be Technologies
able to fulfill the BOD demand of the wastewater. Organic stabilization depends
on the microbial growth that is developed within the basin. There is no provision
of recycling of microbes as in activated sludge process.The BOD removal is a
function of nutrient content, nature of waste, temperature and detention time
of wastewater. To ensure the odour free operation, the pond water must be
stirred thoroughly to avail dissolved oxygen throughout the liquid.
3.6.3 Activated Sludge Process

In the activated sludge process a large microbial population remains suspended
in wastewater under aerobic conditions (Fig 1). Activated sludge process is
one of the most efficient BOD removing techniques. Wastewater is fed into
bioreactor or aeration tank, where micro-organisms oxidize and flocculate the
organics. These flocs settle down in the sedimentation tank. These flocs contain
a large number of active microbes. These microbes are re-inserted into the
aeration tank to maintain a proper food to microorganism ratio. The primary
feeders in activated sludge process are bacteria and secondary are holozoic
protozoan maximum microbial growth can be attained with unlimited nutrients
and high oxygen supply. High amount of oxygen is supplied by the mechanical
aerators present at the bottom of the aeration tank. Maximum contact between
microbes and organic food material took place when they are in suspension
with air bubbles.Activated sludge process can maintain an efficiency of 95-
98% removal of BOD.
Operation of an activated sludge treatment plant depends upon
1.) The quantity of air supplied.
2.) Type of waste water.
3.) The rate of recirculation of activated sludge.
4.) Excess sludge withdrawn from the system.
Fig. 3.1: Activated activated sludge process
3.6.4 Trickling Filters

Trickling filters are biological beds where wastewater is sprayed on the media
surface supporting microbial growths. The medium on which the microbial 49
Environmental
Management Techniques growth occurs can be crushed stones, plastic materials and specially designed
high surface area support media. Trickling filters are low cost treatment methods
for removal of nutrients and BOD.The filter media consists of biological slime
layers of bacteria, fungi and protozoan. Sometimes population of large
organisms such as rotifers and sludge worms is also present. Trickling filters
are very popular because of their simplicity, low cost of operation and production
of less sludge.
Normally, stones are used as common filter media, but as the stones have low
void spaces for passage of air and water. So, instead of stones several forms of
chemical-resistant plastic media are available with more surface area per unit
volume. The supported media is packed in a circular tank having depth 10 to
20 ft. The top surface of trickling filter is coated with algae due to the presence
of sunlight and lower portions of a deep filter may support nitrifying bacteria.
The wastewater is sprayed over the tank with stationary or rotating arms. As
the wastewater flows through the filter, the soluble organic matter is absorbed
by the microbes in the microbial film. Oxygen for degradation is consumed
from the surrounding air. Continuous supply of oxygen is required to prevent
anaerobic conditions. Efficiency of tickling filters depends upon bed depth,
hydraulic loading, aeration and media configuration. Trickling filters can
remove 80-85% of the BOD.
unit.
1. Why analysis of water is essential? Name the various parameters or
characteristics for which analysis is carried out.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. What is the objective of wastewater treatment? Name various physical,
chemical and biological treatment methods.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit you must have achieved the objectives stated at
the start of the unit. Let us recall what we have learnt so far:
Air Quality Index (AQI) is a very important tool for communicating the air
quality status to people in a way in which people can easily understand it. AQI
has six categories based on the health impacts and the concentration values of
the different air pollutants. There are eight criteria pollutants in AQI i.e. PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb.
50
The control measures of air pollutants on the basis of the source type and Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
pollutant type are discussed in this unit. For the control of suspended particulate Technologies
matter (SPM) gravitational settling chambers, cyclones, electrostatic
precipipators, fabric filters and wet scrubbers are the commonly used methods.
Different commonly used methods to control the gaseous pollutants are
absorption, adsorption, combustion and condensation. The selection of the
method used to control gaseous pollutants depends upon the properties of gas
to be controlled.
Water quality is the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water.
It is measured by determining the contaminants and characteristics (physical,
chemical and biological) of water. The acceptable and permissible limits of
different substances in drinking water and their possible health impacts on
humans are also discussed in this unit.
Chemical treatment can be defined as the treatment of water by using the process
which depends upon the chemical behavior and properties of the components
present in water. Mostly used chemical treatment processes are adsorption,
neutralization, chemical precipitation, ion exchange and disinfection.
The biological treatment methods include the removal of suspended solids
(organic) by using microorganisms such as fungi, algae and bacteria under
both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In this process, the microbes use
dissolved and suspended organic matter for their nourishment and transform it
into thick and dense biomass. The main advantage of using biological treatment
methods is that their end products are stable and non- toxic, it can remove
almost about 95% of the BOD. Mainly used biological treatment methods are
stabilization pond, aeration tanks, activated sludge process, rotatory biological
contractor, trickling filters and anaerobic digesters.
3.8 KEY WORDS

Activated sludge : Activated sludge is a ûoc or solid formed by
the microorganisms. It includes living
microorganisms, accumulated food materials,
and waste products from the aerobic
decomposition process.
Biochemical oxygen : Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of
demand (BOD) oxygen required to decompose a given amount
of organic pollutant in water.
Carcinogen : A substance that can cause cancer.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) : Atmospheric oxygen dissolved in water or
wastewater.
Pollutant : Any physical, chemical, biological, or
radiological substance or matter that has an
adverse effect on air, water, or soil.
Pollution : An undesirable change in the physical, chemical
and biological characteristics of air, water and
land that is likely to affect various life forms
and materials. 51
Environmental
3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
A LYassi, T. Kjellstrom, T. Dekok, and T. Guidotti. (2001). Basic Environmental
Health. New York: Oxford University Press.
Masters, G.M. and Ela W. P. (2008) Introduction to Environmental Engineering
and Science, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
C. S. Rao, (2006) Environmental Pollution Control Engineering, 2nd Ed New
Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers Delhi.
K. B.Schnelle and C. A Brown (2002), Air Pollution Control Technology
Handbook, CRC press
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff(2002) Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment
Technologies, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780750674980.
http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/wq-standards.pdf
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/
Air%20Quality%20Index.pdf

 Particulates are finely divided solids and liquids dispersed in gaseous
media. Dust, smoke, mist, spray, fog, pollen etc. are some examples of
particulates. The various types of control devices used for the removal or
control of particulate matter are Gravitational settling chambers, Cyclones,
wet scrubbers, Fabric filters, Electrostatic precipitators etc.
 The principal gases of concern in pollution are CO, oxides of sulpher
(SOX), oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and Hydrocarbons (HCs). The main
treatment processes used for these and other gaseous pollutants are
absorbed, adsorption, combustion and condensation.
 The aims of water analysis of water or wastewater are; to evaluate the
quality of water/wastewater, to determine the strength of the pollutant, to
decide the type of treatment required and to make the water management
effective and economical.The water quality is measured by determining
the contaminants and characteristics of water. The water quality indicators/
characteristics can be classified as Aesthetic (odours, taints, colour and
floating matter), Biological (microorganisms and pathogens), Physical
(temperature, turbidity and clarity, colour, salinity, suspended solids,
dissolved solids), Chemical (pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD, nutrients, metals
and salts) and Radioactive (alpha, beta and gamma radiation emitters).
 The main objective of wastewater treatment is to reduce the amount of
52 undesirable and nuisance causing elements, so that the water can be reused
or dispose safely. Sedimentation, adsorption, aeration, reverse osmosis, Management of Air and
Water: Treatment
membrane filtration and ion exchange are some methods of physical Technologies
treatment. Commonly used chemical treatment processes are
neutralization, coagulation, flocculation, adsorption and chemical
disinfection. Major biological treatment methods are activated sludge
process, aerated lagoons, oxidation ponds, rotating biological contactors
and trickling filters.
53
Environmental
UNIT 4 TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatments of Solid Wastes
4.2.1 Composting
4.2.2 Vermicomposting
4.2.3 Biogas Generation
4.3 Treatment of Hazardous Wastes

4.4 Treatment Strategies for Biomedical Wastes
4.5 Treatment and Disposal of E-waste
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 References and Suggested Readings
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the past our ancestors disposed of their wastes simply by burying it into soil.
The waste generated by early man was relatively less in quantity and mainly of
biodegradable in nature, therefore burying was an appropriate technology for
disposal. But modern man produces a large amount of waste with high level of
complexity. So, in the present scenario burying all the waste is not an appropriate
solution. As a huge amount of waste is generated every year and generation is
growing with time in most of the countries of the world. The waste generation
is the outcome of various domestic, commercial and industrial processes or
activities. Improper disposal of this entire huge amount is a vast environmental
problem with many dimensions such as production of foul odour, water and
soil pollution. The treatment and disposal of solid wastes is one of the most
important concerns for human. Mishandling of solid wastes may degrade the
environment and cause effects on human health, and may cause loss of
recoverable resources present in these wastes. Treatment of solid wastes helps
in the reduction of the total volume, alters the form and makes it easier to
handle. It can also help to recover certain useful resources or materials and as
well as heat energy or biogas. This unit will familiarize you about various
treatment methods used for solid wastes, hazardous wastes, biomedical wastes
and e-wastes
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
54  describe various treatment methods for biodegradable solid waste;

 explain the process and stages of biogas generation; Treatment of Solid Waste
 comprehend the physical, chemical, thermal and biological methods for

treating hazardous waste;
 list the treatment methods for biomedical waste; and
 describe various treatment and disposal methods for e-waste.
4.2 AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC TREATMENTS

OF SOLID WASTES
Dear Learners, let us now read about aerobic and anaerobic treatments of solid
wastes in the following lines.
4.2.1 Composting
Composting is one of the means of biodegradable solid waste minimization. It
is the transformation of biodegradable organic matter by heterotrophic
microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa) into peat-
like material termed as compost. For the smooth functioning of composting
process main requirement is right microorganisms, feed material, nutrients for
microorganisms, proper moisture content and temperature. Any unfavorable
change in these parameters can influence the rate of composting process (Fig.
1). The composting process can be divided into two categories on the basis of
the presence or absence of oxygen during the decomposition process.
a. Aerobically (in presence of oxygen)
The aerobic composting process occurs in the presence of ample oxygen.

In aerobic composting, aerobic microorganisms oxidize organic matter
and convert it into carbon-dioxide, ammonia humus and other stable
organic products. In this process, microbes use carbon from organic
materials as a source of energy and nitrogen is recycled. It is an exothermic
process so the temperature of the composting pile arises during the process.
b. Anaerobically (in absence of oxygen)
Anaerobic composting involves a completely different set of

microorganisms and conditions that does in aerobic composting. Anaerobic
composting takes place in oxygen deficient conditions. In oxygen deficient
conditions aerobes are unable to survive and another type of microbes
called anaerobes replace them and decompose the waste. Here the
anaerobic microorganisms, take carbon and nutrients from organic matter
and break down the organic compounds. The main gases produced from
the process are methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
Sometimes the unpleasant smell is produced from the pile due to the release
of sulphur containing compounds like hydrogen sulphide; however slight
sulphur smell can indicate that the decomposition process is working
properly. This process usually takes longer time than aerobic composting.
55
Environmental
Fig. 1: Composting process
Key Factors that Affect the Composting Process

As mentioned earlier in this unit composting is a microbial dependent process.
Similar to other biotic organism microbes present in composting also require,
the right environment to live and flourish. For effective composting,
microorganisms require oxygen, nutrients, proper moisture, pH and temperature.
Oxygen
In case of aerobic decomposition a large amount of oxygen is needed by
microbes, particularly at the initial stage. Oxygen supply is necessary for aerobic
composting and can be added through aeration. If the supply of oxygen, reduced
during the composting process, it will affect the growth of aerobic
microorganisms and decomposition of the material. Proper aeration helps in
the removal unnecessary heat, moisture and other gases trapped in the pile.
Thus, proper aeration is essential for efficient composting and can be attained
by regulating different conditions like pile size, particle size, moisture content,
ventilation and frequency of turning of feed.
Nutrient content
To sustain life processes microorganisms need some energy, they obtain the
required energy and nutrients by degrading organic materials. A large number
of nutrients are needed by microbes in composting, but among these C and N
are the most critical. Among these C acts as a source of energy and basic
building block material. C content share about 50% of the total mass of
microbial cells. Another vital nutrient required by microbes for cell growth
and function is N, it is a necessary constituent of proteins, nucleic acids, amino
acids, enzymes and co-enzyme. The best proportion of these two elements for
composting is about 30:1 or 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen by weight. The
C: N ratio decrease slowly during the process and in the finished compost it
reduced around 10 - 15:1.
Temperature
Too high and too low temperature of compost piles affects microorganism
growth and activity, and which affects the rate of decomposition of feed material.
The temperature of the pile is dependent on numerous dynamics, including C:
N ratio, surface area, moisture content and aeration. Most common ways used
56 for regulating temperatures are aeration, turning, altering pile moisture contents
and changing pile sizes. It is noticed that in initial stage temperature increase Treatment of Solid Waste
sharply as compared to later stages. During composting process, the rate of
decomposition of organic matter increase, with increase of temperature.
pH Value
The pH value of compost material affects the composting process by affecting
the microbial population and by controlling the availability of nutrients to
microbes. The optimal pH range is 6.0 to 7.5 for most of the bacteria and 5.5 to
8.0 for most of the fungi. The pH value of material also affects the fate of N
compounds during composting, if the pH value surpasses 8.5, it boosts the
conversion of nitrogen compounds to ammonia. A combination of high
temperature more than 40°C and pH below 6 severely also deters the composting
process.
Moisture Content
All living organisms want water, therefore moisture is necessary to support
metabolic functions of the microorganisms. For composting process materials
should contain a moisture content of 40–65 percent. If the pile is too dry, the
microorganisms may become inactive and the composting process will slow
down. At greater than 60 percent moisture (too wet), there is not enough air for
aerobic decomposition and anaerobic conditions develop. Excess moisture
content may cause loss of nutrients, production of foul smell and slow down
the composting process. In general, it is desirable to start the pile with slight
high moisture content and in the end it should be 30%.
4.2.2 Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is an anaerobic process for the treatment of organic solid
wastes. It is a feasible, cost-effective biological method for the efficient
management of the organic solid wastes. The end product of process is a well
stabilized, aesthetically attractive, finely divided humus-like material with
excellent structure, porosity, aeration, drainage and enhanced moisture holding
capacity with the ability of increasing plant growth. Earthworms can feed on a
variety of organic wastes such as crop residue, animal manure, sewage sludge,
agricultural wastes, food wastes, industrial wastes etc. In this process microbes
are responsible for biochemical degradation of organic matter and earthworms
responsible for physical actions such as fragmentation, turnover and aeration.
During the process earthworms and microbes modify biological, physical and
chemical state of organic matter. Under favorable conditions (pH, temperature,
aeration and moisture), earthworms ingest organic waste materials and egests
a humus-like substance which is more homogeneous than the organic wastes.
During this process, vital plant nutrients (NPK) present in the waste materials
is converted into such chemical forms which are much more soluble and
available to plants than the parent organic waste substrate. The main benefit of
this process is that, it can be done on any scale from household vermicomposting
of organic waste to a community or city scale vermicomposting. The success
of the vermicomposting process depends on a number of abiotic and biotic
factors. The most important abiotic factors which affect the vermicomposting
process includes moisture content, pH, temperature, aeration, feed quality, light,
C: N ratio etc. Key biotic factors which affect the vermicomposting process
include earthworms stocking density, microorganisms, enzymes etc.
57
Environmental
Management Techniques Another process related to vermicomposting is vermiculture. It is rearing or
cultivation of worms (earthworms) and is slightly different from
vermicomposting. In vermiculture the main goal is to constantly increase the
number of worms in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. However, in
vermicomposting the main goal is to degrade the waste and produce compost.
Earthworms
Earthworms are the key essentials of vermicomposting process. There are more
than 3300 species of earthworms present all over the world and about 550
species of earthworms are present in India. Different earthworm species have
different habitat characteristics, ecological niches, lifestyle and life span. On
the basis of the morpho-ecological characteristics earthworms have been
classified into three categories (i.e. epigeic, endogeic and anecic). Commonly
used earthworm species are Eiseniafetida, Eiseniaandrei, Lumbricusrubellus,
Eiseniahortensis, Eudriluseugeniae, Lumbricusterrestris and Perionyx
excavates. The selection of suitable species for vermicomposting and
consequential utilization is necessary. The worm species should have high
tolerance environmental factors, high feeding rate, high growth rate and easy
to culture.
Steps in vermicomposting process
A detail of vermicomposting process is given in Fig. 2. The following steps
are followed for vermicompost preparation:
 For vermicomposting setup first requirement is a cool, moist and shady
site.
 Collect degradable material, chop and mix properly, and keep the mixture
for partial decomposition for 2-3 weeks.
 Prepare 10-20 cm height bed, composed of partially decomposed material
such as dry leaves/newspapers/grasses and kept at the bottom (Fig. 3).
 Add partially decomposed material on these beds (1-1.5hx2.5-3w feet)
and add water to moist the material.
 The length of vermin-beds can be increased as per the availability of space
and raw material availability.
 Then release earthworm (1500-2000) in the upper layer of bed and again
sprinkle water.
 Beds should be kept moist by sprinkling water (daily) and by
covering with gunny bags or some other material
 Bed should be turned once after 10-20 days for maintaining aeration and
for proper decomposition.
 Vermicompost gets ready in 60-70 days depending upon the raw substrate.
 The finished product (vermicompost) is 3/4th of the raw materials used.
58
Treatment of Solid Waste
Fig.2: Steps in vermicomposting process
Fig. 3: Vermicomposting setup
4.2.3 Biogas Generation

Biogas is a mixture of methane (CH4), carbon-dioxide and some other gasses.
These gases are produced when microbes degrade biological/organic material
in the absence of oxygen, in a process known as anaerobic digestion. Biogas
generation is a natural process and usually occurs in nature, for example at the
bottom of lakes, in marshes and wetlands, in slurry pits and in the rumen of
59
Environmental
Management Techniques ruminants. The degradation biological/organicmaterial is mostly done by the
fermentation process which is carried out by various groups of microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungus and actinomycetes. But anaerobic bacteria are the
dominant group of microorganisms involved in biogas generation process.
Anaerobic digester systems have been used for decades for the treatment of
municipal wastewater sludge, industrial and agricultural wastes. These systems
are designed in such a way to enhance the growth of anaerobic bacteria that
generate methane and carbon-dioxide. An anaerobic digester or biogas plant is
an airtight chamber that facilitates the anaerobic degradation of biodegradable
waste materials. These digesters are cubical or cylindrical in shape and are
made from concrete, brick, steel or plastic. A variety of biodegradable materials
like agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, sewage sludge, plant material,
green waste or food waste, can be used in the anaerobic digestion process.
Normally, using organic wastes as the major input, the systems produces biogas
that contain 50 to 60% methane, 25 to 50% carbon-dioxide, 1 to 10% N2 and
may have small amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulfide (<1%),
moisture, hydrogen, ammonia etc.
Steps of Anaerobic Digestion Systems
Various phases of anaerobic degradation take place simultaneously in a single-
stage process. However, as the bacteria involved in the various phases of
degradation have different requirements in terms of habitat (pH value and
temperature).
1) Hydrolysis: In the ûrst step, large and complex organic compounds like
starches, cellulose, proteins and fats are converted into simpler sugar
chains, amino acids and fatty acids. It is a relatively slow process and it
can affect the rate of the overall anaerobic digestion process, especially
when solid organic waste was used as the substrate. During the process a
number of extracellular (outside the cell) enzymes are produced by various
specific bacteria to catalyze the decomposition of the material.
2) Acidogenesis (Formation of acid): During this step acid forming bacteria
transform the decomposed organics to ammonia, hydrogen, carbon-
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, shorter volatile fatty acids, carbonic acids,
alcohols, as well as small amounts of other by-products. Some amount of
higher organic acids (propionic and butyric acid) is also formed during
this stage, which is then converted into acetic acid and hydrogen by
acetogenic bacteria.
3) Acetogenesis (Formation of acetic acid) Acetogenesis is the formation
of acetate, a derivative of acetic acid. In this step the intermediate products
are then converted into precursors of biogas (acetic acid, hydrogen gas
and carbon dioxide) by acetogens.
4) Methanogenesis: Methanogenesis is the most important step in the entire
anaerobic digestion process; here methane gas is generated from acetic
acid, hydrogen and carbon-dioxide. In this process of methane generation
two different groups of bacteria are responsible, one group reduces acetic
acid to methane and the other produces methane from carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. Methanogenic bacteria are completely dependent on the
acetogenic and acidogenic bacteria to survive, as these organisms provide
60
acetic acid, carbon-dioxide and hydrogen to methanogens. Some of the Treatment of Solid Waste
major species reported in methanogenesis process are Methanobacterium
formicicum, Methanobacterium bryantic, Methanobrevibacterrum
inantium, Methanobrevibacter arboriphilus,Methanobrevibacter smithii
and Methanococcus vannielli.
Environmental Conditions in the Biogas Digester
Methane producing microbes are very sensitive to environmental conditions
and any alteration in these conditions can influence the production of biogas
(Table 1). Some of the conditions are discussed below:
Retention time
Retention time or hydraulic retention time is the average time that a given
volume of material stays in a digester. Retention time is an important operational
parameter for the anaerobic reactors, which can affect the conversion of
biodegradable material into biogas. The production of methane gas from the
digester is dependent on retention time of input material. It is one of the most
important factors affecting the economics of a digester. The theoretical retention
time for a digester can be calculated by dividing the average slurry holding
capacity by the amount of the substrate added daily. Retention time depends
on various factors like feed material characteristics, vessel geometry, moisture
content, temperature of process, etc. The ideal retention time may vary between
30 and 90 days depending upon the substrate.
Oxygen
Anaerobic digestion is the totality of the collective interaction of various
microbial groups. Anaerobic digestion, as the name itself expresses, is a process
that occurs in environments without oxygen. Oxygen is commonly supposed
as a toxic agent in anaerobic digestion, especially to the acetogenic and
methanogenic microorganisms, which are obligate anaerobes.
pH Value
Methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive to pH and pH values outside of the
ideal range affect their metabolic activities and growth. The optimal value of
pH should be in between 6-7 for input material. After stabilization of the
methane production level in a digester, the pH range remains maintained in
the range of 7.2 to 8.2. The pH in a biogas digester is also a function of the
retention time.
Temperature
Methanogens are very sensitive to too high and too low temperature; optimum
temperature is 35°C. If the temperature is too high or too low than their optimum
range, the relevant microorganisms may be inhibited or, in extreme cases, suffer
irreversible loss. The microorganisms involved in decomposition can be divided
into three groups on the basis of their temperature optima i.e. psychrophiles 0
to 20°C, mesophiles 15 to 45°C and thermophiles 40 to 65°C.
Nutrients
The biogas production process is dependent on the growth of microorganisms.
For the optimal growth of these microorganisms, nutrients are needed in
61
Environmental
Management Techniques sufficient amounts and at the right proportions. The carbohydrates and lipid
content of organic substrate mostly provide carbon, oxygen and hydrogen,
while nitrogen and sulphur are supplied via proteins and phosphorus from
nucleic acids and phospholipids.
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio (C/N)
Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio is expressed as the relationship between the
amount of carbon and nitrogen present in organic substrate. Microorganisms
need both nitrogen and carbon for assimilation into their cell structures. The
optimum C/N ratio for anaerobic digestion is ranging from 20 to 30. When the
C/N ratio is too high, the nitrogen will be consumed rapidly by the
microorganism and will no longer react in the unused carbon content present
in the material.
Table 4.1: Factors affect the biogas generation
Factors Optimal value
pH 6.5 to 8.0 (near neutral pH is best suitable)
Temperature 35 oC (not less than 15 and higher than 45)
C: N ratio 20-40:1 (optimal C: N ratio is 30:1)
Retention period 30-60 day (depends on feed material, season and type
of plant)
Water content 60-75%
Particle size As small as possible
Toxic substances Pesticides, fungicides, insecticides or other harmful
chemicals
Mixing Periodically mixing required to prevent scum
formation in digester
4.3 TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

The aim of this section is to discuss the various treatment methods adopted for
hazardous wastes. There are a numerous methods are present in the management
of hazardous wastes. The most preferred option is to reduce the amount of
hazardous waste at its source or to recycle the materials for any other productive
use or as a raw material for another process. However, these options are not
considered as the final solution to the problem of hazardous-waste disposal.
After the application of these solutions (volume reduction and recycling/reuse)
the waste further requires treatment for the safe storage and disposal of
remaining hazardous waste. During the treatment, hazardous waste is
transformed into less harmful materials by using physical, chemical, biological
and thermal processes, followed by proper disposal of residues. During
hazardous waste management, selection of treatment technology should be
done carefully on the basis of physical and chemical characteristic of waste,
nature and type of waste, level of treatment required and cost of treatment.
The main purpose of hazardous waste treatment is to reduce the harm that can
be caused by such wastes to humans and to the environment. Hazardous waste
treatment can be classified as physical, chemical, biological and thermal.
62
1. Physical Treatment Treatment of Solid Waste
Physical treatment methods were derived from observations of the physical

forces of nature. These operations can be used individually or in combination
with other treatment technologies as pre or post treatment. Physical treatment
is a separation process that is used for separation and/or concentration of the
hazardous waste to cut the volume of material needing further treatment or
disposal. The most commonly used physical treatment methods are discussed
in detail in this section.
Filtration
Filtration is a common and well-developed an economical process, in which
solid particles are separated from a liquid using a porous medium. Energy
needed for filtration process is very less and working parameters are also well
defined. However, in most of the cases it is not a main treatment process and is
often used in combination with other process such as flocculation, precipitation
and sedimentation.
Dewatering
Dewatering removes free liquids present in hazardous waste and reduce waste
volume for more stable and economical transport, and incineration. This method
is generally applied on hazardous sludge’s. Usually sludge generated from
different industries contains 1 – 30% of solids by weight. The commonly used
sludge dewatering processes are rotary drum vacuum filters, belt filter presses,
and plate and frame filter presses. In dewatering process the purpose is to
concentrate the solids into a phase or solid form for further treatment or
disposal.
Encapsulation
In the encapsulation process hazardous waste is packed in containers made of
water-resistant and non-reactive materials. Sulfur polymer stabilization/
solidification, chemically bonded phosphate ceramic encapsulation, and
polyethylene encapsulation is some of the established methods used for the
hazardous waste treatment. Sometimes when the wastes are less hazardous,
then we simply mix the waste with lime, fly ash and water to convert it into a
cement like material. Encapsulation of hazardous waste materials is commonly
used in the treatment of heavy metals (such as arsenic, mercury, nickel and
chromium), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and radioactive materials.
Sedimentation
It is a physical method in which suspended particles present in a liquid settle
down due to gravity. It has been used in liquid hazardous waste treatment for
the removal of oil, biological solids and chemically precipitated solids. The
concentration of solids and their characteristics determines the type of settling.
Sedimentation process is of two types i.e. continuous and batch process. Out
of these two, continuous process is the most preferred process, especially when
a large amount of liquid waste is to be treated.
Coagulation and Flocculation
Coagulation and flocculation methods enable the removal of suspended and
colloidal particles from liquids. These processes occur in sequential steps, 63
Environmental
Management Techniques allowing particle collision and growth of flocs. These processes also include
the chemical process of contact and adhesion whereby the colloidal particles
present in water form larger-size flocs, permitting them to be more easily
removed by sedimentation. Thus, the process is used in two stages; the first
stage is a solid-liquid separation (settling, flotation or filtration) and the second
stage is sedimentation. Commonly used chemicals for coagulation and
flocculation includes Aluminum chloride, Aluminum sulfate, Polyaluminum
chloride, Aluminum chlorohydrate, Ferric sulfate, Ferrous sulfate, Ferric
chloride and poly electrolytes.
Adsorption
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon in which molecular species deposit onto
the surface of adsorbent. Common examples of adsorbents are activated carbon,
clay, silica gel, colloids, metals, etc. Adsorption is a reversible process, thus
the adsorbent can be regenerated and reused by applying heat and steam, or
solvent. Temperature, pressure and surface area are the main factors that
influence the rate of adsorption. Activated carbon is usually used as adsorbent
to remove and concentrate volatile organic carbons from diluted air and water
streams.
Distillation
Distillation is an energy demanding and expensive process and has only
restricted use for the treatment of liquid hazardous wastes. This technique can
possibly be acceptable only in circumstances where valuable product recovery
is possible. Usually leachate produced from hazardous waste landfill and other
toxic liquid wastes are treated with this technology.
Evaporation
The evaporation process is used to reduce the volume of liquid wastes. In this
treatment the primary objective is the removal of water from waste. This process
is very useful if waste heat is available. Frequent applications of evaporation
include treatment of radioactive liquids and hazardous sludge’s produced from
industries. Note that this process is applicable only when one of the components
is essentially nonvolatile.
2. Chemical Treatment
During a chemical treatment process various properties of a chemical are used
to modify or reduce its hazardous elements. In this process chemical reactions
change the properties of hazardous waste and convert the waste into less
hazardous new compounds (by products) which are safer to treat and dispose
off. Some of the commonly used chemical processes are discussed in this
section.
Acid-base Neutralization
During this process acidic and basic waste streams react to neutralize the waste
and to lessen corrosive characteristics of the waste. Neutralization reactions
are most common chemical practice used in the treatment of hazardous waste,
in which an acidic waste is reacted with an alkali waste. For example, sulphuric
acid containing wastes is usually treated with sodium carbonate (soda ash) to
neutralize it. Neutralization before landfill disposal is essential to avoid inter
reactions of wastes in landfill. As this is an exothermic process, thus it may
64 cause damage to liners of landfill due to temperature.
Oxidation and Reduction Treatment of Solid Waste
In oxidation process a common oxidizing agent like hydrogen peroxide or

calcium hypochlorite is used to oxidise a hazardous compound. A common
example of oxidation of hazardous waste is the reaction of cyanide waste
(generated from metal finishing and gold process tailings) with calcium
hypochlorite. Reduction process is used to convert inorganic substances into a
lesser toxic form using a reducing agent. Reduction of toxic hexavalent
chromium to trivalent chromium (chrome waste from metal plating) by using
ferrous sulphate is the example of this process.
Precipitation
Chemical precipitation is the most common method for removing of metallic

cations from wastewater. In this technique hazardous heavy metals present in
wastewater are converted into an insoluble form. However, sometimes it is
also for removal of anions such as fluoride, cyanide, and phosphate, as well as
organic molecules. For example, sodium hydroxide is used for the removal of
cadmium from wastewater through the precipitation of cadmium as its
hydroxide.
Ion exchange
Ion exchange is a chemical process in which mobile ions from an external

solution are exchanged for ions that are electrostatically bound to the functional
groups contained within a solid matrix. Ion exchange isa comparatively costly
process compare to other competing processes we discussed earlier like
precipitation, flocculation and sedimentation. These processes are most suitable
for mixed waste streams containing suspended solids. Removal of anionic
nickel cyanide complex and chromate ions from waste solutions is one of the
examples of use of ion exchange process.
3. Biological Treatment
Biodegradable wastes can be treated by biological treatment. The effectiveness

of this treatment method depends on the ability of microorganisms to degrade
a waste. Bioremediation is the commonly used biological treatment of
biodegradable hazardous wastes. Wastes that are non-biodegradable are not
degraded by microbes; however, they can be removed in a different manner
such as adsorption of pollutants on microbial mass. These microbial masses or
flock can be removed with sludge. Metal pollutants at low concentration are
removed in this manner. Inorganic wastes like acids are immediately toxic to
microbes and are not treated by using biological treatment.
Some enzymes released from microorganisms are also capable of converting

hazardous waste substances into non-hazardous products. Enzymes derived
from microorganisms are capable to convert pesticides into less toxic and
persistent products. This intracellular conversion of hazardous substances into
non-hazardous products depends on various factors such as temperature and,
presence of organic content, moisture and nutrients in waste. Biological
treatments may be used after physical or physico-chemical processes, to further
refine waste streams. The use of microorganisms under optimized conditions
helps in the mineralization of hazardous organic substances, for example the
use of pseudomonas under aerobic conditions break down phenols. 65
Environmental
Management Techniques 4. Thermal Treatment
The thermal treatment method involves the application of high temperature to
process the hazardous waste. Commonly this involves the combustion of waste
materials. It also reduces the volume and allows opportunities for the recovery
of energy from the waste.
Incineration
Incineration is the burning of organic in controlled temperature condition may
be used as a hazardous waste treatment process. During incineration wastes
are converted into ash, flue gas, and heat, which can be used to generate
electricity. Incineration of hazardous wastes is usually used as a pre-treatment
step prior to its final disposal. After incineration the volume of hazardous waste
is also reduced by 50-90%, waste is detoxified and this saves space in landfills.
In incineration, burning of organics occurs in two steps, in the first step, volatile
matter is driven off leaving the residue to burn to ash and in a second step the
volatiles are combusted. Incinerators are designed accordingly. For most wastes
a temperature above 800-900oC is enough, but for wastes with high thermal
stability temperature greater than 1100oC.The gaseous emissions and fly ash
produced during hazardous waste incineration is the major public health
concern. Major pollutants produced from incineration of hazardous wastes are
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, heavy
metal fume, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) and particulates.
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermochemical decomposition of organic material at high
temperature and in the absence of oxygen or in presence of inert gases.
Hazardous waste materials such as PCB’s and dioxin are dissociated into their
elemental constituents when subjected to high temperatures by a plasma arc.
After cooling under controlled conditions, the elemental constituents will
recombine into elemental forms and simple, non-hazardous compounds.
Plasma arc
Plasma arc is a thermal process in which a plasma torch is used to produce
very high temperatures (above 10000°C) necessary to break the chemical bonds
present in the waste material. To generate an electric arc high voltage current
is passed between the two electrodes. Initially the waste is heated then melted
and finally vaporized. This is mainly used for the treatment of hazardous liquids
and gases such as some of the halogenated organics.
Vitrification
Vitrification is a proven thermal method in which hazardous waste is heated to
a temperature even greater than for incineration processes to convert the waste
into melted mixture (glass like substance). This practice is very common for
the treatment and disposal of hazardous radioactive wastes produced from
nuclear reactors. For e.g. amorphous borosilicates is an option for nuclear waste
storage. During the process, hazardous waste is dried, heated, and then mixed
with glass forming substances and heated again (> 1000°C temperature) to
convert into the glass like material. The melted glassy material is then
discharged into a containment container, sealed, decontaminated, sent for
storage or disposal.
66
Check Your Progress 1 Treatment of Solid Waste

unit.
1. According to you what should be the best way to treat biodegradable solid
wastes?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Enlist various factors that can affect biogas production in anaerobic
digestion process.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Explain the aspects required for thermal treatment of hazardous wastes.
Write a note on any hazardous waste pollution episode happened in the
past.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.4 TREATMENT STRATEGIES FOR

BIOMEDICAL WASTES
Any waste generated during diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human
beings or animals is called biomedical waste. The main sources of biomedical
waste are health care establishments, including hospitals, nursing homes,
veterinary hospitals, clinics, dispensaries, blood banks, animal houses and
medical research institutes. Inappropriate management of biomedical waste
can cause severe human health impacts and environmental problems such as
pollution of air, water and land. There are several legislations and guidelines
related to biomedical waste management are present in India. In biomedical
wastes (management and handling) rules 2016, categorization of biomedical
wastes has been done according to colour code and type of waste with treatment/
disposal options, which are mentioned in Table 2. Various techniques are used
for the treatment and disposal of biomedical waste. Some of key treatment
methods are discussed below:
Incineration
As discussed in previous sections of this unit, incineration is the burning of
waste in controlled temperature conditions. Incineration results in a very
signiûcant reduction of waste volume and weight. Moisture content should be
below 30 percent for incineration process. If the conditions of combustion are
67
Environmental
Management Techniques not properly controlled, toxic gases like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen
and dioxins will also be produced. The main advantage of incineration is no
pretreatment of waste is required.
Thermal Inactivation
In thermal inactivation process infectious biomedical waste is treated with high
temperatures to remove infectious agents. This method is commonly used for large
volumes of wastes, especially liquid infectious wastes. Ina container liquid waste is
collected and heated by heat exchangers or a steam jacket surrounds the container.
The temperature and duration of the treatment process depend on the type of infectious
waste. After this treatment, the contents can be discharged into the sewage system
for further treatment.
Autoclaving
In autoclaving heat and pressure is applied on contaminated waste in a closed system,
over a period of time to sterilize. It is commonly used to destroy infectious agents
that may be present in biomedical waste before disposal in a traditional landfill.
Autoclaves can be used to process more than 80% of generated biomedical waste
and used at different scales to meet the needs of anymedical institute. It is an effective
process for the inactivation of all microorganisms and most of the microbial spores
in a small amount of waste. Typical operating conditions for an autoclave requires a
60 minute cycle at 121 °C (minimum) and 1 bar (100 kPa).
Microwaving
In microwaving, microbial inactivation occurs as a result of the heat generated (due
to electromagnetic radiation) during the process. Microwave is suitable for those
wastes that contain some moisture, as the moisture allows the heat to penetrate
deeper, and the steam sterilizes. The microwaves quickly heat the water contained
within the waves and the infectious constituents are damaged by heat conduction.
Treatment of medical waste through exposure to microwaves is less expensive than
incineration.
Chemical Disinfection
Chemical disinfectants are normallyused for killing microorganisms and inactivating
hazardous pathogens. It is the ideal treatment method for liquid infectious wastes
such as blood, urine, stools, or hospital sewage. The main factors that should be
considered during this treatment are: kind of microorganism, degree of contamination,
quantityof material, type of disinfectant, interaction time, temperature and pH. Some
commonly used chemical includes, dissolved chlorine dioxide, bleach (sodium
hypochlorite), peracetic acid, and dry inorganic chemicals.
Irradiative Process
The irradiation process is infected biomedical waste is exposed to gamma rays that
are lethal to microorganisms. Irradiation technologies consist of a radioactive isotope
of cobalt, or ultraviolet beams, or electron beams. The irradiation method requires a
dedicated place, as there are no mobile treatment modules that use radiation. The
major significant difference irradiation and microwave technology is the extraction
of electrons from the orbit in this technology.
68
Shredding Treatment of Solid Waste
In this process waste is reshaped or cut into smaller pieces so as to make the wastes
distorted. This helps in inhibition of reuse of biomedical waste and also indicates that
the wastes have been disinfected and are safe for disposal. This also reduces the
bulk of waste, making transportation easy.Ashredder is to be used for the shredding
of recyclable contaminated wastes.
Deep Burial
Deep burial disposal is allowed only in remote or rural areas where there is no
access to common biomedical waste treatment facility. For deep burial a pit or
trench should be dug of more than 2 m deep. Add waste into the pit upto its
half depth and then covered with a layer of lime or other chemical disinfectant,
before filling the rest of the pit with soil. The deep burial facility should be
distant from habitation and not be prone to flooding or erosion.
Table 4.2.Categories of biomedical wastes, their treatment and disposal
methods
Category Waste type Type of Treatment and
container/bag disposal method
Yellow (a) Human Anatomical Yellow coloured Incineration or

Waste non-chlorinated Plasma Pyrolysis
plastic bags or deep burial
(b) Animal Anatomical

Waste
(c) Soiled Waste
(d) Expired or Discarded Yellow coloured Returned back to

Medicines non-chlorinated the manufacturer or
plastic bags or supplier for incineration.
containers
·(e) Chemical Waste Yellow coloured Incineration or Plasma

containers or non- Pyrolysis or
chlorinated plastic Encapsulation
bags
·(f) Chemical Liquid Waste Separate After resource recovery,

collection system, the chemical liquid waste
leading to the shall be pre-treated
effluent treatment before mixing with other
system wastewater.
(g) Discarded linen, Non-chlorinated Non- chlorinated

mattresses, beddings yellow plastic chemical disinfection
contaminated with blood bags or suitable followed by incineration
or body fluid. packing material or Plasma Pyrolysis or for
energyre covery.
(h) Microbiology, Autoclave safe Pre-treat to sterilize with

Biotechnology and other plastic bags or non-chlorinated
clinical laboratory waste containers chemicals on-site
thereafter sent for
Incineration.
Red Contaminated Waste Red coloured non- Autoclaving or micro-

(Recyclable) (a) Wastes chlorinated plastic waving/ hydroclaving 69
Environmental
Management Techniques generated from disposable bags or containers followed by shredding or
items such as tubing, bottles, mutilation and then sent
intravenous tubes and sets, to registered or authorized
catheters, urine bags, recyclers Plastic waste
syringes, vaccutainers and should not be sent to
gloves. landfill sites.
White Waste sharps including Puncture proof, Autoclaving or Dry Heat

(Translucent) Metals: Needles, syringes Leak proof, tamper Sterilization followed by
with fixed needles,scalpels, proof containers shredding or mutilation
blades, or any other or encapsulation and sent
contaminated sharp object for final disposal to
that may cause puncture authorized iron foundries
and cuts. This includes or sanitary landfill or
both used, discarded and designated concrete waste
contaminated metal sharps sharp pit.
Blue Glassware: Broken or Cardboard boxes Disinfection (by soaking

discarded and with blue colored the washed glass waste
contaminated glass marking after cleaning with
including medicine vials detergent and Sodium
and ampoules except those Hypochlorite treatment)
contaminated with or through autoclaving or
cytotoxic wastes. microwaving or
hydroclaving and then
sent for recycling.
Source: Biomedical wastes (Management and Handling Rules, 2016)
4.5 TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF E-WASTE

E-waste is a broad term covering all electrical and electronic equipment (EEE)
that have been disposed of by their original users. Discarded electronics devices
like televisions, computers and its accessories, CDs, batteries, switches,
telephones, ACs, mobile phones, electronic toys, refrigerators, microwave
ovens, washing machines, dryers, and even aircraft parts are the main
components of e-wastes. Computer and its accessories related wastes account
for about 25 percent of e-waste. E-waste is several folds more hazardous than
many other wastes because electronic devices contain a large number toxic
chemicals and metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead chromium, beryllium,
polyvinyl chlorides, antimony and phthalates. Long-term exposure to these
toxic materials harms the kidney, bones, nervous systems, reproductive system
and endocrine systems. On the other hand, e-waste also contains numerous
valuable components, such as precious metals and various plastics. Thus the
recovery of profitable materials and appropriate treatment is essential prior to
disposal.
Treatment of E-wastes
There is no proper method for the treatment of e-waste is available, but through
reuse, recycling and recovery option we can reduce the hazardous content of
the E-waste. Recovered e-waste fractions can be used as secondary raw
materials. E-waste treatment can be done at these three levels (level I, II and
III). The treatment technologies used in the three levels are mainly based on
material flow. In this material flow from one level to another level at each
70 level there is an outflow of material into two streams i.e. recovered materials
and discarded materials. These materials may be used as input for the next level. Treatment of Solid Waste
After the III level treatment the output materials are disposal facilities (landfilling or
incinerators).The efficiency of operations at I and II level determines the quantityof
residues going to disposal facilities.
Treatment at Level-I
In level–I input material is e-waste items like televisions, refrigerators, mobile phones
and personal computers. At this level (I) of treatment of e-wastes there are three
units operations, including decontamination, dismantling, and segregation. All the
three unit operations used in this level are dry processes and work in absence of
water.
a. Decontamination: This is the first treatment step at level-I, here the input
hazardous e-waste is transformed into non-hazardous. This can be attained
by the removal of all types of liquids and gases (if any) under negative
pressure, their recovery and storage.
b. Dismantling: Dismantling is a breaking process and it could be manual
or automated or a combination of both methods. This step is a serious
labour intensive process, especially if it is manual dismantling
c. Segregation: In this step the dismantled components are separate out
into hazardous and non-hazardous components of e-waste fractions to be
sent to level-III treatment.
Two outputs are generated from this level. First are decontaminated e-wastes
consisting of segregated non-hazardous e-waste like plastic, metals, cathode
ray tube (CRT), circuit board and cables. Second is segregated hazardous waste
such as CFC, Hg, switches, batteries and capacitors.
Treatment at level-II
In this level the input is waste generated from level-I i.e. decontaminated e-
waste consisting segregated nonhazardous materials like plastic, metals, CRT,
circuit board and cables. In this step the decontaminated waste is further
separated and purified small sized parts. There are three main unit operations
at level-II of e-waste treatment.
a. Hammering
The major aim of this step is to produce the desired particle size of e-
waste. The main advantage of this process is its simplicity and it can be
used on different scales, which make it appropriate for processing various
types of electronic waste.
b. Shredding
The separation and recovery are critical elements of e-waste shredding
process. Shredders are used to cut recyclable metal and plastic, into smaller
pieces.
c. Special Treatment Processes
This step consists of special treatment processes according to the e-waste.
For example electromagnetic and eddy current separation processes based
onvarious elements like electrical conductivity, magnetic properties and
71
density to separate ferrous, nonferrous metal.
Environmental
Management Techniques Treatment at level-III
In this level segregated hazardous wastes generated from level-I is treated.
Here e-waste treated to recover recyclable ferrous, nonferrous metals, plastics
and other items of economic value. The main recovery methods are focused
on ferrous and nonferrous metal recovery. Some of the unit operation processes
used at this level are magnetic separators, acid wash, cyclic separators,
pyrometallurgical recovery and bioleaching.
Disposal of E-wastes
Main and commonly used disposal options for e-wastes are:
Landfilling
This is one of the most commonly used methods of e-waste disposal, after the
recovery of useful materials from the waste. In simple landfilling, pits or
trenches are made on the flat surfaces and e-waste is buried in it, which is
covered by a thick layer of soil. However, modern landfills are located, designed,
operated and monitored to ensure compliance with regulations. Here techniques
such as secure landfill are provided with some facilities such as impermeable
liner made up of plastic or clay or concrete, a leachate collection basin that
collects and transfer the leachate to wastewater treatment plant. They are also
designed to protect the environment from contaminants.
Incineration
As discussed earlier, it is a combustion process under controlled conditions;
here waste materials are burned in specially designed incinerators at a
temperature greater than 900°C. Benefit of incineration of e-waste is the
decrease of waste volume. Main problem associated with incineration is the
emission of various pollutants during the combustion process. A significant
amount of heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury is produced from e-
waste incineration plant’s emission. Furthermore, some amount of these heavy
metals is moved into slag and exhaust gas residues, which may come back to
the environment on disposal.
unit.
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of incineration method.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Make a table of various toxic substances present in e waste and their
potential effects on humans.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
72 ..............................................................................................................
Treatment of Solid Waste
4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have learnt that vermicomposting, composting and anaerobic
digestion are suitable processes for the management of biodegradable solid
wastes. In anaerobic digestion, biogas is produced when microbes (mainly
bacteria) ferment or breakdown biological or organic material in the absence
of oxygen. Hazardous waste can be treated by physical, chemical, biological
and thermal methods. The chemical, thermal, and biological treatment methods
outlined above change the molecular form of the waste material. Physical
treatment, on the other hand, concentrates, solidifies, or reduces the volume of
the waste. Normally wastes are subjected to a combination of these methods
for effective and safe disposal. You have also learned about the classification
of biomedical wastes according to colour code and type of treatment and
disposal needed for particular wastes. For the treatment of e-wastes three levels
treatment is used based on material flow. Landfilling and incineration are
suitable disposal options for e-waste.
4.7 KEY WORDS

Aerobic process : Process that requires oxygen (air) is known as
aerobic.
Anaerobic process : Process that occurs in the absence of oxygen (air) is
known as anaerobic.
Hazardous waste : A waste or combination of wastes that can pose a
substantial or potential hazard to human health or
the environment when improperly managed.
Substances classified as hazardous wastes possess
at least one of four characteristics; ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity.
Treatment : Process of removal of pollutants from wastes, which
reduce its potential harm to people and the
environment.
Heavy metal : A metal of relatively high density, such as
mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium and lead.
Microbes : Microbes are microscopic organisms, which may
exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells;
examples are algae, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and
protozoa.
pH : A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid or
solid material.
4.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Notification. The
Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section 3(i). Available from: http://
www.iwma.in/BMW%20Rules,%202016.pdf.
73
Environmental
Management Techniques Yadav, A. and Garg, V.K. 2011.Industrial wastes and sludges management by
vermicomposting, Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 10,
243-276
LaGrega, M.D., Buckingham, P.L., Evans, J.C. and ERM Group (1994)
Hazardous Waste Management McGraw Hill, New York ISBN 0-07-
019552-8
Masters, G.M. and Ela W. P. (2008) Introduction to Environmental
Engineering and Science, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.

1) The best way to treat biodegradable organic solid wastes is either
composting/vermicomposting or biogas generation through anaerobic
process.
2) Anaerobic digestion or methane formation can be affected by several
factors as we have discussed in detail in this unit, it includes anaerobic
environment, suitable pH, optimum temperature, moisture, C/N ratio,
retention period etc.
3) To answer the first part of this question reads the thermal treatment section
of this unit.
A case study related to hazardous waste pollution: Love Canal episode.
In 1942, Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Corporation (now Occidental
Chemical) purchased the site of the Love Canal. Then the industry used the
site as a landfill and disposed of about 22,000 tons of hazardous wastes into
the Love Canal from 1942 to1953. In 1953 Hooker Chemicals and Plastics
Corporation sells sites to the Niagara Falls school board for a price of $1.00.
Soon an elementary school was constructed on the Love Canal property. After
that, residential neighborhood was settled around the Canal area. In 1995-96,
ground water level raised in that area due to abnormal precipitation. Some
parts of the Hooker landfill subsided, 55-gallon drums surfaced, ponds and
other surface water area became contaminated, basements began to ooze an
oily residue, and noxious chemical odors permeated the area. Later, various
Agencies examine the area and reported the presence of more than 400 harmful
chemicals in air, water, and soil samples in and around the Love Canal area. In
April 1978, New York Department of Health declares Love Canal a threat to
human.
1) The main advantage of incineration process is the decrease of waste
volume. Incineration reduces the need for landfills. Main problem
associated with incineration is the emission of various pollutants during
the combustion process. In addition to this incineration is a costly method
74 for the treatment of wastes.
2) You can make a table of various toxic metals present in e-wastes, for Treatment of Solid Waste
example, mercury is present in e-waste (e.g.in mobile phones) and may
contribute to brain and kidney damage. Likewise, television and computer
monitors normally contain hazardous materials such as lead, mercury,
and cadmium, while nickel, beryllium, and zinc can often be found in
circuit boards. These toxic substances may cause several disorders in
human beings.
75

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BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

1.4 Historical Perspectives

1.6 Protection of the Global Commons

1.8 Ozone Layer

1.10 Check Your Progress

1.2 DEFINITION AND SCOPE

1.3 GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL

1.3.1 Approaches to Environmental Management

1.3.2 Participants in Environmental Management

1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1.5.4 Inter-Generational Equity

1.5.5 The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)

1.5.6 User Pays Principle (UPP)

1.5.8 Recognition and Preservation of Diversity

1.5.9 Internalization of Costs

1.5.10 The Prevention Principle

1.5.11 The Protection and Promotion of Health and Safety

1.6 PROTECTION OF THE GLOBAL COMMONS

1.7 MARINE ENVIRONMENT

1.7.1 Global Threats in Marine Environment

1.7.2 Law of the Sea

1.7.3 The Antarctic Treaty

1.8 OZONE LAYER

1.8.1 Threats to Ozone Layer

1.8.2 Montreal Protocol

1.9.1 Threats to Atmosphere

1.9.3 Treaties Regarding Climate Change

1.10 LET US SUM UP

1.11 KEY WORDS

1.12 REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED FURTHER

1.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

20 3. Eco-mapping, Ecoprofit, PRUMA (Profitable Environmental

2.5 The Audit Protocol

2.6 Benefits of Environmental Audit

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING?

2.3 EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and the Environmental Protection

2.4 TYPE AND SCOPE OF AUDITS

2.4.1 Environmental Management Systems (EMS) Audits

As discussed earlier Environmental compliance (or performance) audits are

2.4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Audit

2.4.4 Environmental Due Diligence Audits

2.4.5 Waste Management Audits

2.4.6 Environment, Health and Safety (Ehs) Audits

2.4.7 Energy Audit

2.5 THE AUDIT PROTOCOL

2.5.3 On-site Audit

2.5.4 Post Audit Activities

2.6 BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT

2.6.3 Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Costs

AHMEDABAD: The Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) issued

2.6.4 Environmental Concerns

2.7 LET US SUM UP

2.8 KEY WORDS