AI Lecture 2

Artificial Intelligence
(EEng5103)
Agmuasie B. , Lecturer
EEng Department
Institute of Technology
University of Gondar
Lecture Notes
2. Fundamentals
2. Fundamentals of Fuzzy
of Fuzzy Logic
Logic System
System
Ø Contents
– Introduction
– Fuzzy Sets
– Fuzzy Relation
– Fuzzy Logic
2
2. Fundamentals
2. Fundamentals of Fuzzy
of Fuzzy Logic
Logic System
System
Ø Chapter Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the

students will be able to:
– know the definitions of fuzzy set, fuzzy relation, and fuzzy
logic.
– understand the difference between classical set and fuzzy
set theory
– understand the rules to perform fuzzy compositions
– understand fuzzy implication, fuzzy propositions and fuzzy
reasoning
– develop fuzzy rulebase for a given system.
3
2. Fundamentals of Fuzzy Logic System
2.1. Introduction
Ø Many words we use arbitrarily in our daily life are usually
fuzzy in terms of verbal meanings.
Ø When describing a system or an event, we use words such as
– old, young, tall, short, cold, warm, hot, fast, slow, etc., which are
fuzzy in nature.
Ø We, the humans, use uncertain and vague words when
discussing something or making decisions.
Ø Our brain acts and takes decisions during the situations that
are uncertain and fuzzy.
Ø But what is fuzziness? The concept of fuzziness comes from
uncertainty.
– it indicates “ambiguity” or “vagueness.”
March. 2024 | EEng5103: Ch - 2 | Year V : Sem I 4

2.1. Introduction
Ø If data are not crisp and hard to distinguish, they are
represented by inclusion degrees in related categories.
Ø For example, consider the colors defined in the universe of
colors that are blended as shown in Fig below.

2.1. Introduction
Ø First, the color is white, then it is changed to black over a
transition region
Ø The colors in the transition area can be distinguished as white,
light gray, gray, dark gray and black.
Ø During this transition, the shades of gray change from lighter
to darker while membership degrees become smaller in
WHITE and larger in BLACK.
Ø Along the transition region, the colors are both white and
black, they are neither white nor black.
Ø Besides, one cannot see a clear start and end for every color
in the Fig.
Ø Therefore, the color spectrum along the transition is fuzzy.

2.1. Introduction
Ø Such type of vague and imprecise phenomenon can be well
represented and studied with the help of fuzzy logic.
Ø The concept of fuzzy logic was concieved by Lofti A.Zadeh, a
professor at the university of California at Berkley.
Ø He pioneered the study on systems with uncertainty using
fuzzy sets.
– He published the article ‘‘Fuzzy sets’’ 1965.
Ø The use of fuzzy logic (FL) has increased after the 1975s
when Lotfi A. Zadeh published two more articles on
– the application of fuzzy set theory to uncertain systems and
decision-making.
Ø Nowadays, fuzzy-based applications are available in almost
every area.

2.1. Introduction
Ø Some of the utilization areas of fuzzy logic include:
– robotics, automation, tracking systems, temperature control, flow
control, motion control
– image processing, signal aliasing and human–machine
interaction
– function optimization, filtering, curve fitting

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Fuzzy set theory, a theory that can handle problems that can
not be solved in classical set theory, is a foundation of FL.
– where fuzzy logic is a branch of AI that deals with reasoning
algorithms used to emulate human thinking and decision making
in machines.
Ø It is a generalization of the classical set theory.
Ø The classical set theory is built on the fundamental concept of
“set” of which
– an individual is either a member or not a member.
Ø There is a very precise and clear boundary to indicate if an
entity belongs to the set.
– it is not allowed that an element is in a set and not in the set at
the same time (no partial membership).

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø For any set A, the characteristic function of A is defined by
Ø The characteristic function of classical set theory is an

indicator of members and nonmembers of the crisp set A.
Ø Many real-world problems involve with partial membership
and cannot be handled by the classical set theory.
Ø Whereas, fuzzy set theory accepts partial memberships and is
handy to represent real world problems.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Hence, the characteristic function needs to be generalized to
describe the membership grade of an element w/c has partial
membership in the set.
– A membership grade( of an element
represents the extent with which the element belongs to the set
Ø This generalization leads to the fuzzy membership functions,
which act as a bridge b/n uncertain data and fuzzy world.
Ø A membership function makes a fuzzy set �� well- defined
and characterizes it in a precise way.
– A fuzzy set �� is an ordered pair, where the first entry represents
the (�) belonging to a set, and the second one
represents the ( of the element to
the set.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø If � is a universe of discourse, and � is a particular element of
�, then a fuzzy set �� defined on � is:
�� = {�, � ∈ �}
Ø Membership function associated with a given fuzzy subset is
defined as:
– a nonnegative-valued function that establishes a
mathematical measure for the given characteristics of a set.
Ø Fuzzy membership functions are defined in an interval [0,1].
– The lowest value represents in the related
fuzzy set while the highest value 1 means full membership.
– Larger values denote higher degrees of the membership.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Let � = {�1 , �2 , �3 , �4 } be the reference set of fruits and let ��
be the fuzzy set of “sweet” fruits, (“sweet” is a fuzzy term).
Ø The fuzzy set that indicates the sweetness of the fruits can be
described as:
�� = {(�1 , 0.25), (�2 , 0.75), (�3 , 0.9), (�4 , 0.5)}
Ø For a fuzzy set having continuous input data, membership
function can be represented .
Ø Consider a real life example: Let be the set of
, used as the universe set, and
�� = {� ∈ |� �� . }
Ø Given a person’s age (assume 40), it is not clear if this person
belongs to the set �� .

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Then �� is a “fuzzy subset” of � because the property “old” is
not well defined and cannot be precisely measured.
Ø Thus, to make the subset �� well-defined, we have to quantify
the “oldness” using MFs.
Ø By intuition, let those people who are 120 years old or older
be “absolutely old”, and those newborns are “absolutely
young”
Ø Meanwhile, all the other people are old as well as young,
depending on their actual ages.
Ø This relation can be approximated by the following
membership function.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø For example, according to the measuring curve a person 40

years is
– “old” with “degree 0.5” and at the same time also
– “young” with “degree 0.5”.
Ø This person possess partial membership in “old”
Ø Another example: the crisp universe of gray colors [discussed
previously] can be partitioned into subsections as
– white, light gray, gray, dark gray and black and defined by
triangular-shape fuzzy membership functions.
2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Five triangular-shape membership functions representing five
fuzzy subsets are used in Fig. to define the shades of gray.
– Right triangles are used to represent lower (white) and upper
(black) limits of shades of gray.
– Equilateral triangles are used as membership functions for
the other shades that vary from white to black.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø A member of a fuzzy set may assume two or more (even
conflicting) membership values.
Ø There is yet no fixed, unique, and universal rule or criterion for
selecting a MF for a particular “fuzzy subset”,
– the selection is more or less subjective.
Ø In general a correct and good MF is determined by the user
based on their
– scientific knowledge,
– experience, and
– actual need for the particular application.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Membership functions can have many shapes, depending on
the data set,
Ø But the most common are the S, Z, ∧, and Π shapes which can
be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø For these membership functions, they can have up to three

line segments with a maximum of four end points.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Triangular membership function is defined by three
parameters: a, b, and c.
§ “a” defines the lower boundary value,
§ “b” defines the height of the triangle,
§ “c” defines the upper boundary value.
0, �<�
�−�
, �≤�≤�
�� (�) = �� −
−�
�
, �≤�≤�
�−�
0, �>�

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Trapezoidal membership function Π is constrained by four
parameters – a, b, c, and d.
§ The values from b to c represent the highest membership value
that the element can take.
§ If x is between a and b or between c and d, it will have
membership value between 0 and 1.
0, �<�
�−�
, �≤�≤�
�−�
�� (�) = 1, �≤�≤�
�−�
, �≤�≤�
�−�
0, �>�

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø The Gaussian membership function
Ø defined by two parameters – mean (�) and standard
deviation (�).
• The mean (�) represents the center of the Gaussian curve,
• the ( ) represents the
1 1 �− � 2
−
�� (�) = � 2 �
� 2�

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Sigmoidal membership function: It has a characteristic of
being S-shaped,
Ø Commonly used in fuzzy set theory and machine learning.
Ø It provides a gradual variation from nonmembership (i.e., 0)
to complete membership
• is mainly controlled by two parameters: “a” and “c.”
• The membership function value is 0 for value of “�” less
than “a” and equal to 1 for any value of “�” greater than “c.”
• Other fuzzy membership values lie between 0 and 1.
1
�� (�) =
1 + �−�(�−�)

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø The range of the input data or the universe of discourse is
called fuzzy variable.
Ø Each membership function is defined by a name called a label.
For example, a
such as
might have five membership
functions labeled as
– Cold, Cool, Normal,
Warm, and Hot.
Ø A group of membership functions forms a fuzzy set.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Generically, the seven membership functions which span from
the data range’s minimum point (NL) to its maximum point
(PL) can be labeled as:
NL (negative large) PS (positive small)
NM (negative medium) PM (positive medium)
NS (negative small) PL (positive large)
ZR (zero)

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Features of membership functions are core, support, and
boundary.
– The core of a membership function for some fuzzy set A is
defined as that region of the universe that is characterized by
full membership in the set A; i.e �� = 1.
– The support of a membership function for some fuzzy set A is
defined as that region of the universe that is characterized by
nonzero membership in the set A; i.e �� > 0.
– The boundaries of a membership function for some fuzzy set
A are defined as that region of the universe containing
elements that have a nonzero membership but not complete
membership; i.e. 0 < �� < 1.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Types of fuzzy set include normal, sub-normal, convex and

nonconvex:
– A normal fuzzy set is one whose membership function has
at least one element x in the universe whose membership
value is unity.

2.2. Fuzzy Set
– A convex fuzzy set is described by a membership function
whose membership values are
vstrictly monotonically increasing, or
vstrictly monotonically decreasing, or
vstrictly monotonically increasing then strictly monotonically
decreasing
with increasing values for elements in the universe.
Ø The crossover points of a MF are defined as the elements in
the universe for which a particular fuzzy set A has values
equal to 0.5
Ø If A is a convex single-point normal fuzzy set defined on the
real line, then A is often termed a fuzzy number.

2.2. Fuzzy Set

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Operations on fuzzy set include:

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Operations on fuzzy set:

2.2. Fuzzy Set
Ø Properties of set

2.3. Fuzzy Relations
Ø Fuzzy relation is a fuzzy set defined on the Cartesian product
of fuzzy set �1 , �2 , . . . , ��
Ø Here, n-tuples (�1 , �2 , . . . , �� ) may have varying degree of
memberships within the relationship.
Ø The membership values indicate the strength of the relation
between the tuples.

Ø Operations on Fuzzy Relations




Composition:
Ø Suppose � is a fuzzy relation on the Cartesian space � × �, �
is a fuzzy relation on � × �,
Ø Then fuzzy max-min composition � is a fuzzy relation on � ×
� and is defined as:
Ø Consider the following fuzzy relations:
– where � = {�1 , �2 }, � = {�1 , �2 }, and � = {�1 , �2 , �3 }.

Ø The resulting max-min composition will be
Ø where
– ��∘� (�1 , �1 ) = ��{��(0.7, 0.9), ��(0.5, 0.1)} = 0.7
– ��∘� (�1 , �2 ) = ��{��(0.7, 0.6), ��(0.5, 0.7)} = 0.6
– ��∘� (�1 , �3 ) = ��{��(0.7, 0.2), ��(0.5, 0.5)} = 0.5
– ��∘� (�2 , �1 ) = ��{��(0.8, 0.9), ��(0.4, 0.1)} = 0.8
– ��∘� (�2 , �2 ) = ��{��(0.8, 0.6), ��(0.4, 0.7)} = 0.6
– ��∘� (�2 , �3 ) = ��{��(0.8, 0.2), ��(0.4, 0.5)} = 0.4

2.4. Classical Logic
Ø Logic refers to the study of methods and principles of human
reasoning.
Ø Classical logic deals with propositions:
– a proposition � is a linguistic, or declarative, statement that can
be identified as true or false.
Ø The veracity (truth) of an element in the proposition � can be
assigned a binary truth value, called �(�),
Ø For binary (Boolean) classical logic, �(�) is assigned a value
of 1 (truth) or 0 (false).
Ø If � is the universe of all propositions, then
– � is a of the elements, �, in these propositions (sets) to
the binary quantities (0, 1).

Ø Two or more propositions on the same universe of discourse
can be combined using the following five logical connectives
Ø Two propositions (� and �) will have a total of 4 propositional

combinations with truth table depicted below.
� � � �∨� �∧� �→� �↔�

Ø The implication � → � connective is also equivalent to the
linguistic rule form,
– IF �, THEN �.
Ø Tautologies are compound propositions that are always true
irrespective of the truth values of the individual propositions.
Ø They are are useful for deductive reasoning, for proving
theorems, and for making deductive inferences.
Ø One tautology, known as modus ponens deduction, is a very
common inference scheme
Ø It is used in forward-chaining rule-based expert systems.
– to find the truth value of a consequent in a production rule, given
the truth value of the antecedent in the rule.

Ø Modus ponens deduction concludes that:
– given two propositions, � and � → �, both of which are true, then
the truth value of the proposition � is automatically inferred.
Ø Another useful tautology is the , which
is used in backward-chaining expert systems.
– In modus tollens an implication between two propositions is
combined with a second proposition and both are used to imply a
third proposition.
Ø Some common tautologies follow:
�∨�⟷�
� ∨ �; � ∨ � ⟷ �
(� ∧ (� → �)) → � (�� )
(� ∧ (� → �)) → � (�� )

Ø The main content of classical logic is
– the study of rules that allow new logical variables to be produced
as functions of certain existing variables.
Ø Suppose that � logical variables, �1 , �2 , . . . , �� , are given,
say: �1 is true; �2 is false; . . ., �� is false.
Ø Then a new logical variable, �, can be defined by a rule as a
function of �1 , �2 , . . . , �� that has a particular truth value
– One example of a Rule: IF �1 is true AND �2 is false AND . . .
AND �� is false, THEN � is false.
Ø Because only one truth value is assumed by logical variable
(hypothetical proposition), the classical logic is also called a
two-valued logic.

Ø The fundamental assumption upon which the classical logic is
that every proposition is either true or false.
Ø It is now well understood that many propositions are both
partially true and partially false.
Ø To describe such partial truth values by some new rules, in a
way to extend and generalize the two-valued logic,
– multivalued logic was proposed and developed.
Ø In a typical three-valued logic, we denote the , falsity, and
indeterminacy by values of , 0, and 1/2, respectively.
Ø The negation of a proposition � is usually defined to be � =
1 − �.
Ø Thus, in this three-valued logic, we have
1 = 0, 0 = 1, 1/2 = 1/2

Ø The three-valued logic does not satisfy many basic operation
laws of the two-valued logic.

Ø For a given finite positive integer, � > 3, an �-valued logic
assumes a rational truth value in the range [0, 1].
Ø These are defined by the following equally spaced partition:
truth values that describe a degree of truth:
0 1 2 �−2 �−1
0= , , ,..., , =1
�−1 �−1 �−1 �−1 �−1
Ø Zadeh established an infinite-valued logic, by defining the

following primary logic operations:
� =1−�
� � = ��{�, �}
� ⋁ � = ��{�, �}
� ⇒ � = ��{1, 1 + � − �}
� ⟺ � = 1 − |� − �|

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø Basically, FL is a multivalued logic that allows intermediate
values to be defined between conventional two valued logic.
Ø It employs middle values accepting things that can be partly
true and partly false at the same time.
Ø The following figure shows that fuzzy logic adds a range of
logical values to boolean logic to a color spectrum.
Ø It attempts to model our senses of words, our decision making

and our common sense.
Ø As a result, it is leading to new, more human, intelligent
systems.

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø Fuzzy logic proposition generalizes classical proposition
calculus by using the truth set instead of .
– A fuzzy logic proposition, �, is a statement involving some
concept with uncertain boundaries
Ø Thus, the truth value to � is assigned by mapping from the
interval to the universe of truth values, �,
�: � ∈
Ø Fuzzy propositions are assigned to fuzzy sets: suppose
proposition � is assigned to fuzzy set �� ;
– then the truth value of a proposition, denoted �(�), is given by
�(�) = �� (�) �ℎ�� 0 ≤ �� (�) ≤ 1
Ø i.e. the degree of truth for the proposition �: � ∈ �� is equal to
the membership grade of � in the fuzzy set �� .

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø The logical connectives of negation, disjunction, conjunction,
and implication are also defined for a fuzzy logic.
Ø For two simple propositions: proposition � defined on fuzzy
set �� and proposition � defined on fuzzy set �� .
– Negation:
�(�) = 1 − �(�)
– Disjunction:
� ∨ �: � �� (� ∨ �) = ��(�(�) ∨ �(�))
– Conjunction:
� ∧ �: � �� (� ∧ �) = ��(�(�) ∧ �(�))
– Implication:
� → �: � �� , �ℎ�� (� → �) = �(� ∨ �) = ��(�(�), �(�))

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø As before in binary logic, the fuzzy implication connective can
be modeled in rule-based form;
� → � is, IF � is �� , THEN � is ��
Ø and it is equivalent to the following fuzzy relation,
� = (� × �) ∪ (� × �)
Ø The membership function of � is expressed by the following
form
�� (�, �) = ��[(�� (�) ∧ �� (�)), (1 − �� (�))]

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø The ultimate goal of fuzzy logic is to form the theoretical
foundation for reasoning about imprecise propositions;
– such reasoning has been referred to as approximate reasoning
[Zadeh, 1976, 1979].
Ø Approximate reasoning is analogous to classical logic for
reasoning with precise propositions.
Ø Hence it is an extension of classical propositional calculus
that deals with partial truths.
Ø Suppose we have a rule-based format to represent fuzzy
information.
Ø These rules are expressed in conventional antecedent-
consequent form, such as

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø Rule 1: IF x is A, THEN y is B,
– where A and B represent fuzzy propositions (sets).
Ø Now suppose we introduce a new antecedent, say �, and we
consider the following rule:
Ø Rule 2: IF x is � , THEN y is �
Ø From information derived from Rule 1, is it possible to derive
the consequent in Rule 2?
– The answer is yes, and the procedure is fuzzy composition.
Ø The consequent � can be found from the composition
operation,
�=�∘�

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø Zadeh’s inference rules of approximate reasoning can be
used to generate different and meaningful inference engines.
Ø Some of these inference rules are:
1. Entailment rule of inference:
– This rule implements the subset concept.
– For a given premise(knowledge), fact(data) and
consequence(conclusion) this rule states:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
2. Conjunction rule of inference:
– This is the implementation of intersection as a rule.
– The conclusion is the intersection of the input sets:
3. Disjunction rule of inference

– This is the implementation of union operator as a rule.
– The conclusion of the inference system is the union of the input
sets:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
4. Negation rule of inference
– This rule is the implementation of complement operator.
– The knowledge base is not required.
– The conclusion of the inference system is the complement of the
input set.

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
5. Generalized modus ponens rule of inference
– Generalized modus ponens (GMP) is the basis of
.
– the conclusion depends on how the data suits with the
knowledge.
– If data is true, then there will be a conclusion:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
6. Compositional rule of inference
– Zadeh has suggested the compositional rule of inference for the
fuzzy implications to be used in approximate reasoning .
– The fuzzy inference system used in fuzzy logic control systems
is based on the CRI, which is written as:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø Note again that the modus ponens inference is the basis for
fuzzy logic system.
Ø This inference is used to interpret the General Fuzzy IF-THEN
Rule which has the form
“IF �1 is �1 AND �2 is �2 . . . AND �� is �� THEN b is B.”
Ø Using the fuzzy logic AND operation, this rule is implemented
by the following evaluation formula:
Ø About this general fuzzy IF-THEN rule and its evaluation, a

few issues have to be clarified:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
1. There is no fuzzy logic OR operation in a general fuzzy IF-
THEN rule.
– Suppose the following rule:
• “(IF a1 is A1 AND a2 is A2) OR (IF a3 is A3 AND a4 is A4)
THEN b is B.”
– this statement is equivalent to the combination of the
following two fuzzy IF-THEN rules:
• “(IF a1 is A1 AND a2 is A2) THEN b is B.”
• “(IF a3 is A3 AND a4 is A4) THEN b is B.”
– Hence, the fuzzy logic OR operation is not necessary to use:
it increases the format complexity of the rule

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
2. There is no fuzzy logic NOT operation in a general fuzzy IF-
THEN rule.
– we may have a negative statement like “IF a is not A”
– we can always interpret this negative statement by a positive
one “IF a is �” or “IF � is A”.
Ø All the other fuzzy logic operations can be simply defined and
expressed by the AND and OR operations.
3. They can be inferenced via the min and max operations as:

2.5. Fuzzy Logic
Ø A fuzzy rule base has to satisfy some properties or requirements.
– A fuzzy rule base has to be complete in the sense that no
other possible conditions are left out.
– The following rule base is incomplete:
• IF a > 0 THEN b > 0,
• IF a = 0 THEN b < 0,
because the case of a < 0 is left out.
– Also, a fuzzy rule base has to be consistent in the sense that
no conclusions are contradictive.
– A rule base should be concise with less or no redundancy

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Artificial Intelligence

Ø Chapter Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the

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Ø The characteristic function of classical set theory is an

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Ø For example, according to the measuring curve a person 40

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Ø For these membership functions, they can have up to three

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Ø A group of membership functions forms a fuzzy set.

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Ø Types of fuzzy set include normal, sub-normal, convex and

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Ø Operations on fuzzy set:

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Ø Consider the following fuzzy relations:

– where � = {�1 , �2 }, � = {�1 , �2 }, and � = {�1 , �2 , �3 }.

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Ø Two propositions (� and �) will have a total of 4 propositional

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March. 2024 | EEng5103: Ch - 2 | Year V : Sem I 46

Ø Zadeh established an infinite-valued logic, by defining the

March. 2024 | EEng5103: Ch - 2 | Year V : Sem I 47

Ø It attempts to model our senses of words, our decision making

March. 2024 | EEng5103: Ch - 2 | Year V : Sem I 48

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